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Main chemical compounds and pharmacological activities of stigmas and tepals of 'red gold'; saffron
Abstract
Background
Crocus sativus L. (saffron) belongs to Iridaceae family which is commonly cultivated in Asia, Europe and America. The commercial product and use of saffron comes from the dried stigmas which gives a yellow color, bitter taste and intense aroma. This spice has been used since ancient times because of its aromatic, flavor and coloring properties along with its functional characteristics. Saffron is applied in many food products as well as being utilized in medical treatments.
Scope and approach
Lately, scholars have focused on using herbal medicine for the healing of various diseases such as, tumor and heart-related disorders, along with functions such as antitussive, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive, antidepressing, memory enhancing and treatment of Alzheimer's disease. The main purpose of this review is to highlight the recent advances of experimental in vitro and in vivo investigations focused on the stigmas and tepals of saffron, chemical composition, and application of its principal ingredients (crocin, picrocrocin and saffranal) in treatment of different diseases.
Key findings and conclusions
Despite the main usage of saffron is for culinary purposes, it also has significant applications in pharmaceutical and clinical fields. Saffron contains a number of bioactive components which are believed to be largely responsible for its health promoting properties including treating various disorders like asthma, atherosclerosis, painful menstrual periods and even depression; its role as an antioxidant with anti-cancerous and memory enhancing properties; its effectiveness at treating mild to moderate depression; and its high efficiency in lowering the levels of cholesterol and triglycerides in the blood of people suffering from cardiovascular diseases. The clinical findings suggest that saffron is a safe and effective plant. In the last decade, saffron has been studied for its unique properties to be employed within medical fields to treat many diseases.
... The color of saffron is attributed to crocin, an 8,8diapocarotene-8,8-dioic acid, which is the most abundant component, constituting 6-16% of the dry matter and having the chemical formula C44H64O24 (Gregory et al., 2005). Crocin is the key pigment in saffron, accounting for approximately 80% of its compounds; it dissolves rapidly in water to form an orange solution, making it widely used as a food coloring (Shahi et al., 2016). Crocetin, the aglycone of crocin, is a carotenoid known as 8,8-diapo-8,8-carotenoid acid, with the chemical formula C20H24O4 (Kothari et al., 2021). ...
... Picrocrocin is a monoterpene glycoside responsible for saffron's bitter flavor and serves as a precursor to safranal (Shahi et al., 2016). The primary volatile compound contributing to saffron's aroma is safranal, or 2,6,6-trimethyl-1,3cyclohexadiene-1-carboxaldehyde. ...
... The production of 1 kg of stigmas results in about 350 kg of petals, requiring the harvest of 150,000-200,000 flowers, thus making these byproducts economically viable for valorization (Sánchez-Vioque et al., 2012). The tepals are rich in protein, fiber, lipids, and essential minerals such as potassium, calcium, and phosphorus, rendering them suitable for use as animal feed (Shahi et al., 2016). They are also a source of phenolic and biologically active compounds, including flavonoids (e.g., kaempferol, rutin, quercetin, luteolin, hesperidin, and other bioflavonoids), carotenoids (crocin and crocetin), tannins, and anthocyanins (delphinidin, petunidin, and malvidin) (Kanakis et al., 2006). ...
Article type: Saffron, derived from the flower of Crocus sativus L., is one of the most valuable and sought-after spices in the world. This review provides a comprehensive and novel overview of saffron horticultural practices, with a special focus on the innovative potential of its various byproducts. It encompasses the entire cultivation process, including harvesting, postharvest handling, storage, and the challenges faced in its marketing. Moreover, this review brings attention to the often overlooked saffron byproducts (petals, stamens, leaves, corms), which recent studies have shown to contain valuable bioactive compounds. These compounds exhibit significant potential for diverse applications across the food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and textile industries. By emphasizing the novel aspects of fully utilizing saffron byproducts, this review contributes to enhancing the value of the saffron production chain and opens new avenues for sustainable agricultural practices.
... The spice also contains phenolic compounds, including anthocyanins, flavonoids (e.g., isoquercitrin, quercitrin, catechin, and epicatechin), and coumaric, gallic, and ellagic acids (Caser et al., 2020). The main apocarotenoids, vitamin C, and phenolic compounds give the spice antioxidant properties, to which the health benefits of saffron have been attributed (Bagur et al., 2017;Shahi et al., 2016). Crocus sativus has a long history and strong tradition. ...
... Crocus sativus has a long history and strong tradition. Since ancient times the saffron spice has been used mainly as a condiment and natural dye in traditional foods and as a medicinal plant in folk medicine for its properties, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anxiolytic, and antidepressant (Cardone et al., 2020;José Bagur et al., 2017;Mzabri et al., 2019;Shahi et al., 2016). Himeno and Sano (1987) and Bagur et al. (2017). ...
... Saffron production is influenced by soil and climate conditions, agronomic practices, and corm size. About 110,000 -165,000 flowers are required to produce 1 kg of saffron spice (Shahi et al., 2016). Generally, the spice yield increases from the first to the third-fourth year of cultivation, and after fourfive years it decreases mainly due to competition for water and nutrients, diseases, and reduced reproductive capacity of the corms (Douglas et al., 2014;Gresta et al., 2008). ...
The dried red stigmas of Crocus sativus L. are the precious spice known as saffron. Also called “red gold”, saffron has the highest price among spices due to the intense manual labour required for its production. Both the spice and violet tepals (floral waste) contain bioactive compounds with health-promoting properties. In the last decades, saffron production in European countries has seriously decreased, mainly because manual labour costs have increased and the technology for its cultivation has not progressed. Its production is also challenged, e.g. by climate change and diseases. To improve the profitability of saffron, sustainable practices could be adopted to enhance the quality, productivity, and value of saffron products; inoculants of beneficial microorganisms, such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), and industrial application of the tepals as a valuable by-product have been proposed. Recent studies on the use of bioinoculants on saffron have stated that they can limit the application of agrochemicals and improve productive and quality characteristics of this plant. Greater homogeneity in the approach to this type of study is necessary as it would help to make comparisons between bioinoculants and find optimal options for saffron cultivation
... Saffron, the world's most expensive spice (€30,000/kg; also known as "Red Gold"), is derived from the dried bright red-orange stigmas of the flower of Crocus sativus L., an autumnal herbaceous flowering plant species belonging to the family Iridaceae [1][2][3]. Of the nearly 200 small and cormbearing species of the genus Crocus spp., the monocotyledonous, perennial geophyte, and autotriploid plant species of saffron (C. ...
... sativus L.; 2n = 3x = 24) is one of the most valuable spice crops worldwide [4]. This spice has been cultivated for centuries, and is currently grown in the Mediterranean region, Europe, and Asia [5], with Iran being the world's leading producer, supplying 80 %-90 % of the global demand [1,3]. ...
... Due to its bitter taste, hay-like fragrance, and slight metallic notes, saffron is widely used in cuisine/culinary (as a seasoning/condiment), fragrance, dye, cosmetics, and medicine [1,5]. Thus, its daily consumption as a dietary supplement can bring many nutraceutical and therapeutic benefits to human health [3,[6][7][8]. This is attributed to the presence of various naturally occurring products, particularly three key apocarotenoids of crocin (C 44 H 64 O 24 , water-soluble crocetin esters), picrocrocin (C 16 H 26 O 7 , monoterpene glycoside, a precursor of safranal), and safranal (C 10 H 14 O), which give saffron (stigmas of C. sativus) its bright color, bitter taste, and aroma, respectively [6,[8][9][10][11][12]. ...
A two-year field experiment (2014–2016; Zanjan, Iran) was conducted to monitor potential diversity pattern and adaptability power among 18 Iranian saffron ecotypes under Zanjan climatological conditions using seven flower-related and three qualitative traits (crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal, determined by UV–visible spectra), and analyzed by supervised and unsupervised approaches. A range of variability was recorded among the ecotypes, and despite some exceptions, overall, saffron corms produced higher amounts of studied features across the second year. The Feizabad ecotype was recommended to acquire maximum qualitative criteria (category I; based on ISO Normative 3632 grading system), while for flower-related parameters several ecotypes (e.g., Ghaien, Bardeskan, Torbat-Jam, and Gonabad) could be applied for Zanjan climatological conditions. Based on the results of Leave-One-Out Cross-Validation (LOOCV), various prediction values were computed for all 10 classifiers of LDA, QDA, FDA, MDA, RDA, Naive Bayes, Decision Tree, Linear SVM, Radial SVM, and Random Forest in terms of accuracy, sensitivity and specificity parameters. Among which, Random Forest and LDA with the values of 0.91 and 0.78 possessed the highest and the lowest amounts of accuracy, respectively. Finally, considering the highest accuracy value of the superior classification model of Random forest, both feature subsets of “FFW, FDW, Picrocrocin, Safranal, and Crocin” and “SFW, FDW, Picrocrocin, Safranal, and Crocin” were nominated as the most powerful elements (comparing to the remaining 1021 feature subsets) to make accurate discrimination between Khorasan and non-Khorasan saffron ecotypes. The results, overall, revealed that saffron ecotypes followed different responses under Zanjan climatological circumstances, and Random Forest is more suitable for accurately predicting saffron corms from different provenances.
... Saffron and its bioactive constituents, including crocin, crocetin, and safranal, indeed showcase a diverse range of therapeutic properties [13]. These compounds exhibit potent antioxidant and radical scavenging activities due to their phenolic and flavonoid The approximate analysis and composition of dried saffron stigmas show that part of the plant contains more than 150 components, including lipophilic and hydrophilic carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, minerals, mucilage, starch, gums, vitamins, pigments, alkaloids, and saponins [22]. However, the oxidative degradation of the zeaxanthin precursor, after breaking, gives rise to crocin, crocetin, and safranal, the major components of saffron stigmas, as shown in Figure 2. The approximate analysis and composition of dried saffron stigmas show that part of the plant contains more than 150 components, including lipophilic and hydrophilic carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, minerals, mucilage, starch, gums, vitamins, pigments, alkaloids, and saponins [22]. ...
