Content uploaded by Archana Sikarwar
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Archana Sikarwar on Nov 14, 2016
Content may be subject to copyright.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
*Corresponding author: E-mail: archana_sikarwar@imu.edu.my;
International Journal of Biochemistry Research
& Review
14(3): 1-8, 2016, Article no.IJBCRR.27271
ISSN: 2231-086X, NLM ID: 101654445
SCIENCEDOMAIN international
www.sciencedomain.org
Collagen: New Dimension in Cosmetic and
Healthcare
Nur Azmira Binti Abd Samad
1
and Archana Singh Sikarwar
2*
1
Biomedical Science Programme, International Medical University (IMU), Kuala Lumpur (KL),
Malaysia.
2
Applied Biomedical Science and Biotechnology Division, School of Health Sciences, International
Medical University (IMU), Kuala Lumpur (KL), Malaysia.
Authors’ contributions
This work was carried out in collaboration between authors NABAS and ARC. Author NABAS wrote
the first draft of the manuscript and managed the literature searches whereas author ARC designed,
supervised and edited the manuscript. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Article Information
DOI: 10.9734/IJBCRR/2016/27271
Editor(s):
(1) Richard A. Manderville, Departments of Chemistry and Toxicology University of Guelph, Canada.
Reviewers:
(1) Kantha D. Arunachalam, SRM University, India.
(2)
Tiago Henriques da Silva, University of Minho, Portugal.
(3)
Kumudini A. Munasinghe, Salisbury University, USA.
(4)
Antonia De Sousa Leal, University of Maranhao, Brazil.
Complete Peer review History:
http://www.sciencedomain.org/review-history/16739
Received 26
th
May 2016
Accepted 19
th
October 2016
Published 29
th
October 2016
ABSTRACT
Collagen is one of the natural biomaterials used in cosmetic preparation. It is the most abundant
protein in mammals which is obtained from many sources such as bovine, porcine and human.
Collagen based cosmetics are in demand now a days though safety issues related with allergies
are still main concern of consumers. The collagen is used for different purposes in cosmetic and
medical field such as dermal filler, skin substitute and facial products. Use of collagen in medical
field is useful depending upon the patient’s requirement. It is useful in pathological conditions like in
severely burn patients, patients with chronic wounds such as foot ulcers due to diabetes and
venous leg ulcers etc however, use of collagen injection as anti-aging/anti-wrinkle biomaterial need
to be further investigated in large population study to check the side effects in long term.
Review Article
Samad and Sikarwar; IJBCRR, 14(3): 1-8, 2016; Article no.IJBCRR.27271
2
Keywords: Dermal filler; scaffolding; skin care product.
1. INTRODUCTION
Cosmetic products and preparations were used
by people since they get aware about their looks
(regardless of the gender). The US Federal
Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act written in 1938,
defined cosmetic as an “articles intended to be
rubbed, poured, sprinkled, or sprayed on,
introduced into, or otherwise applied to the
human body or any part for cleansing,
beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering
the appearance”, without affecting any structure
or function of the body [1]. Studies on cosmetics
have been grown rapidly together with the
advancement in science and technology.
Advancement in science and technology allows
many new discoveries including the uses of
biomaterials for cosmetic purposes.
The objective of this review is to emphasize on
the effect of collagen that is commercially used
for cosmetic purposes, clinical benefits of
collagen and to compare the advantages and
disadvantages of the collagen in a cosmetic
products.
2. COLLAGEN
Collagen is a type of protein that has found
abundantly in the extracellular matrix and about
80 to 90% in dermis is type I collagen [2,3]. The
structure of each collagen has a characteristics
feature in which it is comprised of three α-chains.
Each α-chains is composed of thousands of
amino acid to form polypeptide chains based on
the sequence –Gly-X-Y [4]. The glycine (Gly) is
located at every third position and it allows tight
packaging along the molecules. The X and Y
position is usually occupied by proline and
hydroxyproline amino acids. There are more
than 28 different types of collagen that
have been reported [5]. Collagen are of
different types: such as fibril-forming, network
forming, fibril-associated collagens with
interrupted triple helices (FACIT), membrane-
associated collagens with interrupted triple
helices (MACIT) and multiple triple-helix domains
and interruptions (MULTIPLEXINs) [6,7,8,9].
Collagen has been classified based on the
diversity of its structure, function, complexity and
the combination of the α-chains as shown in
Table 1.
Collagen is chosen to be used in cosmetic
industry due to its biodegradability, availability
and biocompatibility. The common sources of
collagen are bovine, porcine, human collagen
and marine organism such as scale fish [10,11]
and fish skin [12]. The collagen can be used for
different purposes such as in dermal filler, skin
substitute or scaffolding, wound repair and facial
product.
3. APPLICATIONS OF COLLAGEN IN
COSMETICS
3.1 Dermal Filler/ Cosmetic Filler
Dermal filler is commercially used for several
purposes such as for the soft tissue
augmentation, cosmetic surgery, face and hand
rejuvenation, to improve volume deficiencies and
to improve on contour of face [13,14,15]. The
dermal filler will be injected into the deep
dermis or the fatty tissues of the particular part
of the body [16]. Some of the dermal
fillers require pre-treatment before the filler is
injected. The most common type of collagen
being used is bovine, porcine and human. In late
1980s, the first injectable filler approved by US
FDA was bovine collagen-based filler [17]. It was
followed by the approval of other dermal fillers
such as human CosmoDerm®, porcine
Evolence™, and Bovine Zyderm® [13]. In the
United States, the use of soft tissue filler has
increased by 3% from 2013 and then collagen
become one of the source of the fillers as shown
in Fig. 1 [18].
3.2 Skin Substitute/ Scaffolding
Skin substitute is required especially when the
patient is suffered with severe burns (full
thickness). This could happen when there is not
enough donor skin to cover the wound hence
tissue engineering method is considered as one
of the option [19].
3.3 Skin Care Product
Skin-aging is one of the natural processes
that occur during senescence where the skin
will start to loss its elasticity and content of
the collagen. Wrinkles and flabby skin is one
of the results of diminishing collagen
contents [20]. Anti-aging product has
been gained interest among consumers
especially women who are using cream or oral
supplement.
Samad and Sikarwar; IJBCRR, 14(3): 1-8, 2016; Article no.IJBCRR.27271
3
Table 1. Collagen class, types and distribution [4,5,6]
Class
Type
Distribution
Fibril-forming
(Fibrillar) I Bone, skin, tendon, ligaments, cornea
II Cartilage, vitreous humor in the eyes
III Skin, blood vessels
V Bone, dermis, co-distribution with type I
XI Cartilage, inverterbral discs, co-distribution with type II
XXIV Bone, cornea
XXVII Cartilage
Fibril-associated collagens
with
interrupted triple helices
(FACIT)
VII Bladder, dermis
IX Cartilage, cornea
XII Tendon, dermis
XIV Bone, dermis, cartilage
XVI Kidney, dermis
XIX Basement membrane
XX Cornea of chick
XXI Kidney, stomach
XXII Tissue junctions
XXVI Ovary, testis
Network-forming IV Basement membrane
VI Muscle, dermis, cornea, cartilage
VIII Brain, skin, kidney, heart
X Cartilage
XXVIII Dermis, sciatic nerve
Membrane-associated
collagens
with interrupted triple helices
(MACIT)
XIII Dermis, eyes, endothelial cells
XVII Hemi desmosomes in epithelia
XXIII Heart, retina
XXV Heart, testis, brain
Multiple triple-helix
domains and interruptions
(MULTIPLEXINs)
XV Capillaries, testis, kidney, heart
XVIII Liver, basement membrane
Fig. 1. Cosmetics with minimally invasive procedures in 2014 in United States [18]
59%
20%
11%
10%
Botulinum toxin type A Soft tissue fillers Chemical peel Laser hair removal
Samad and Sikarwar; IJBCRR, 14(3): 1-8, 2016; Article no.IJBCRR.27271
4
4.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
4.