... These compounds exhibit potent antioxidant and radical scavenging activities due to their phenolic and flavonoid The approximate analysis and composition of dried saffron stigmas show that part of the plant contains more than 150 components, including lipophilic and hydrophilic carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, minerals, mucilage, starch, gums, vitamins, pigments, alkaloids, and saponins [22]. However, the oxidative degradation of the zeaxanthin precursor, after breaking, gives rise to crocin, crocetin, and safranal, the major components of saffron stigmas, as shown in Figure 2. The approximate analysis and composition of dried saffron stigmas show that part of the plant contains more than 150 components, including lipophilic and hydrophilic carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, minerals, mucilage, starch, gums, vitamins, pigments, alkaloids, and saponins [22]. However, the oxidative degradation of the zeaxanthin precursor, after breaking, gives rise to crocin, crocetin, and safranal, the major components of saffron stigmas, as shown in Figure 2. The key bioactive compounds are all derived from the carotenoid precursor zeaxanthin through different biosynthetic pathways during the development and drying process of saffron stigmas [26,27]. ...
Plants and plant extracts have long been acknowledged as valuable resources for the development of therapeutic formulations for various diseases. Among them, numerous plants and plant-derived products have demonstrated cytotoxic and/or anti-tumor properties. Saffron, particularly due to its major compounds, namely crocin, crocetin, and safranal, stands out as a promising candidate in this regard. Our research undertakes a literature review, reaffirming the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and, notably, anti-tumor properties of saffron and its major constituents. Additionally, this study examines relevant patent documents, highlighting innovative applications for saffron and its major compounds in cancer therapy. The review discusses the progress in purifying the compounds extracted from saffron and assesses their impact on cytotoxic trial outcomes, the potential synergies between certain saffron compounds and established cytotoxic molecules, and the limitations of the patents examined, particularly concerning reported clinical evidence. Researchers who focus on advances in oncology will know from our findings the evolution of the patent landscape regarding cytotoxic and/or anti-tumor therapeutic applications using saffron or its main compounds. Moreover, investigators can draw inspiration from patents leveraging traditional knowledge, particularly from Chinese medicine, to clarify specific active molecules and their mechanisms of action and can expedite the translation of these findings into clinically relevant interventions, potentially enhancing cancer therapy outcomes.
... This shows that the natural antioxidants in SS prevented the formation of primary hydroperoxides better than the synthetic antioxidants and thus protected SO from oxidation more effectively. SS contains crocetin which is an effective lipid peroxidation inhibitor and a free radical scavenger [31]. It also contains safranal and crocin which are able to eliminate free radicals [31]. ...
... SS contains crocetin which is an effective lipid peroxidation inhibitor and a free radical scavenger [31]. It also contains safranal and crocin which are able to eliminate free radicals [31]. Shanker et al. [9], showed that purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.) leaf extract (500, 1000, and 1500 ppm) and the antioxidant TBHQ (100 ppm) have a greater ability to prevent an increase in PV of SO when heated at 30 ± 2 • C for 5 days. ...
Synthetic antioxidants are known for their efficiency to improve vegetable oil oxidative stability. But owing to their harmful effects on human health, edible oil industry is seeking for safe and healthy natural antioxidants. The present work was setup with the aim of improving soybean oil (SO) oxidative stability by using saffron (Crocus sativus L.) stigmas collected in Morocco. Saffron stigmas were used as a natural antioxidant at various concentrations (0.2, 0.3, and 0.6%) in soybean oil compared to tocobiol (0.3%) as a synthetic antioxidant (the positive control). Performances of such natural and synthetic antioxidants were evaluated by measuring oil basic quality indices under accelerated storage at 60 °C for 12 weeks. Such indices consisted of free fatty acids (FFA), peroxide value (PV), anisidine value (p-AV), total oxidation value (TOTOX), UV extinction coefficients (K232 and K270), fatty acids composition (FA), and iodine value (IV). The obtained data show that there were significant (p < 0.05) increases in FFA, PV, p-AV, K232, K270, and TOTOX but no much variations were observed for FA and IV especially in saffron stigmas fortified oils across storage times. However, in the case of oils fortified with saffron stigmas at different doses, such an increase was of a lesser magnitude (for FFA, PV, p-AV, K270, and TOTOX) as compared to tocobiol. These outcomes were confirmed by principal component analysis with strong positive correlations (p < 0.001) among FFA, PV, p-AV, K232, K270, and TOTOX. The most important, for which determination coefficient R² > 0.9, were modeled through simple regressions. In conclusion, saffron stigmas with the different doses performed better than the positive control (tocobiol) regardless of the storage time. It could be concluded that saffron stigmas are a promising natural antioxidant, alternative to synthetic antioxidants, to enhance the oxidative stability of edible oils.
... Numerous studies have demonstrated diverse pharmacological effects of C. sativus, including antioxidant, anticancer, antidiabetic, antineurodegenerative, anti-inflammatory, and antidepressant [7][8][9]. The bioactive potential of this species was attributed to several secondary metabolites belonging to the phytochemical classes of carotenoids and polyphenols. ...
In recent years, much research has focused on the valorization of Crocus sativus by‐products as sources of bioactive compounds. This study was designed to investigate the impact of two different drying methods, freeze‐drying and air‐drying, on the phenolic content and antioxidant activity of leaves and tepals by‐products from C. sativus collected in Meknes, Morocco. Stigmas were included in the study to provide further information on this precious spice. The phenolic content of the hydroalcoholic extracts was determined spectrophotometrically and characterized by HPLC‐PDA/ESI‐MS analysis. The antioxidant properties were evaluated by different in vitro assays. Both in the DPPH and in the ferrous ion chelating activity assays the extracts from freeze‐dried tepals (Cs‐TFD) and leaves (Cs‐LFD) displayed higher activity than those from air‐dried plant materials. Cs‐LFD showed the best scavenging activity, while superimposable chelating activity was observed for Cs‐TFD and Cs‐LFD. Finally, no toxicity was observed in the Artemia salina lethality bioassay.
... 4 Crocus sativus, the dried stigmas of Crocus sativus L. belonging to the Iridaceae (iris) family, is the most premium spice in the world and noted as "red gold." 5 It has been an herbal remedy in traditional medicine for various diseases, including CVDs, 6 diabetes, 7 neurodegenerative diseases, 8 metabolic syndrome (MetS), 9 and cancer. 10 Crocin (CRO), a class of water-soluble carotenoids, is one of the major active ingredients of Crocus sativus, 11 functioning as an antioxidant, 12 anti-inflammatory, 13 and antiapoptotic 14 agent. ...
... Similarly, exosomes isolated from rice bran [79], corn [80], ginseng [81], ginger [82], and C. roseus strongly stimulated the secretion and expression of TNF-α, at levels similar to LPS treatment, and activated the NF-κB signal pathway [59]. The anti-inflammatory activity of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of saffron tepals has been previously reported and attributed to anthocyanins, flavonoids, and other secondary metabolites present in the extracts [83]. Metabolomic analyses of the tepals' exosomes confirmed the presence of only two classes of these compounds, kaempferol 3,7-diglucoside and delphinidin 3,5-di-O-glucoside, that together with their reduced levels in the exosomes suggested that the biological activity of the other cargo molecules present in the isolated exosomes could contribute to the observed activities. ...
Simple Summary
Saffron tepals constitute a rich source of bioactive metabolites, but are considered waste material after saffron processing. Herein, we obtained exosomes from this material and explored their potential for biomedical applications. Exosomes were isolated through ultracentrifugation following gradient purification, revealing an average particle size of 151.5 ± 79.6 nm with an exosome-like morphology. Detailed analysis identified five well-conserved plant miRNAs—miR157, miR166, miR168, miR396, and miR398—which are involved in regulating plant growth and responses to both biotic and abiotic stress and have potential mammalian targets that are upregulated in certain cancer types and are associated with inflammation. Proteomic analysis of the exosomes revealed an enrichment in proteasome components, ribosomal proteins, and proteins involved in cellular processes such as cytoskeletal organization, membrane transport, and vesicle trafficking. Furthermore, metabolite profiling identified anthocyanins as the predominant metabolites in the exosomes, which are known for their antioxidant properties. Functional assays demonstrated that saffron-derived exosomes selectively activate macrophages, increasing the expression of surface markers and pro-inflammatory cytokines. These findings suggest that saffron tepals are a promising and abundant source of exosomes with potential applications in nanomedicine and immune modulation for therapeutic purposes.
... Saffron (Crocus Sativus Linnaeus), commonly referred to as "red gold," is one of the most expensive and valuable spices globally and belongs to the Iridaceae family [1,2]. In the culinary industry, saffron is primarily used as a flavoring and coloring agent. ...
This study investigated the effect of pulsed infrared (PIR) radiation as a novel thermal process (low energy consumption) on the decontamination of A spergillus flavus (A. flavus) spores in saffron. Some physicochemical properties including energy consumption, antioxidant activity, total phenolic content, and overall saffron quality. The experimental parameters included PIR power levels (250, 350, and 450 W), sample distances from the radiation source (10, 20, and 30 cm), treatment time (0–20 min), and PIR pulse (1, 2, and 3 pulses/s). Optimal conditions were identified at 350 W PIR power, 10 cm distance, 1.5 min of irradiation, and a pulse frequency of 3 pulses/s, achieving a maximum reduction of 3.769 Log CFU/g (%76.92 reduction) in A. flavus spores. It was observed that PIR utilizes 50% less energy than IR due to its pulsed nature, making it an energy-efficient method. PIR had a less pronounced (%28.8 less) effect on the IC50 of Sargol Negin saffron compared to IR (P < 0.05). The Double Weibull model provided the best fit for predicting microbial population dynamics. Before this study, the application of PIR for decontamination of A. flavus spores in saffron had not been reported. The findings suggest that the PIR method effectively reduce microbial contamination while maintaining the quality of saffron, making it a viable option for ensuring food safety and quality.
... Chemical relationships between major compounds in saffron stigmas based on biosynthetic pathways[Zeaxanthin→Picrocrocin→Safranal+D-Glucose (GlOH)]va [Zeaxanthin→Crocetin→Crocin (Crocetin+Gentiobii))][Shahi et al., 2016]. ...
Saffron is renowned for its high pharmaceutical value and steep price. The primary value of saffron lies in its flowers and stigmas. Cultivation of saffron in a plantation format is receiving significant attention globally. However, a key challenge faced in plantation cultivation of saffron is maintaining sufficient levels of the desired substances. A variety of biological and mineral fertilizers are commonly employed to enhance saffron production. Biological fertilizers show significant promise in saffron cultivation compared to chemical mineral fertilizers. However, the cultivation of saffron using zoohumus, an unconventional biological fertilizer, and its impact on the preservation of key substances have not been thoroughly investigated. Hence, this article examines the total protein and amino acid storage characteristics of saffron flower stigmas cultivated in conventional biohumus and non-traditional zoohumus. The results indicate that saffron flower stigmas grown in zoohumus exhibit higher levels of total protein and amino acid content compared to those grown in traditional biohumus.