1 Dermal Filler
The most common sources of collagen is cow
and it can be found in the muscle, skin and
tendons. The most common use of bovine
collagen-based dermal filler is Zyderm®and
Zyplast® (Allergan Inc, Santa Barbara,
California, USA).There are some disadvantages
of use of bovine collagen. Specially, to correct
the hand appearance because of the low
longevity, consistency and make the skin to be
uneven [21]. Some adverse reactions were
reported due to the uses of the bovine collagen.
Cases of local cutaneous necrosis were reported
when Zyplast® was injected to the glabellar
region which is the area between the eyebrows
[22]. In addition, Cukier et al., found that there
were nine patients whom developed disease
[23]. According to Klein delayed-type of
hypersensitivity responses were reported during
the use of serum antibodies with collagen. The
diseases are mainly related to types of
inflammation responses that are triggered by the
usage of collagen. Skin test is recommended for
the users if they want to use the bovine collagen
and some authors recommend two skin tests in
interval of two to four weeks due to inflammatory
response and allergic reaction caused by
collagen [24].
There was a research conducted by Park et al.
in 2012, related to iatrogenic retinal artery
occlusion caused by cosmetic facial filler
injections [25]. Study on case of central retinal
artery occlusion caused by collagen injection
at the glabellar region. In addition, Kwon et al.
also reported case of branch retinal artery
occlusion after injection of collagenous filler into
the left anterior nasal septum [26]. Lazzeri et al;
2012 discussed the cases in which scientist
reported cases of blindness as a consequences
of using a bovine cosmetic injections on face
[27].
There is also dermal filler that made out
of natural porcine collagen. This type of
filler can be used for the cosmetic correction
of facial wrinkles and acne scars.
Porcine collagen can stimulate the formation of
new collagen in response to the microtrauma
that was induced by the injection of the filler
[28]. The usage of this type of dermal
filler showed no serious side effect and
also minimal discomfort [27]. Therefore porcine
collagen can be considered to be highly safe as
dermal filler.
Some dermal filler may produce side effects
whereas some will show good result for cosmetic
purposes which depends upon the contents in
the dermal filler.
Fig. 2. Time line for some of the collagen products approved by food and drug administration
(FDA) [13,29]
Correction of
contour
deficiencies of
soft tissue on
dermis
Zyderm®
1981
1985
Zyplast ®
Correction of
contour
deficiencies
Correction of
depressed
cutaneous scars
Fibrel
1988
2003
Cosmoderm®
Correction of
soft tissue
contour
deficiencies
Correction of
nasolabial
folds
ArteFill®
2006
Samad and Sikarwar; IJBCRR, 14(3): 1-8, 2016; Article no.IJBCRR.27271
5
4.2 Scaffolding
Study was conducted in which researcher’s
combine collagen-based dermal substitute and a
fibrin-based cultured epithelium to replace the
damaged skin of acute wounds. The dermal
substitute is an artificial skin that consist of
silicone sheet at the upper layer, and lower
porous cross-linked bovine collagen with
chondroitin-6-sulfate (glycosaminoglycan) [3,30].
Researchers were able to develop normal skin
on the artificial dermis by 83% of the human
epithelium that grown on the fibrin [31]. In
addition, there were cases reported on positive
long term outcome after using skin substitute
with better formation of the skin structure and low
chance of forming hypertrophic scars [3]. High
cost and intensive care are the two main
concerns with this application. This type of skin
engineering also has successfully been used to
treat patients with chronic wounds such as foot
ulcers due to diabetes and venous leg ulcers
[32]. The time needed for the wound closure is
minimised with high percentage of the successful
wound healing. Somehow, bovine collagen
cannot be used to patient with the allergic
reactions.
New type of skin substitute are developed which
are derived from glycerol are preserved for
human allogeneic skin [33,34]. It also consists of
collagen and elastin fibres. This type of dermal
substitution were used on partial thickness of
burns as temporary biologic dressing and also for
wound bed preparation of excised burns.
Patients that are treated with this type of skin
substitute showed improvement in elasticity of
the skin when it is used together with the skin
graft treatment [35].
When collagen-based scaffold is used, there is a
limitation in elasticity and the scaffold will
contract during the repair process. This
challenge is improvised by the presence of
elastin in the collagen based scaffold to decrease
its stiffness and control the contraction of the
collagen [36]. Collagen-elastin composite type of
scaffold will promote elastin deposition and also
showed good results of cosmetic and
functionality on the patients of burns in total body
surface area (TBSA) of less than 20% [9, 37]. It
also increases the elasticity of the skin and
minimize the contraction of the wound [38].
Another finding for skin substitute is the use of
collagen hydrogel. Collagen hydrogel is
combined with keratinocytes sheet to treat
chronic or acute type of wounds [39]. Major
advantage of this is the ability to deliver cytokine
by dermal fibroblast that will be used to promote
wound healing at the site of injury [40]. The
drawback of this type of materials is its extensive
contraction of the cells that reduce the surface
area after the culture and poor stability of the
skin [41]. It also has poor neovascularisation that
cannot integrate to the host organism [42]. New
blood vessels are important as they will carry
oxygen and feeds the resident cells [13]. Then, it
also has poor mechanical properties and hard to
handle. If it is used as scaffold, it is not resistant
enough to promote cell remodelling and creation
of neodermis; therefore this type of skin
substitute is not accepted as permanent grafting
[14]. Collagen hydrogel is improvised with the
method known as plastic compression [43].
Concentrated collagen hydrogel can stimulate
cell growth and the contraction of the materials is
inhibited due to the higher concentration of the
collagen that helps to improve its stiffness. It also
provides easier handling properties [14].
Neovascularisation was also observed with
complete colonization by the host cells. This
makes the concentrated collagen hydrogel more
suitable as a dermal substitute than the normal
collagen hydrogel.
5. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF SKIN CARE PRODUCT
One of the oral supplement of collagen
hydrolysate (CH) where specific collagen peptide
is its composite material [44]. A research study
showed that the supplementation of CH to
fibroblast cultures will increase type I collagen
and proteoglycans with statistically significant
increase of skin elasticity. The skin elasticity
could be improved due to the increase
biosynthesis of dermal matrix macromolecules
[1]. Study also reported that there is no change in
skin hydration, skin roughness and skin
evaporation between CH treatment group and
placebo treatment group. The supplement is
considered as long-lasting effect to dermal as the
effect still can be seen at the end of 4
th
week
washout phase. The skin elasticity increased up
to 30% will reduce the wrinkles for about 17.7%
[44,45].
However, the effect of product that applied
topically on the skin is different. The effects of
topically used skin care products for anti-wrinkle
was investigated by Xhauflaire-Uhoda et al. [46]
Researchers found that once the treatment of the
topical product is stopped, there were no
Samad and Sikarwar; IJBCRR, 14(3): 1-8, 2016; Article no.IJBCRR.27271
6
evidence of skin miniaturization however low
improvement in skin hydration was observed.
The tested product did not break the skin
barriers. The topical type of product should be
more effective as it encountered superficial
dermis and epidermis part of the skin where it
can be helpful to improve skin elasticity by
increase in epidermal hydration [47].
Ineffectiveness of topical skin care products
could be occur due to the inability of it to
penetrate the structure of skin known as stratum
corneum barrier in order to reach the fibroblast
cell of dermal layer [48]. The stratum corneum is
known as part of the skin that function to
minimize the passive loss of water and prevent
microbial invasion to the body [49,50].
Researchers also found that any raw collagen
materials used topically, will not show desirable
effects to the consumers. A research by Huey-
Jine Chai et al. 2010, investigated the effects on
facial skin qualities with penetration through
transdermal when fish-scale collagen peptide
was used [5]. The result showed that the
collagen peptide was able to penetrate the
stratum corneum to epidermis and dermis in
mice model. The fish scale could be considered
as a choice for source of collagen as scales
composition is rich in collagen, cost effective and
sustainable [10]. Overall, collagen is an important
content of the skin but the route and the way the
collagen-based product applied to the skin is
important.
6. CONCLUSION
Collagen based biomaterials are used in
cosmetic and tissue engineering purposes due to
its biocompatible and biodegradable
characteristics. In cosmetics, collagen can be
used for different purposes such as for dermal
fillers, skin substitute and as facial products. The
use of these biomaterials is good when they are
used as a dermal filler that can stimulate the
formation of new collagen to reduce wrinkles.