... The typical bitter taste associated with saffron is attributed to picrocrocin, derived from monoterpenes glycoside, produced through the bio-oxidative cleavage of zeaxanthin by zeaxanthin cleavage dioxygenase [16]. Picrocrocin, initially water-soluble, undergoes a two-step enzymatic/dehydration process, eventually giving rise to the largely water-insoluble safranal, characterized by its aglycone 4-hydroxy-2,6,6-trimethyl-1-cyclohexene-1-carboxaldehyde (HTCC), which subsequently transforms into safranal [17], Notably, safranal is not present in fresh saffron stigmas but is produced during the aging and drying process [18]. Safranal stands as the predominant component within the saffron volatiles fraction [15], representing a groups of monoterpene aldehydes with a molecular weight of 150.21 g/mol profoundly influencing saffron's distinctive aroma [19]. ...
Saffron, the dried stigma of the Crocus sativus L. flower, is a highly valuable spice widely used in the Mediterranean and West and South Asia. The stability and quality of saffron are influenced by factors such as harvest conditions, post-harvest handling, and storage. This review addressed technical information gaps and provided guidelines for optimizing saffron drying to ensure the best quality. It covered diverse drying methods, including hot air-dryer, vacuum oven dryer, electric oven drying, hybrid photovoltaic-thermal dryer, infrared dryer, microwave dryer, refractance-window drying, freeze drying, and fluidized bed dryer, emphasizing their impact on the drying process and final product quality. The review also discussed the theory of saffron dehydration and summarized experimental findings from the past few decades. Additionally, it integrated important aspects of saffron production and processing, such as harvesting and pretreatments like pulsed electric field and cold plasma, highlighting the need to control temperature, humidity, and airflow to preserve saffron’s valuable bioactive compounds and sensory properties. Ultimately, this comprehensive review aimed to inform and guide saffron producers and researchers in selecting and optimizing drying techniques to maintain and enhance the quality of this precious spice.
... Crocin or crocetin is a glycoside ester with high coloring capacity due to its high water solubility [12]. Since external conditions such as temperature, oxygen, light, pH, enzymes, ions, and additives may degrade and decrease its functionality [12][13][14][15], many researchers have investigated ways to protect it from degradation, improve its release through smart delivery, and enhance its bioavailability [16,17]. However, various techniques and shell materials have been used to encapsulate saffron extract, including freeze-drying with modified starch, maltodextrin, chitosan, and gum Arabic [18,19], spray drying using whey protein and pectin [20], spray drying by gelatin, gum Arabic, and maltodextrin [11,21], emulsification by pectin-whey [17,20], ionic gelation/complexation by chitosan-gum Arabic [22], electrospinning by zein and tragacanth [23,24], nanoliposomal encapsulation [25], sodium alginate [26], and freeze drying and electrospinning techniques using a gelatin matrix [27]. ...
In this work, microcapsules were developed by the complex coacervation of sodium caseinate and pectin as a carrier for saffron extract. Parameters such as Zeta potential, dynamic light scattering, and microscopic techniques were investigated for their influence on the formation of these complexes. Furthermore, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis confirmed the reaction mechanism between the protein and tannic acid or saffron extract. The study revealed that core/shell and protein/polysaccharide (Pr/Ps) ratios play a role in the encapsulation efficiency (EE) and loading capacity (LC) of saffron extract, with EE and LC ranging from 48.36 to 89.38% and 1.14 to 5.55%, respectively. Thermal gravimetric analysis revealed that the degradation temperature of saffron increased significantly with microencapsulation. The use of tannic acid for hardening the microcapsules led to an increase in size from 13 μm to 27 μm. Rheological findings indicated that shear-thinning behavior in the coacervates, with cross-linking, has a minor effect on the interconnected elastic gel structures. However, cross-linking improved the microcapsules' thermal and structural properties. The increase in polymer chain length due to cross-linking and the presence of the guest molecule (saffron extract) resulted in higher rheological moduli, reflecting enhanced entanglements and correlating well with the thermal, structural, and microstructural properties of the coacervates. Kinetic release studies showed a slower release in the gastric phase compared to the intestinal phase, with the Ritger–Peppas model effectively describing saffron extract release, highlighting a dominant swelling and dissolution release mechanism. Therefore, the NaCas/HMP coacervate wall materials made saffron stable in the gastric stage and sustainably release. It in the intestinal stage, promoting excellent absorption of saffron in simulated digestion.
Graphical Abstract
... Based on several studies, it is known that saffron has benefits for laxatives, antidepressants, decongestants, diaphoretics, dysminor, skin, liver, and kidney disorders. In addition, it helps penetration in ascites, wounds, headaches, bronchitis, pharyngitis, nausea, vomiting, asthma, eye disorders, and memory impairment, reduces pain during childbirth, and strengthens the heart (Shahi et al., 2016 ternatea flowers from various studies are 21 items, including flavonoids, anthocyanins, flavonol glycosides, kaempferol glycosides, quercetin glycosides, myricetin glycosides, tannins, flobatanins, carbohydrates, saponins, glycosides, triterpenoids, phenols, flavonoids, proteins, alkaloids, steroids, anthraquinones, palmitic acid, stearic, oleic lonoleic, and linoleic (Oguis et al., 2019). ...
Older adults have sleep disorders that lead to decreased quality of life and risk of chronic disease complications. Older adults need to improve their sleep quality to gain a better quality of life. They aimed to investigate the effectiveness of Crocus-sativus-Linnaeus and Clitoria-Ternatea in enhancing the quality of life and sleep of older adults. The quasi-experiment with a control group design was used. The 40 elder adults with hypertension, without dementia, severe cardiovascular disease, and hypersensitivity to compounds; were recruited. The tools were PSQI and WHO-QL. Analysis used t-test and Wilcoxon test. Crocus-sativus-Linnaeus and Clitoria-Ternatea were insignificant in improving sleep quality p = 0.264 (p0.05) and physical domain in quality-of-life p = 0.075. It significantly improved the quality of life in the psychological, social relationships, and the environment, with p = 0.007, p = 0.003, and p = 0.041. For Future research increasing the number of samples is needed.
... Safranal is the third principal component responsible for the aroma and smell of dry saffron stigma, and the concentration of safranal depends on the conditions of drying and storage of saffron (Shahi et al., 2016). In addition, due to its aroma, taste, and coloring, it has many applications in the food industry as a spice, as well as in the cosmetics, health, and pharmaceutical industries (Ahmadian-Kouchaksaraie et al., 2016;Wang et al., 2011). ...
Saffron, similar to numerous other agricultural commodities, is susceptible to microbial contamination during cultivation and postharvest handling. Cold plasma treatment has emerged as an effective method for microbial inactivation while preserving food quality. The aim of this research was to preserve the color integrity and minimize the presence of microorganisms in dried saffron stigma by implementing cold plasma pre‐treatment. Process parameters were optimized using the response surface method (RSM), considering the type of atmosphere (argon and air), plasma exposure time (1, 5, and 10 min), and plasma power (40, 70, and 100 W) as independent variables. The objectives were to maximize crocin content and minimize the total microbial load. The analysis of the response surface revealed that the argon atmosphere had a more significant impact on reducing microbial contamination than air, and an increase in plasma exposure time led to a decrease in microbial load. The maximum reduction in microbial load, by 0.9 logarithmic cycles compared to the control, was achieved with a 10‐min treatment at 40 W power. Extended plasma exposure durations led to a minor reduction in the color, taste, aroma, and antioxidant properties of saffron stigma. Specifically, the color, taste, and aroma decreased by 0.5%, 0.5%, and 0.08%, respectively, with longer plasma exposure times. The antioxidant activity decreased by 0.64% with prolonged exposure time. However, the plasma‐treated samples did not show any signs of Escherichia coli, mold, or yeast. Furthermore, our findings demonstrated that the type of atmosphere significantly influenced the reduction of infection and maintenance of saffron stigma's color quality. Cold plasma pretreatment holds promise as a viable method for preserving the physicochemical attributes of saffron while effectively reducing microbial contamination.
... The presence of crocin in saffron leads to a decrease in the level of triacylglycerol and cholesterol in plasma, thus aiding in the control of cardiovascular complications [112]. Safranal and crocin can eliminate ROS, thus helping to prevent cancers and cardiovascular diseases [41]. For instance, reports suggest that saffron tea, having lycopene, helps in reducing the risk of CVD development [86]. ...
Plants are an important source of essential bioactive compounds that not only have a beneficial role in human health and nutrition but also act as drivers for shaping gut microbiome. However, the mechanism of their functional attributes is not fully understood despite their significance. One such important plant is Crocus sativus, also known as saffron, which possesses huge medicinal, nutritional, and industrial applications like food and cosmetics. The importance of this plant is grossly attributed to its incredible bioactive constituents such as crocins, crocetin, safranal, picrocrocin, and glycosides. These bioactive compounds possess a wide range of therapeutic activities against multiple human ailments. Since a huge number of studies have revealed negative unwanted side effects of modern-day drugs, the scientific communities at the global level are investigating a large number of medicinal plants to explore natural products as the best alternatives. Taken into consideration, the available research findings indicate that saffron has a huge scope to be further explored to establish alternative natural-product-based drugs for health benefits. In this review, we are providing an update on the role of bioactive compounds of saffron as therapeutic agents (human disorders and antimicrobial activity) and its nutritional values. We also highlighted the role of omics and metabolic engineering tools for increasing the content of key saffron bioactive molecules for its mass production. Finally, pre-clinical and clinical studies seem to be necessary to establish its therapeutic potential against human diseases.
... Furthermore, in recent times, research has been undertaken to extract bioactive components not only from the stigmas but also from the petals of Crocus sativus L. Many studies have shown that these often neglected petals also contain interesting bioactive components [19,20], mainly polyphenols, notably carotenoids, favonoids, and anthocyanins, known for their antioxidant and antibacterial properties, as well as their multiple protective roles [21]. Tey have been associated with numerous pharmacological efects [22]. Te results of previous studies have suggested that diferent parts of Crocus sativus L. can be used for their antioxidant activity [23,24] and antibacterial efects against specifc bacteria [12,25,26]. ...
The dried stigmas of Crocus sativus L. produce saffron, a precious spice used for its culinary and medicinal properties since ancient times, while its petals are considered the main by-product of saffron production. The present study aimed to comparatively evaluate the phenolic content, antioxidant capacity, and antibacterial activity of methanolic extracts of stigmas and petals of Crocus sativus L. from Taliouine. The polyphenol content was measured using the Folin–Ciocalteu method, the antioxidant activity was determined using the DPPH free radical scavenging method, and the well-diffusion method was used to assess antibacterial activity against seven pathogenic bacterial strains (Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enterica, and Staphylococcus aureus). Furthermore, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the extracts was determined using the microdilution broth test. Our findings revealed that stigmas and petals contained phenolic compounds at the rate of 56.11 ± 4.70 and 64.73 ± 3.42 mg GAE/g, as well as DPPH radical scavenging capacity with IC50 of 1700 µg/ml and 430 µg/ml, respectively. Petal extract showed more effective antibacterial activity, with inhibition diameters ranging from 10.66 ± 0.57 to 22.00 ± 1.00 mm and MIC values ranging from 2.81 to 5.62 mg/ml, compared to the stigma extract, which displayed inhibition diameters from 10.00 ± 0.00 to 18.67 ± 0.76 mm and MIC from 2.81 to 11.25 mg/ml, against five of the seven bacterial strains tested, including S. aureus, E. coli, P. vulgaris, P. aeruginosa, and S. enterica. Statistical analyses were performed to determine the significance of these results. Thus, stigmas and petals of Crocus sativus L. might serve as a suitable source of natural antioxidant and antimicrobial agents for application in the food and pharmaceutical industries.
... [3][4][5] Indeed, in addition to containing crocetin, crocin, picrocrocin, safranal, anthocyanins, essential oils, and fatty acids as bioactive components, saffron also contain trace amounts of B1 and B2 vitamins, which extend its functional features and makes it attractive for the production of nutraceuticals. 6 Saffron usage is, nowadays, well known both for flavoring as a color, taste, and/or odor agent of food and for therapeutic benefits even in the mediation of several health disorders. 3 Therefore, it is widely used in the food industry and especially by the semiindustrial food-producing sector as a food-grade flavoring agent during the manufacture of a wide range of foods, including beverages, bakery and dairy products. ...
BACKGROUND
Quality properties of 14 saffron samples from Iran, Spain, and Türkiye were compared.
RESULTS
Significant differences were observed between anthocyanins, volatile compounds, fatty acids, total phenolic content, and antioxidant activity of saffron samples (P < 0.05). Besides, significant differences in color parameters were observed. Moreover, a total of 13 volatile compounds were identified in the saffron samples using. headspace–solid‐phase microextraction–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, safranal and α‐isophorone being the two predominant aroma compounds. Regarding fatty acids, significant differences were seen in the fatty acid profiles of saffron samples (P < 0.05), while linoleic acid was the most concentrated fatty acid. In terms of sensory properties, different concentrations of safranal, α‐isophorone and 4‐ketoisophorone may lead to significant differences in the odor and taste attributes of saffron samples (P < 0.05).
CONCLUSION
Changes in corm origin along with climate and agricultural conditions may affect the quality characteristics of saffron cultivated in different geographical areas to a significant degree. © 2024 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.
... The most abundant type of crocin found in saffron is trans-crocetin di-(β-D-gentiobiosyl) ester (Fig. 1). It is commonly named as trans-crocin-4 due to its four glucose moieties or alternatively as crocin-I or α-crocin in some studies [16]. ...
Crocin-I, a valuable natural compound found in saffron (Crocus sativus L.), is the most abundant among the various crocin structures. Developing a cost-effective and scalable purification process to produce high-purity crocin-I is of great interest for future investigations into its biological properties and its potential applications in the treatment of neurological disorders. However purifying crocin-I through single-column preparative chromatography (batch) poses a yield-purity trade-off due to structural similarities among crocins, meaning that the choice of the collection window sacrifices either yield in benefit of higher purity or vice versa. This study demonstrates how the continuous countercurrent operating mode resolves this dilemma. Herein, a twin-column MCSGP (multicolumn countercurrent solvent gradient purification) process was employed to purify crocin-I. This study involved an environmentally friendly ethanolic extraction of saffron stigma, followed by an investigation into the stability of the crocin-I within the feed under varying storage conditions to ensure a stable feed composition during the purification. Then, the batch purification process was initially designed, optimized, and subsequently followed by the scale-up to the MCSGP process. To ensure a fair comparison, both processes were evaluated under similar conditions (e.g., similar total column volume). The results showed that, at a purity grade of 99.7%, the MCSGP technique demonstrated significant results, namely + 334% increase in recovery + 307% increase in productivity, and − 92% reduction in solvent consumption. To make the purification process even greener, the only organic solvent employed was ethanol, without the addition of any additive. In conclusion, this study presents the MCSGP as a reliable, simple, and economical technique for purifying crocin-I from saffron extract, demonstrating for the first time that it can be effectively applied as a powerful approach for process intensification in the purification of natural products from complex matrices.
Graphical Abstract
... The bitter taste of saffron stems from picrocrocin, while safranal imparts its distinctive hay-like aroma and crocins lend its golden color (5). Saffron is considered the world's most expensive spice due to its labor-intensive harvesting, and it is used for food coloring, flavoring, and various other purposes (6). It is also employed as a fabric dye in the garment industry (7). ...
Crocus sativus (Iranian saffron) is a spice, known to have manifold therapeutic properties. This popular spice is also widely used as a food additive in food industries for coloring and flavoring different food products. Using the spices in the form of nanoemulsion is shown to enhance their stability as well as antibacterial characteristics and etc. In this study, a newly -developed Crocus sativus nano emulsion was prepared using ultrasonic technique. Since Toxicological studies are a vital part for validating the use of spice nanoemulsions in food industry, the aim of this study was to evaluate the potential toxicity of this nanoemulsion in Albino rats. All tests were performed on one pilot batch which was representative of the product expected for human exposure. The results did not demonstrate loss of mortality, significant changes in food and water consumption, or permanent changes in vital organs in doses above to a full human dose.
... The dried stigma of this perennial herb is commonly used as a flavoring and coloring food additive and, less extensively, as a perfume ingredient (4). Moreover, saffron is an enriched pool of bioactive compounds including crocetin, crocins, picrocrocins, safranal, essential oils, minerals, and trace amounts of B family vitamins which have attracted the attention of herbal medicines (5,6). Saffron has been traditionally used because of its therapeutical effects for the treatment of many diseases in different traditional health systems. ...
Safranal (a monoterpene aldehyde) is the major volatile component of saffron which is responsible for the saffron unique odor. Several studies have shown the pharmacological activities of safranal including anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, neuroprotective, nephroprotective, gastrointestinal protective, etc. This study was designed to review the pharmacological and medical effects of safranal and up-to-date previous knowledge. Moreover, some patents related to the pharmacological effects of safranal were gathered. Therefore, electronic databases including Web of Sciences, Scopus, and Pubmed for pharmacological effects and US patent, Patentscope, and Google Patent for patents were comprehensively searched by related English keywords from 2010 to June 2022. According to our review, most of the studies are related to the safranal effects on CNS such as antianxiety, analgesic, anticonvulsant, antiischemic, anti-tremor, memory enhancement and its protective effects on neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson and Huntington diseases. Other effects of safranal are antiasthmatic, antihypertensive, antiaging, anticataract, etc. Moreover, the protective effects of this agent on metabolic syndrome and diabetic nephropathy have been shown. Different mechanisms including anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, muscle relaxation, antiapoptotic, and regulatory effects on the genes and proteins expression related to signaling pathways of oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, proliferation, etc. are involved in safranal pharmacological effects. Some patents for the prevention and/or treatment of different diseases such as liver cancer, sleep disorder, depression, cognitive disorder, obesity and PMS were also included. Based on the documents, safranal is considered a promising therapeutic agent although more clinical studies are needed to verify the beneficial effects of safranal in humans.
... It is widely cultivated for the most precious spice consisting of the dried red stigmas of the flower (Khan et al., 2020). More than 100,000 flowers are needed to produce 1 kg of spice (Mottaghipisheh et al., 2020;Shahi et al., 2016). The purple tepals are the most abundant bioresidues of the flower and, along with the spice, they have a high content of phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity. ...
... Modern pharmacological research has further shown that crocin I and II have memory-improving [8], radiation-protection [9], antidepressant [10], anticancer [11], and antioxidant effects [12], thereby demonstrating great potential for clinical application and advantages in new drug development, food, and cosmetics industries. However, saffron is commonly referred to as "red gold", due to its lower yield and higher price [13]. Currently, crocins are primarily isolated from saffron; however, the limited sources, low yield, complex extraction process, and lack of environmental friendliness severely restrict their market applications. ...
Crocins are a group of highly valuable water-soluble carotenoids that are reported to have many pharmacological activities, such as anticancer properties, and the potential for treating neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer’s disease. Crocins are mainly biosynthesized in the stigmas of food–medicine herbs Crocus sativus L. and Gardenia jasminoides fruits. The distribution is narrow in nature and deficient in resources, which are scarce and expensive. Recently, the synthesis of metabolites in the heterologous host has opened up the potential for large-scale and sustainable production of crocins, especially for the main active compounds crocin I and crocin II. In this study, GjCCD4a, GjALDH2C3, GjUGT74F8, and GjUGT94E13 from G. jasminoides fruits were expressed in Nicotiana benthamiana. The highest total content of crocins in T1 generation tobacco can reach 78,362 ng/g FW (fresh weight) and the dry weight is expected to reach 1,058,945 ng/g DW (dry weight). Surprisingly, the primary effective constituents crocin I and crocin II can account for 99% of the total crocins in transgenic plants. The strategy mentioned here provides an alternative platform for the scale-up production of crocin I and crocin II in tobacco.
... As illustrated in Table 1, these authors are H. Hosseinzadeh (43), G.L. Alonso (29), and M. Carmona (25). Iran, Spain, and Italy were the high-performing nations, while Meshhad Med Science and Castilla La Mancha were the top contributor universities. ...
Saffron, botanically known as Crocus sativus L., is renowned as the world's most expensive spice and has been utilized in various fields since ancient times. Extensive scientific research has been conducted on Crocus sativus (C. sativus), focusing on its phytochemical composition, diverse applications, and biological activities. C. sativus phytochemicals consist mainly of three compounds, namely crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal, which are responsible for most of its properties. Saffron is rich in bioactive compounds, more than 150 of which have been isolated. Owing to its unique composition and properties, saffron is used in various fields, such as the food industry, perfumery, cosmetics, pharma-ceutics, and medicine. However, the high economic value of saffron makes it susceptible to adulteration and various fraudulent practices. To deal with this issue, a number of methods and techniques have been developed to authenticate and determine adulterants in saffron. This paper presents a bibliometric study of saffron based on the Web of Science database, analyzing 3,735 studies published between 2000 and 2021. The study also examined author participation and collaboration networks among countries. Production, transformation, chemical composition, methods of adulteration detection, uses, and health properties of saffron are also discussed.