Skin substitute can be helpful in the development
of normal skin with good formation and to
promote wound healing. However, there are
some side effects for the uses of collagen in
cosmetics. It can cause inflammatory and allergic
reactions and it may also cause iatrogenic retinal
artery occlusion. For certain application,
intensive care is needed and the cost is very
high. Some collagen products that used as a skin
substitute have a poor formation of new blood
vessels and hard to handle. In conclusion, the
usage of collagen may give good and bad effects
to the users as depends upon many different
factors such as, the purpose of the uses of
collagen, sources of the collagen, location and
application of the collagen etc. The consumers
should be aware about the compatibility of the
product before use to reduce the risk of any side
effects. There are some limitations to use
collagen for cosmetic purposes. Some futuristic
development of use of collagen includes genetic
modification of the transplanted cell and
improvement of the anatomy and physiology of
the skin substitute. This is one of the measure to
improve the process of wound healing and
performance of the skin substitute used to
improve the formation of neovascularisation.
Since, tissue engineered implantation technique
does not have inbuilt capillary network so further
research are needed in this aspects.
COMPETING INTERESTS
Authors have declared that no competing
interests exist.
REFERENCES
1. Tousley rd. the federal food, drug, and
cosmetic act of 1938. J Mark [Internet].
1941;5(3):259–69.
2. Li GY, Pukunaga S, Takenouchi K,
Nakamura F. Comparative study of the
physiological properties of collagen, gelatin
and collagen hydrolysate as cosmetic
materials. Int J Cosmet Sci. 2005;
27(2):101–6.
3. Liu C-Y, Matsusaki M, Akashi M. Cell
effects on the formation of collagen triple
helix fibers inside collagen gels or on cell
surfaces. Polym J. Nature Publishing
Group. 2015;47(5):391–9.
4. Fratzl P, editor. Collagen: Structure and
mechanics. New York: Springer
International Publishing; 2008.
5. Prockop DJ, Kivirikko KI. Collagens:
Molecular biology, diseases, and potentials
for therapy. Annu Rev Biochem. 1995;
64:403–34.
6. Sato, K., Yomogida, K., Wada T, et al.
Type XXVI collagen, a new member of the
collagen family, is specifically expressed in
the testis and ovary. J Biol Chem. 2002;
277:37678–84.
7. Fang M, Yuan J, Peng C, Li Y. Collagen as
a double-edged sword in tumor
progression. Tumour Biol. 2014;[cited 2015
Sep 7];35(4):2871–82.
Samad and Sikarwar; IJBCRR, 14(3): 1-8, 2016; Article no.IJBCRR.27271
7
8. Gelse K, Pöschl E, Aigner T. Collagens-
structure, function, and biosynthesis. Adv
Drug Deliv Rev. 2003;55(12):1531–46.
9. Parenteau-Bareil R, Gauvin R, Berthod F.
Collagen-based biomaterials for tissue
engineering applications. Materials (Basel).
2010;3(3):1863–87.
10. Wang L, An X, Yang F, Xin Z, Zhao L, Hu
Q. Isolation and characterisation of
collagens from the skin, scale and bone of
deep-sea redfish (Sebastes mentella).
Food Chem. 2008;108:616–23.
11. Duan R, Zhang J, Du X, Yao X, Konno K.
Properties of collagen from skin, scale and
bone of carp (Cyprinus carpio). Food
Chem. 2009;112(3):702–6.
12. Tiago H. Silva, Joana Moreira-Silva,
Ana L. P. Marques, Alberta Domingues,
Yves Bayon, Rui L. Reis. Marine origin
Collagens and its Potential Applications.
Drugs. 2014;12(12):5881-5901.
13. Lemperle G, Knapp TR, Sadick NS,
Lemperle SM. ArteFill®permanent
injectable for soft tissue augmentation: I.
Mechanism of action and injection
techniques. Aesthetic Plast Surg. 2010;
34(3):264–72.
14. Hilinski JM CS. Volumetric use of
injectable fillers in the face. Saunders
Elsevier. 2009;77–92.