... sedative, and dysmenorrhea. Currently, in the food industry, saffron is used as an odor, tasting, and coloring agent in different foods on industrial scales (Shahi et al., 2016). ...
Pain can become a chronic and deliberating experience with a significant burden. In preclinical and clinical studies, Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) has shown analgesic activities. Considering the unsatisfactory results of current therapeutic management for chronic pain conditions, we aimed to review saffron's analgesic activity and underlying mechanisms. Saffron showed antinociceptive activities in formalin-, carrageenan-, and capsaicin-induced experimental pain models. Saffron analgesic activities affected several targets, including ion channels of nociceptors; the adrenergic system and central histaminic system; inhibition of inflammatory pathways, apoptotic pathways, and oxidative stress; regulation of NO pathway, and the endocannabinoid system. Clinical studies showed analgesia of Saffron in rheumatoid arthritis, after-pain following childbirth, dysmenorrhea, and fibromyalgia. Our literature review showed that saffron can be beneficial as an adjunct therapy to commonly used analgesics in practice, particularly in chronic pain conditions.
Saffron is a rich collection of bioactive components including safranal, crocins, crocetin, essential oils, picrocrocins, etc. The extraction method plays a significant role in obtaining these bioactive compounds. Efficacious extraction of bioactive components must meet the green chemistry requirements for environment-friendly, safety, little impurities, economic, and efficiency. Experimental studies have demonstrated that deep eutectic solvents exhibit high efficiency in extracting phenolic compounds from saffron. Specifically, the using Choline chloride (CHO) as hydrogen bond acceptor has shown excellent extraction efficiency under laboratory conditions, confirming its strong capability in recovering valuable bioactive compounds. In this study, the possibility of extracting saffron bioactive components using six different binary eutectic solvents has been investigated through molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. The results of this study showed that the structural and surface characteristics of Deep Eutectic Solvents (DESs) and bioactive molecules affect the type and strength of their interactions. Based on interaction energy values, Caprylic acid (CAP) + DL-menthol (DLM) solvent had the best performance in extracting bioactive components α-Carotene (ACA), β-Carotene (BCA), and Zeaxanthin (ZEA) with energy values − 134.349, − 137.136, and − 143.676 kJ/mol respectively. Accordingly, it is suggested that any type of solvent is not suitable for extracting active compounds. The results of this study show that deep eutectic solvents as green and versatile solvents can open a new promising window for research in sustainable engineering and chemistry.
Saffron is highly valued for its medicinal and culinary uses. Its global market value and characteristics of saffron have led to the design of quality management and intelligent systems for industrial and postharvest processes. In this study, a computer vision system was integrated with advanced deep learning algorithms and data augmentation techniques to evaluate the quality of saffron, which was categorized into 6 classes based on market demand and business opinions. Raw dataset consisted of 3152 images, with classes including Daste, Poshal Grade Two, Poshal Grade One, Poshal Peresi, Peresi Grade One, and Peresi Negini. Adaptive data augmentation was then implemented in 2 phases, and raw data increased to 22064. Subsequently, hyperparameters of the deep learning model, such as initial learning rate, batch size, image size, optimization, and number of epochs, were assessed, and the best settings for the final model were selected based on model performance. Six popular deep learning models with varying architectures and parameters were evaluated to identify the most optimal structure. The proposed model was InceptionV3, which achieved 100% accuracy and 0.04 loss in recognizing the quality stage of saffron. The development took 3.20 hours, with a recognition time of 0.055 seconds. The model also had 100% precision, F1-score, and sensitivity, with an MSE/RMSE/MAE of 0. This model and dataset are highly effective for quality detection and can serve as a basis for developing robotic and remote sensing systems in industrial and quality management systems.
The abandonment of farmland in Europe is a significant issue due to its environmental, socio-economic, and landscape consequences. This tendency mainly impacts marginal and inner areas, located far from large urban districts, because of biophysical and/or socio-economic factors. Although European and national regulations try to turn the fragility of these territories into an opportunity for sustainable development, many of these areas, especially in southern Europe, continue to suffer socio-economic disparities. For this reason, it is necessary to consider regional and district-wide initiatives that can economically revitalize marginal areas while safeguarding their natural capital. Alternative cropping systems, capable of optimizing the quality of some food crops, can play an essential role in the economic development of populations living in marginal areas. These areas, represented by inland zones often abandoned due to the difficulty of applying mechanized agriculture, can represent an opportunity to rediscover sustainable and profitable practices. Among the high-value crops, saffron (Crocus sativus L.), “red gold” and “king of spices”, stands out for its potential. Indeed, thanks to the use of tuff tubs, a more eco-sustainable choice compared to the plastic pots already mentioned in the literature, it is possible to improve the quality of this spice. Furthermore, Crocus sativus L. not only lends itself to multiple uses but also represents a valid opportunity to supplement agricultural income. This is made possible by its high profitability and beneficial properties for human health, offering a way to diversify agricultural production with positive economic and social impacts. It is known that the saffron market in Italy suffers from competition from developing countries (Iran, Morocco, India) capable of producing saffron at lower costs than European countries, thanks to the lower cost of labor. Therefore, this study seeks to identify marginal areas that can be recovered and valorized through an eco-sustainable cultivation system with the potential to enhance the quality of this spice, making it unique and resilient to competition. Specifically, this paper is organized on a dual scale of investigation: (a) at the local level to demonstrate the economic-ecological feasibility of saffron cultivation through the adoption of an alternative farming technique on an experimental site located in Tricarico (Basilicata—Southern Italy, 40°37′ N, 16°09′ E; 472 m. a.s.l.) that, although fertile, is not suitable for mechanized cropping systems; (b) at the regional level through a spatially explicit land suitability analysis to indicate the possible location where to export saffron cultivation. The final map, obtained by combining geo-environmental variables, can be considered a precious tool to support policymakers and farmers to foster a broad agricultural strategy founded on new crop management systems. The adoption of this alternative agroecological system could optimize the use of land resources in the perspective of increasing crop productivity and profitability in marginal agricultural areas.
In the present research, an ultrasound-assisted extraction method was utilized to extract crocin from saffron samples using a variety of solvents, including water-miscible and water-immiscible organic solvents, ionic liquids, and deep eutectic solvents, prior to high-performance chromatography with a photodiode array detector. The extraction procedure was optimized using response surface methodology with the central composite design method, and the best conditions were determined with the aforementioned solvents. The results confirmed that better efficacy of deep eutectic solvents were more effective for extracting crocin compared to the other solvents tested, resulting in higher extraction recoveries. However, the volume required for crocin extraction using deep eutectic solvents was higher than that of organic solvents (approximately 300 µL versus 150 µL). The higher viscosities of deep eutectic solvents also led to a longer extraction time (13.6 min) compared to carbon tetrachloride (5.6 min) and methanol (5.8 min). The extraction recovery of crocin using choline chloride: ethylene glycol deep eutectic solvent reached 97.6% while other solvents yielded lower extraction the extraction recoveries. Finally, the developed method was successfully employed to the extract crocin from various saffron samples grown in different regions of Iran.
Kadın sağlığı ve ebelik, toplumsal refahın ve sürdürülebilirliğin temel yapı taşları arasında yer alır. Bu önemli alanda yapılan araştırmalar, yalnızca bireysel sağlık ve iyilik hali için değil, aynı zamanda sağlık sistemlerinin güçlendirilmesi ve toplumsal kalkınma için de büyük önem taşır. "Ebeliğin ve Kadın Sağlığı Üzerine Güncel Araştırmalar", kadın sağlığı ve ebelik alanında bilimsel bilgi birikimini zenginleştirmek amacıyla hazırlanmış çok yönlü bir kaynaktır. Kitap, alanında uzman akademisyenler ve profesyonellerin katkılarıyla, hem akademik çevreler hem de sağlık çalışanları için rehber niteliğinde bir eser sunmaktadır. Güncel araştırmaların yer aldığı bu eserde, ebelik mesleğini ilgilendiren eğitim, teknoloji kullanımı, kadın sağlığına yönelik klinik uygulamalar ve sağlık politikalarına dair birçok konuya yer verilmiştir. Eserde ele alınan başlıca konular arasında: Acil obstetrik bakımda simülasyon uygulamaları, Ebelik eğitiminde yapay zekâ teknolojileri, Kadınların doğum korkuları ve emzirme öz yeterliliği, Premenstrüel sendromun makine öğrenmesi ile öngörülmesi, Tatlandırıcıların gebelikteki etkileri, Anne sütünün kompozisyonu ve muhafaza yöntemleri, İklim değişikliğinin üreme sağlığı üzerindeki etkileri, Maymun çiçeği virüsü gibi güncel sağlık tehditleri gibi başlıklar bulunmaktadır. Editörlüğünü Doç. Dr. Reyhan Aydın Doğan ve Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Sebahat Hüseyinoğlu’nun üstlendiği bu eser, ebelik ve kadın sağlığı konularına disiplinlerarası bir yaklaşım sunarak, meslek profesyonellerinin bilgi ve becerilerini geliştirmeyi hedeflemektedir. Bilimsel titizliği ve saha deneyimlerini harmanlayan bu kitap, kadın sağlığının farklı boyutlarını aydınlatırken, sağlık çalışanlarının ve akademisyenlerin başvurabileceği önemli bir kaynak olma niteliği taşımaktadır. Sağlık çalışanlarının, araştırmacıların ve bu alanda eğitim alan bireylerin ilgiyle okuyacağı bu eser, kadın sağlığına yönelik nitelikli çalışmaların artmasına ilham kaynağı olacaktır.
Kadın sağlığı ve ebelik, toplumsal refahın ve sürdürülebilirliğin temel yapı taşları arasında yer alır. Bu önemli alanda yapılan araştırmalar, yalnızca bireysel sağlık ve iyilik hali için değil, aynı zamanda sağlık sistemlerinin güçlendirilmesi ve toplumsal kalkınma için de büyük önem taşır. "Ebeliğin ve Kadın Sağlığı Üzerine Güncel Araştırmalar", kadın sağlığı ve ebelik alanında bilimsel bilgi birikimini zenginleştirmek amacıyla hazırlanmış çok yönlü bir kaynaktır. Kitap, alanında uzman akademisyenler ve profesyonellerin katkılarıyla, hem akademik çevreler hem de sağlık çalışanları için rehber niteliğinde bir eser sunmaktadır. Güncel araştırmaların yer aldığı bu eserde, ebelik mesleğini ilgilendiren eğitim, teknoloji kullanımı, kadın sağlığına yönelik klinik uygulamalar ve sağlık politikalarına dair birçok konuya yer verilmiştir. Eserde ele alınan başlıca konular arasında: Acil obstetrik bakımda simülasyon uygulamaları, Ebelik eğitiminde yapay zekâ teknolojileri, Kadınların doğum korkuları ve emzirme öz yeterliliği, Premenstrüel sendromun makine öğrenmesi ile öngörülmesi, Tatlandırıcıların gebelikteki etkileri, Anne sütünün kompozisyonu ve muhafaza yöntemleri, İklim değişikliğinin üreme sağlığı üzerindeki etkileri, Maymun çiçeği virüsü gibi güncel sağlık tehditleri gibi başlıklar bulunmaktadır. Editörlüğünü Doç. Dr. Reyhan Aydın Doğan ve Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Sebahat Hüseyinoğlu’nun üstlendiği bu eser, ebelik ve kadın sağlığı konularına disiplinlerarası bir yaklaşım sunarak, meslek profesyonellerinin bilgi ve becerilerini geliştirmeyi hedeflemektedir. Bilimsel titizliği ve saha deneyimlerini harmanlayan bu kitap, kadın sağlığının farklı boyutlarını aydınlatırken, sağlık çalışanlarının ve akademisyenlerin başvurabileceği önemli bir kaynak olma niteliği taşımaktadır. Sağlık çalışanlarının, araştırmacıların ve bu alanda eğitim alan bireylerin ilgiyle okuyacağı bu eser, kadın sağlığına yönelik nitelikli çalışmaların artmasına ilham kaynağı olacaktır.
Crocus sativus, commonly known as saffron, holds a long-standing history in traditional medicine and culinary practices. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the medicinal and nutritional importance of saffron in human health. Beginning with an introduction to Crocus sativus, including its botanical overview and historical significance, the objective of this chapter is to explore the chemical composition, medicinal properties, and modern applications of saffron. The chemical composition of saffron is elucidated, highlighting its active compounds such as crocin, picrocrocin, crocetin, and safranal. Medicinal properties of Crocus sativus are extensively discussed, encompassing traditional medicinal uses and pharmacological studies demonstrating its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antidepressant, and potential anticancer effects. Saffron’s role in preventing and managing various health conditions, including diabetes and cardiovascular diseases, is examined in detail. Moreover, the nutritional components of saffron are explored, emphasizing its nutrient profile and dietary benefits. The health benefits of saffron consumption, such as mood enhancement, cognitive health improvement, sexual health, and cardiovascular benefits, are outlined. Traditional and cultural uses of saffron in culinary practices and traditional medicine are also discussed. Additionally, cultivation and harvesting practices, quality control, and potential risks and precautions associated with saffron consumption are addressed. Finally, future prospects and research directions in saffron utilization are highlighted, underscoring unexplored areas of study and potential innovations. In conclusion, this chapter underscores the significant implications of Crocus sativus in promoting human health and well-being.
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In recent years, there has been a significant increase in demand for herbal medicines, due to the growing interest of consumers in natural and safe alternatives to synthetic medicines. In response to these trends, manufacturers are focusing on developing new formulas and extraction technologies to meet the increased demand for herbal medicines. Modern extraction methods make it possible to efficiently extract secondary metabolites from plant raw materials, maintaining an almost complete chemical composition and ensuring a high yield of extractives. The possibility of regulating the concentration of extracted biologically active substances during the process opens up new prospects for the use of plant raw materials as basic pharmaceutical substances. It was found that all the studied plant species of the genus Crocus L. demonstrate antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and cardioprotective activity. Crocus alatavicus, which is a representative of the flora of Kazakhstan, is of particular interest. The purpose of this study is to select the optimal extraction method for obtaining extracts with the maximum content of flavonoids and carotenoids from the aboveground part of Crocus alatavicus. The study of the technological parameters of obtaining an extract from this plant active substance is of practical importance for the further development of medicines and the formation of a scientific justification for their use.
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.), a perennial herbaceous monocot from the Iridaceae family, is renowned as the most expensive spice globally due to its esteemed flavor, aroma, and color. It originates from Asia Minor, saffron thrives in Mediterranean climates with specific soil and climatic conditions. In Nepal, saffron cultivation has started in regions such as Jumla and Makawanpur. Despite its economic value, saffron cultivation faces challenges due to its sterile seeds, reliance on corm propagation, and labor-intensive harvesting. Different parts of saffron like flowers, dried stigmas, and styles are used in various industries, including food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics. Its cultivation requires specific soil and climatic conditions, careful selection of corms, and precise irrigation and fertilization practices. This paper offers an in-depth review of saffron's botanical characteristics, cultivation methods, applications, and challenges, particularly in enhancing production in Nepal.
The therapeutic effects of saffron have been reported and described in relation to its major derivatives. Among them, in terms of saffron’s properties, crocin and crocetin absorption and bioavailability have been the most studied. Nevertheless, the metabolism of these major compounds of saffron has not yet been entirely elucidated. Current data indicate that the phase 2 metabolism of crocetins go through conjugation reactions. Crocetins could also be present in isomeric forms such as other carotenoids. Nonetheless, there are still shadow areas in regard to the measurements of the different circulating forms of crocetins after oral saffron extract administration (Safr’Inside™). In using various approaches, we propose the identification of a new cis isomeric form of crocetin, the 6-cis-crocetin. This compound was found in human serum samples after an oral administration of saffron extract. The 6-cis-crocetin represents 19% of the total crocetin measured after 45 min of consumption. These data mark, for the first time, the presence of a cis isomeric form of crocetin in human serum samples. Moreover, this study led to the development of an analytical method that is able to identify and quantify both isomeric forms (trans and cis).
Saffron (Crocus sativus) is a high-value industrial herb with a rich history dating back to ancient civilizations. Its significance lies in its aromatic, colouring, and medicinal properties, making it one of the world’s most valuable spices. Understanding the genetic regulation of saffron’s bioactive compounds can lead to improved saffron cultivation and quality. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of saffron’s origin, genetic characteristics, biosynthesis, gene expression, and therapeutic potential, highlighting its importance in both traditional and modern medicine.
The application of circular economy principles is of particular interest to the agricultural and agri-food sectors, given the large amount of waste matrix of some plant species. In recent decades, attention that has been given to the cultivation of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) has been rediscovered. The saffron produced from dried stigmas of Crocus sativus L. has been known since ancient times for its numerous therapeutic properties. The spice is obtained from the stigmas of the flowers, while petals and stamens are 90% waste material.
The recovery of the flowers, considering the considerable amount of polyphenols with high antioxidant activity present in this matrix (kaempferol and quercetin glycosides), allows its use for innovative purposes in different product sectors, such as foods, cosmetics, and biomedical applications. In this context, this work evaluated that the polyphenol content in flowers of C. sativus grown in Tuscanyto characterizes this product from a qualitative–quantitative point of view for various product sectors. The quali-quantitative analysis of the extracts was carried out by HPLC/DAD/MS (high performance liquid cromatography coupled with diode array and mass specrometer) analysis. Given the potential of this matrix, another aspect of the research consists of evaluating the possible tumour growth inhibition activity on kidney and bladder cancer cell lines by the extracts of petals.
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a valuable Chinese herbal medicine with high medicinal value and has been widely concerned. Pistils be used as medicine, increasing the number of flowers can...
The substitution of synthetic food dyes with natural colorants continues to be assiduously pursued. The current list of natural carotenoid colorants consists of plant-derived annatto (bixin and norbixin), paprika (capsanthin and capsorubin), saffron (crocin), tomato and gac fruit lycopene, marigold lutein, and red palm oil (α- and β-carotene), along with microalgal Dunaliella β-carotene and Haematococcus astaxanthin and fungal Blakeslea trispora β-carotene and lycopene. Potential microalgal sources are being sought, especially in relation to lutein, for which commercial plant sources are lacking. Research efforts, manifested in numerous reviews and research papers published in the last decade, have been directed to green extraction, microencapsulation/nanoencapsulation, and valorization of processing by-products. Extraction is shifting from conventional extraction with organic solvents to supercritical CO2 extraction and different types of assisted extraction. Initially intended for the stabilization of the highly degradable carotenoids, additional benefits of encapsulation have been demonstrated, especially the improvement of carotenoid solubility and bioavailability. Instead of searching for new higher plant sources, enormous effort has been directed to the utilization of by-products of the fruit and vegetable processing industry, with the application of biorefinery and circular economy concepts. Amidst enormous research activities, however, the gap between research and industrial implementation remains wide.
Allium sativum, or garlic is a bulbous perennial, a member of the onion family with particular aroma and pungent taste, grows upto 1.2 m in height. It is common herb used in traditional cooking and as a remedy for diabetes due to its therapeutic and medicinal benefits in Middle East, Asia and the Europe. It is used as a remedy for heart problems, bites, headache, worms and tumours. It contains S-allyl cystein sulfoxide a sulphur containg compound derivative of cysteine aminoacid. Alliin is converted to Allicin when garlic bulbs are crushed, allicin is further converted to Ajoene that prevents blockage in blood vessels and clotting.
Saffron, the king of condiments, is the dried crimson stigma of Crocus sativus L. It is an autumn-flowering herbaceous plant that belongs to the family Iridaceae. C. sativus is traditionally used as medicine in Chinese, Ayurvedic, Persian, and Unani medicinal systems. Mainly, it is grown in Afghanistan, Morocco, Iran, India, Spain and Italy. It is estimated that approximately 418 t year−1 saffron is produced on 121,338 ha, worldwide. The plant is triploid and is mostly cultivated through corms. Soil quality, temperature, photoperiod, and topographical areas are the key environmental factors influencing the production of saffron. Its popularity is increasing due to its intriguing uses in food, medicine, and cosmetics. Among spices it is the most expensive, because of the presence of three bioactive constituents namely crocin, safranal and picrocrocincin. This chapter includes the study of qualitative, economic, agronomic, ethnobotanical, and medicinal aspects of saffron.