15. Butterwick KJ. Rejuvenation of the aging
hand. Dermatol Clin. 2005;23:515-27.
16. Arlette JP, Trotter MJ. Anatomic location of
hyaluronic acid filler material injected into
nasolabial fold: A histologic study.
Dermatologic Surg. 2008;34(SUPPL 1).
17. Klein AEM. The history of substances for
soft tissue augmentation. Dermatol Surg.
2000;(26):1096–105.
18. Surgery P, Report S. Plastic Surgery
Statistics Report. 2014;1–23.
19. Carsin H, Ainaud P, Le Bever H, Rives JM,
Lakhel A, Stephanazzi J, et al. Cultured
epithelial autografts in extensive burn
coverage of severely traumatized patients:
A five year single-center experience with
30 patients. Burns. 2000;26:379–87.
20. Tanaka H, Hasegawa S. Skin permeable
collagen peptidepreventing wrinkle
formation induced by photoaging.
Biotechnol Ind. 2005;22(9):18–23.
21. Edelson KL. Hand recontouring with
calcium hydroxylapatite (Radiesse)?? J
Cosmet Dermatol. 2009;8(1):44–51.
22. Matarasso SL. Injectable collagens: Lost
but not forgotten--a review of products,
indications, and injection techniques. Plast
Reconstr Surg. 2007;[cited 2015 Sep
9]120(6 Suppl):17S–26S.
23. Cukier J, Beauchamp RA, Spindler JS,
Spindler S, Lorenzo C, Trentham DE.
Association between bovine collagen
dermal implants and a dermatomyositis or
a polymyositis-like syndrome. Ann Intern
Med. 1993;118:920–8.
24. Klein AW. Techniques for soft tissue
augmentation: An “A to Z.” American
Journal of Clinical Dermatology. 2006;107–
20.
25. Park SW, Woo SJ, Park KH, Huh JW, Jung
C, Kwon OK. Iatrogenic retinal artery
occlusion caused by cosmetic facial filler
injections. Am J Ophthalmol. Elsevier Inc.
2012;154(4):653–62.
26. Kwon DY, Park MH, Koh S-B, Dhong ES,
Baek SH, Ryu HJ, et al. Multiple arterial
embolism after illicit intranasal injection of
collagenous material. Dermatol Surg.
2010;[cited 2015 Sep 8]36(7):1196–9.
27. Lazzeri D, Agostini T, Figus M, Nardi M,
Pantaloni M, Lazzeri S. Blindness following
Cosmetic Injections of the Face. Plast
Reconstr Surg. 2012;129(4):995–1012.
28. Sage RJ, Lopiccolo MC, Liu A, Mahmoud
BH, Tierney EP, Kouba DJ. Subcuticular
incision versus naturally sourced porcine
collagen filler for acne scars: A randomized
split-face comparison. Dermatologic Surg.
2011;37(4):426–31.
29. Sadick N, Sorhaindo L. The utility of soft
tissue fillers in clinical dermatology :
Treatment of fine wrinkles and skin
defects. 2007;559–66.
30. Heitland A, Piatkowski A, Noah EM, Pallua
N. Update on the use of collagen/
glycosaminoglycate skin substitute-six
years of experiences with artificial skin in
15 German burn centers. Burns. 2004;
[cited 2015 Aug 12]30(5):471–5.
31. Mis B, Rolland E, Ronfard V. Combined
use of a collagen-based dermal substitute
and a fibrin-based cultured epithelium: A
step toward a total skin replacement for
acute wounds. Burns. 2004;[cited 2015
Sep 3];30(7):713–9.
32. Phillips TJ, Manzoor J, Rojas A, Isaacs C,
Carson P, Sabolinski M, et al. The
longevity of a bilayered skin substitute after
application to venous ulcers. Arch
Dermatol. 2002;138:1079–81.
33. Brusselaers N, Pirayesh A, Hoeksema H,
Richters CD, Verbelen J, Beele H, et al.
Skin replacement in burn wounds. J
Samad and Sikarwar; IJBCRR, 14(3): 1-8, 2016; Article no.IJBCRR.27271
8
Trauma. 2010;[cited 2015 Sep 3]68(2):
490–501.