The application of oils in the food industry is challenging, owing to their inherent factors such as oxidation. Therefore, new technologies, such as nanoencapsulation, are being developed. Among the nanoencapsulated oils, essential oils (EO) and edible oils stand out for their high consumer demand. This review analyzes the production, characterization, stability, and market scenario of edible and EO nanoparticles applied in foods. Homogenization was found to be the most common technique for producing oil nanoparticles. Different encapsulants were used, and Tween 80 was the main emulsifier. Approximately 80% of the nanoparticles were smaller than 200 nm, and the polydispersibility index and zeta potential values were satisfactory, mainly for nanoparticles containing EO, whereas encapsulation efficiency varied based on the technique and the type of oil used. Oil nanoparticles were mainly applied on meat products. The temperatures and times used in the stability tests of foods containing oil nanoparticles varied depending on the food matrix, especially in microbiological and physicochemical analyses. Only one product with nanoencapsulated oil in its composition was found in the market. Oil nanoparticles have great potential in the development of innovative, economically viable, and sustainable techniques for producing new food products that are high in nutrition value.
Background: Recently herbs considered as biological and safe agents to treat, control and prevent of many health problems such as obesity and its complications. Objectives: This study investigated protective effects of extracts from saffron stigma, petal, and their mixture on dyslipidemia, atherosclerosis, and insulin resistance in high-fat-fed obese rats. Methods: This experimental study was performed in animal house of Birjand University of Medical Sciences, Birjand, Iran. We used systematic random sampling to divide 56 adult male rats into 8 groups with 7 rats in each group that were fed a high-fat or standard diet for 10 weeks. Then, doses of saffron stigma, petal (40 and 80 mg/kg body weight, respectively), and their mixture (80 mg/kg body weight of both) were administered orally on a daily basis for three weeks. At the end of treatment priods, we examined all biochemical parameters. Data were analyzed by valid statistical analysis. Results: Saffron extracts markedly (P < 0.05) decreased the serum total cholesterol (TC, 90 ± 9.3), triglyceride (TG, 99 ± 10.5), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C, 27 ± 1.1) in obese rats, while they increased the serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C, 68 ± 2.2). The atherosclerosis-index (LDL/HDL, 0.39 ± 0.5), atherogenic index (TC/HDL, 1.32 ± 4.2), and the liver enzymes (ALT, AST, and ALP) were also reduced drastically (P < 0.05) after herbal treatments. Treatment with saffron extract significantly (P < 0.05) decreased the levels of leptin (0.26 ± 0.04), insulin (4.11 ± 0.1), resistin (11.1 ± 0.5) and homeostasis model assessmentestimated insulin resistance index (HOMA-IR, 20.0±1.4) and enhanced the levels of circulating adiponectin (108 ± 3), potentially indicating a cardio-protective influence. Antioxidant capacity (511.63 ± 19) increased after treatment with saffron extracts, but malondialdehyde levels (1.94 ± 0.1) decreased. Conclusions: This in vivo study demonstrated that saffron extracts, particularly the mixture of extracts from stigma and petal, ameliorated dyslipidemia in obese rats, leading to decreased atherosclerosis and insulin resistance. Our data suggested a potential therapeutic strategy against obesity and its related complications.
Proximate composition and mineral concentration of Saffron petals were investigated using standard analytical methods. Saffron petal samples were obtained from the flowers of Torbateheydariyeh farms and were evaluated for metals, protein, phosphorus, fiber, fat and ash content. The levels of protein (10.20 %), fat (5.3%), Ash (7.00 %), fiber (8.80%), sodium (25.75 mg/100g), potassium (542.13 mg/100g), calcium (486.25 mg/100g), copper (0.87 mg/100g), iron (17.99 mg/100g), magnesium (2.93 mg/100g), zinc (1.80 mg/100g) and phosphorus (209.90 mg/100g) detected in the saffron petals were compared with that of Iranian national standard for the animal food. As a conclusion, saffron petals can be used as an animal food. SAFRAN (CROCUS SATIVUS) YAPAKLARININ KİMYASAL BİLEŞİMİ VE HAYVAN YEMİ OLARAK DEĞERLENDİRİLMESİ Özet Bu çal›flmada, safran yapraklar›n›n bileflimi ve mineral içeri¤i standart analitik yöntemlerle belirlenmifltir. Safran yapra¤› numuneleri Torbateheydariyeh bölgesindeki safran çiftliklerinden sa¤lanm›fl ve yapraklar›n; metaller, protein, selüloz, ya¤ ve kül içeri¤i belirlenmifltir. Safran yapraklar›nda bulunan protein miktar› (%10.20), ya¤ (%5.3), kül (%7.00), selüloz (%8.80), sodyum (25.75 mg/100g), potasyum (542.13 mg/100g), kalsiyum (486.25 mg/100g), bak›r (0.87 mg/100g), demir (17.99 mg/100g), magnezyum (2.93 mg/100g), çinko (1.80 mg/100g) ve fosfor (209.90 mg/100g) ‹ran ulusal hayvan yemi standard› ile karfl›laflt›r›lm›flt›r. Sonuç olarak safran yapraklar›n›n hayvan yemi olarak kullan›labilece¤i görülmüfltür. Anahtar kelimeler: Safran yapra¤›, hayvan yemi, AAS
Anxiety disorders and schizophrenia are common public health issues. The dried stigma of the plant Crocus sativus L., (C. sativus) commonly known as saffron are used in folk medicine for various purposes. Several lines of evidence suggest that C. sativus, crocins and safranal are implicated in anxiety and schizophrenia. Here, I intend to critically review advances in research of these emerging molecules for the treatment of anxiety and schizophrenia, discuss their advantages over currently used anxiolytics and neuroleptics, as well remaining challenges. Current analysis shows that C. sativus and its components might be a promising class of compounds for the treatment of the above mentioned psychiatric diseases.
Background: Saffron (Crocus satious L.) provides a variety of promising preventive and therapeutic effects with non-considerable side effects.
Objective: Based on our knowledge, this is the first study that simultaneously has reviewed the effect of saffron extract and its constituents on the factors associated with neuropsychological, cardiovascular, and gastrointestinal tract diseases.
Methods: To search studies, an open-ended, language-restricted (English) search of MEDLINE (PubMed) and Science direct databases were conducted (up to 28 October 2014) using specific search criteria to identify all related studies. In addition the SID and Magiran databases were also searched for Persian articles.
Results: Results show that the saffron and its constituents can be beneficial for prevention and treatment of diseases related to memory and eye. However, studies about analgesic, anti-inflammatory and anti-seizure effects of saffron are few, the results are promising. The effects of saffron and its constituents on anxiety and insomnia have been only studied in animal models and the results are promising. Their antidepressants effects are also very evident. On the other hand, the effects of saffron and its active constituents in prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases have also been observed in previous studies. Although the studies about saffron effects on gastrointestinal diseases are few and only in animal models, they have shown potential benefits in prevention and treatment.
Conclusion: It seems that saffron and its constituents have preventive and therapeutic roles in neurologic, cardiovascular and gastrointestinal diseases. These functions are contributed to antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic properties of saffron.
Background and aims: Saffron is a spice with preventive and curative effects. This study aimed to review the toxicity of saffron extract and its constituents on normal and cancer cells.
Methods: We searched the PubMed, Science direct, SID and Magiran databases up to November 2015 using the following key words: toxicity, saffron, crocin, crocetin, safranal, cancer. Finally, 73 English and 5 Persian articles were selected to be recruited to be reviewed.
Results: Saffron has selective toxicity against cancer cells, through inhibition of RNA and DNA synthesis and increasing apoptosis. Crocin has been considered as the most important anticancer agent of saffron that plays a role in gene expression and apoptosis in cancer cells. Crocetin has an inhibitory effect on the cancer cells growth that may be due to reduced synthesis of DNA, RNA and protein in neoplastic cells, RNA polymerase II inhibition, and interaction with histone H1 and H1-DNA structures. Saffron and its crocin and crocetin have also shown anticancer and cancer-preventive effects in animal models of cancer. Safranal also has shown antitumor activity with low toxicity. On the other hand, the lethal dose of 50% (LD50) for the saffron and its constituents against normal cells can be very high.
Conclusion: In conclusion, emerging evidence suggests that saffron extract and its crocin, crocetin and safranal have a selective toxicity effects against cancer cells and also may have cancer preventive functions. However, Saffron and its constituent's toxicity against normal cells is negligible and they are even non-toxic in oral administration.
Optimum extraction conditions of anthocyanins from petals of saffron (Crocus sativus) using acidified ethanol as the solvent were revealed. The investigated factors were solvent to sample ratio (20:1–80:1), ethanol concentration (%), extraction temperature (25–45 °C), and time (8–24 h). Response surface methodology with Box–Behnken design was applied to determine optimum processing conditions leading to maximum extraction efficiency (mg cyanindin-3-glucoside/l). Obtained coefficients of variance showed that the linear effect of temperature was more pronounced for extraction yield than three other variables at 5 % level. Optimum extraction conditions that maximize the extracted anthocyanins were found to be a ratio of solvents to sample 20 ml/g, ethanol concentration of 25.02 %, temperature 25.8 °C, and extraction time 24 h which gave 1609.11 mg/l anthocyanins. A quadratic regression equation describing the effects of independent process variables on anthocyanin extraction from saffron petals can be used for finding optimum conditions to achieve desired extraction yield in similar conditions.
Recently, a great deal of interest has been developed to isolate and investigate novel bioactive components from natural resources with health beneficial effects. Saffron is the dried stigma of Crocus sativus L. and has been used for centuries in traditional medicine mainly for its healing properties, as well as for the treatment of various pathological conditions. Objectives of the present review are to unravel its therapeutic properties and investigate the potential applications of saffron in contemporary therapy of a wide spectrum of diseases and summarize previous and current evidence regarding the biological/pharmacological activities of saffron and its active ingredients and their possible therapeutic uses.
Recent phytochemistry and pharmacological experiments have indicated that crocin and safranal, the major active ingredients of saffron, exert important actions, such as antioxidant, anti-tumor, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory and anti-atherosclerotic. Unfortunately, the vast majority of those data derive from in vitro studies, whereas a limited number of in vivo experiments support the aforementioned effects. In addition to studies with mechanistic implications, very few clinical trials provide preliminary evidence of saffron potentiality to alleviate depression and increase cognitive function in patients with Alzheimer's disease.
The history and structural features of saffron constituents are given in the first part of the review, followed by a comprehensive and critical presentation of the published preclinical and clinical studies and review papers on the pharmacology and possible therapeutic uses of saffron and its main active components crocin and safranal.
© 2015 Royal Pharmaceutical Society.
Objectives:
Saffron is the stigma of Crocus sativus L., which has the potentials to play a role in the treatment of many diseases. Although many researches are now going on this precious spice, there are few data on saffron safety in human, especially in patients with chronic mental illnesses. This study aimed to evaluate the short-term safety and tolerability of both saffron and crocin (its major constituent) in adult patients with schizophrenia.