34. Richters CD, Pirayesh A, Hoeksema H,
Kamperdijk EWA, Kreis RW, Dutrieux RP,
et al. Development of a dermal matrix from
glycerol preserved allogeneic skin. Cell
Tissue Bank. 2008;9:309–15.
35. Mackie D. Postal survey on the use of
glycerol-preserved allografts in clinical
practice. Burns. 2002;28 Suppl 1:S40–4.
36. Daamen WF, Van Moerkerk HTB,
Hafmans T, Buttafoco L, Poot AA,
Veerkamp JH, et al. Preparation and
evaluation of molecularly-defined collagen-
elastin-glycosaminoglycan scaffolds for
tissue engineering. Biomaterials. 2003;24:
4001–9.
37. Daamen WF, Nillesen ST, Wismans R,
Reinhardt D, Hafmans T, Veerkamp JH et
al. Depots of solubilised elastin promote
the formation of blood vessels and elastic
fibres in rat. J Control Release. 2006;
116(e84).
38. Callcut RA, Schurr MJ, Sloan M FL.
Clinical experience with Alloderm: A one-
staged composite dermal/ epidermal
replacement utilizing processed
cadaverdermis and thin autografts. Burns.
2006;32(583).
39. Falanga V, Sabolinski M. A bilayered living
skin construct (APLIGRAF??) accelerates
complete closure of hard-to-heal venous
ulcers. Wound Repair Regen. 1999;7:201–
7.
40. Wong T, McGrath JA, Navsaria H. The role
of fibroblasts in tissue engineering and
regeneration. British Journal of
Dermatology. 2007;1149–55.
41. Helary C, Bataille I, Abed A, Illoul C, Anglo
A, Louedec L, et al. Concentrated collagen
hydrogels as dermal substitutes.
Biomaterials. Elsevier Ltd. 2010;[cited
2015 Sep 3]31(3):481–90.
42. Brown RA, Phillips JB. Cell Responses to
Biomimetic protein scaffolds used in tissue
Repair and Engineering. International
Review of Cytology. 2007;75–150.
43. Brown RA, Wiseman M, Chuo CB,
Cheema U NS. Ultra rapid engineering of
biomimetic materials and tissues:
fabrication of nano- and microstructures by
plastic compression. Adv Funct Mater.
2005;15(11):1762–70.
44. Proksch E, Segger D, Degwert J, Schunck
M, Zague V, Oesser S. Oral
supplementation of specific collagen
peptides has beneficial effects on human
skin physiology: A double-blind, placebo-
controlled study. Skin Pharmacol Physiol.
2014;[cited 2015 Sep 3];27(1):47–55.
45. Paper O. oral intake of specific bioactive
collagen peptides reduces skin wrinkles
and increases dermal matrix synthesis.
2014;113–9.
46. Xhauflaire-Uhoda E, Fontaine K, Piérard
GE. Kinetics of moisturizing and firming
effects of cosmetic formulations. Int J
Cosmet Sci. 2008;30:131–8.
47. Humbert PG, Haftek M, Creidi P, Lapière
C, Nusgens B, Richard A, et al. Topical
ascorbic acid on photoaged skin. Clinical,
topographical and ultrastructural
evaluation: double-blind study vs. placebo.
Experimental Dermatology. 2003;237–44.
48. Chai HJ, Li JH, Huang HN, Li TL, Chan YL,
Shiau CY, et al. Effects of sizes and
conformations of fish-scale collagen
peptides on facial skin qualities and
transdermal penetration efficiency. J
Biomed Biotechnol. 2010;[cited 2015 Sep
3]2010:757301.
49. Elias PM, Choi EH. Interactions
among stratum corneum defensive
functions. Experimental Dermatology.
2005;719–26.
50. Elias PM. Stratum corneum defensive
functions: An integrated view. Journal
of Investigative Dermatology. 2005;183–
200.
_________________________________________________________________________________
© 2016 Samad and Sikarwar; This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Peer-review history:
The peer review history for this paper can be accessed here:
http://sciencedomain.org/review-history/16739