Materials and methods:
The capsules of saffron aqueous extract (SAE) and crocin were used to evaluate short-term safety and tolerability in patients with schizophrenia. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study was performed on patients with schizophrenia. The patients were all male and were divided into three 22-patient groups. While receiving their normal treatment, they also received a 12 week treatment with SAE (15 mg twice daily), crocin (15 mg twice daily) or placebo.
Results:
A total of 61 patients completed the trial; none of them reported a serious side effect. WBC count increased significantly in patients receiving saffron aqua extract (SAE), but it was within the normal range and had no clinical significance. Other hematologic components, markers of thyroid, liver and kidney or inflammation markers had no statistically significant difference among the groups.
Conclusion:
This study showed that SAE and crocin in doses of 15 mg twice daily were safely tolerated in patients with schizophrenia.
Saffron as the world's most expensive spice is very sensitive and loses its active compounds in exposure to environmental conditions. In this work, microencapsulation of saffron extract by various biopolymers was studied as an effective way to preserve its active compounds. Emulsions with a constant ratio of saffron extract/wall material of 1:20 and two levels of total solids (TS of 30 and 40%), were prepared using a homogenizer, and then spray dried. Powders were characterized in terms of powder yield, encapsulation efficiency, and retention of saffron active components, microstructure, and moisture content. Retention of picrocrocin, safranal and crocin after spray drying was analyzed by measuring absorbance at 257, 330 and 440 nm, respectively. It was observed that a mixture with 40% TS consisting of maltodextrin, gum Arabic and gelatin in the weight ratio of 0.94:0.05:0.01 retained the highest amount of picrocrocin, safranal and crocin, by retention values of 90.06, 80.37, and 91.03%, respectively. Both encapsulation efficiency and powder yield were positively influenced by total solids content, which could be related to the emulsion viscosity and droplet size. To conclude, a mixture of maltodextrin, gum Arabic and gelatin was efficient for saffron extract encapsulation by spray drying.
Cancer is one of the most feared diseases globally and there has been a sustained rise in its incidence in both developing and developed countries. Despite the growing therapeutic options for patients with cancer, their efficacy is time-limited and non-curative. Hence to overcome these drawbacks, an incessant screening for superior and safer drugs has been ongoing for numerous decades, resulting in the detection of anti-cancer properties of several phytochemicals. Chemoprevention using readily available natural substances from vegetables, fruits, herbs and spices is one of the significantly important approaches for cancer prevention in the present era. Among the spices, Crocus sativus L. (saffron; 番紅花 fān hóng huā) has generated interest because pharmacological experiments have established numerous beneficial properties including radical scavenging, anti-mutagenic and immuno-modulating effects. The more powerful components of saffron are crocin, crocetin and safranal. Studies in animal models and with cultured human malignant cell lines have demonstrated antitumor and cancer preventive activities of saffron and its main ingredients. This review provides a brief insight into the anticancer properties of saffron and its components.
This study aimed to investigate the effect of phenylhydrazine-induced hemolytic anemia on testicular functions and protective role of crocin in mice. Forty-nine adult male mice were studied in 7 groups. The control mice received normal saline, three groups were treated with 2, 4, and 6 mg/100 g of phenylhydrazine, and three other groups received 20 mg/100 g of crocin with phenylhydrazine for 35 days. Then, the blood samples were taken to examine oxidative stress of serum, sperm samples were obtained for IVF testing, and testicle tissue samples were taken for morphological studies. Morphometric results indicated a significant reduction in TDI (tubular differentiation index), RI (repopulation index or number of type B spermatogonia), and SI (spermiogenesis index) factors, number of Sertoli and Leydig cells, and diameter of germinal epithelium in the groups receiving phenylhydrazine. Histochemical results indicated some changes in the metabolic cycle of the testicle and results of serum tests showed variations in the peroxidation of lipids and antioxidant capacity of serum. Also, hemolytic anemia significantly reduced testicular parameters and crocin minimized the resulting injuries. It can be concluded that crocin is able to neutralize the complications which are resulting from the hemolytic anemia relating to testicular parameters.
Stigma of Crocus sativus L. (Iridaceae), commonly known as saffron, is the world's most expensive spice and apart from its traditional value as food additive recent studies indicate its potential as antidepressant. Because saffron is expensive, using it daily to address depression may not be practical. Moreover, recent study indicated antidepressant effect of petal of Crocus sativus. As petal of Crocus sativus is not expensive compared to stigma, there will be economical interests for further investigations by pharmaceutical industries. Our objective was to compare the efficacy of petal of Crocus sativus with stigma of Crocus sativus in the treatment of depressed outpatients in a 6-week pilot double-blind randomized trial. Forty four adult outpatients who met the DSM- IV criteria for major depression based on the structured clinical interview for DSM- IV participated in the trial. Patients have a baseline Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression score of at least 18. In this double-blind and randomized trial, patients were randomly assigned to receive capsule of petal of Crocus sativus 15 mg bid (morning and evening) (Group 1) and capsule of stigma of Crocus sativus 15 mg bid (morning and evening) (Group 2) for a 6-week study. At the end of trial, petal of Crocus sativus was found to be effective similar to stigma of Crocus sativus in the treatment of mild to moderate depression (d.f.=1, F= 0.05, P=0.81). In addition, in the both treatments, the remission rate was 18%.There were no significant differences in the two groups in terms of observed side effects. The present study is supportive of other studies which show antidepressant effect of petal and stigma of Crocus sativus.
Saffron is the most expensive spice in the world. It is made from the dried stigmas of the saffron flower (Crocus sativus L). This species is cultivated in environments with very different climatic conditions. In this study, saffron samples from different altitudes, Ghaen with altitude of 1400m (samples A) and Tabas with altitude of 700m (samples B), were collected from 3-and 6-year-old saffron plants repeatedly in the years 2007-2008. Then, three major metabolites (crocin, picrocrocin and safranal) were quantified in 3-and 6-year-old plants in both altitudes by high performance liquid chromatography. The results indicated that saffron samples A had higher concentration of these constituents in comparison to that of samples B. Also, comparative study of these metabolites between 3-and 6-year-old plants in each region revealed increased amounts of saffron components in 3-year-old plants in comparison to 6-year-old ones. Anatomical studies of leaves showed significant differences between two reigons characteristics including thickness of cuticle, width of epidermis outer cell wall, diameter of cortex and palisade cells, trichomes, and depth of crypts. Scanning results of leaves and stigmas by SEM also showed different characteristics in the two regions.
Conventional and newly emerging treatment procedures such as chemotherapy, catalytic therapy, photodynamic therapy and radiotherapy have not succeeded in reversing the outcome of cancer diseases to any drastic extent, which has led researchers to investigate alternative treatment options. The extensive repertoire of traditional medicinal knowledge systems from various parts of the world are being re-investigated for their healing properties Crocus sativus L., commonly known as saffron, is the raw material for one of the most expensive spice in the world, and it has been used in folk medicine for centuries. Chemical analysis has shown the presence of more than 150 components in saffron stigmas. The more powerful components of saffron are crocin, crocetin and safranal. Studies in animal models and with cultured human malignant cell lines have demonstrated antitumor and cancer preventive activities of saffron and its main ingredients, possible mechanisms for these activities are discussed. More direct evidence of anticancer effectiveness of saffron as chemo-preventive agent may come from trials that use actual reduction of cancer incidence as the primary endpoint. This review discusses recent literature data and our results on the cancer chemopreventive activities of saffron and its main ingredients.
Worldwide, lung cancer is the most common form of cancer. Saffron has been used in folk medicine for centuries. We investigated the potential of saffron to induce cytotoxic and apoptotic effects in lung cancer cells (A549). We also examined the caspase-dependent pathways activation of saffron-induced apoptosis against the A549 cells. A549 cells were incubated with different concentrations of saffron extract; then cell morphological changes, cell viability, and apoptosis were determined by the normal invertmicroscope, MTT assay, Annexin V and propidium iodide, and flow cytometric analysis, respectively. Activated caspases were detected by treatment of saffron in lung cancer cells using fluorescein-labeled inhibitors of polycaspases. The proliferation of the A549 cells were decreased after treatment with saffron in a dose- and time-dependent manner. The percentage of apoptotic cells increased with saffron concentrations. Saffron induced morphological changes, decreased percentage of viable cells, and induced apoptosis. Saffron could induce apoptosis in the A549 cells and activate caspase pathways. The levels of caspases involved in saffron-induced apoptosis in the A549 cells indicating caspase-dependent pathway were induced by saffron. The anticancer activity of the aqueous extract of saffron could be attributed partly to its inhibition of the cell proliferation and induction of apoptosis in cancer cells through caspase-dependent pathways activation.
In this study, we investigated the antiproliferative effects of saffron extract (SE) and its major constituent crocin on 5 different malignant and 2 nonmalignant prostate cancer cell lines. Using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), the purity and content of crocin were determined. All cells were incubated with different concentrations of SE or crocin for 48 h. Cell cycle and apoptosis were also evaluated. In a time- and concentration-dependent manner, both SE and crocin reduced cell proliferation in all malignant cell lines with IC50 values ranging between 0.4 and 4 mg/ml for SE and between 0.26 and 0.95 mM/ml for crocin. Nonmalignant cells were not affected. Flow cytometry profiles revealed that most cells were arrested at G0/G1 phase with a significant presence of apoptotic cells. Western blot analysis revealed that the expression of Bcl-2 was strikingly downregulated, whereas Bax was upregulated. Analysis of caspase activity indicated a caspase-dependent pathway with involvement of caspase-9 activation, suggesting an intrinsic pathway. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that both SE and crocin can inhibit cell proliferation, arrest cell cycle progression, inducing apoptosis in prostate cancer. Consequently, these agents could potentially be used as a chemopreventive as well as a chemotherapeutic agent for prostate cancer management.
AIM: To compare the effects of crocetin and crocin on myocardial injury in rats. METHODS: In vitro, the myocardial cells injured by low glucose and hypoxia were treated with serum from rats given crocetin (50 mg·kg -1)or crocin(150 mg·kg-1). The levels of LDH, CK, MDA and SOD in culture medium were measured and the cell activity was detected by MTT. In vivo, a rat myocardial ischemia model was set up using the coronary ligation technique. J point shift and T wave change in the electrocardiograph (ECG) in 6 hours after the treatment and area of myocardial infarction were assessed. The histopathological change of myocardium was observed by HE staining. The serum samples were collected to measure the levels of LDH and CK. RESULTS: In vitro, serum containing crocetin decreased the levels of LDH ,CK and MDA, increased the level of SOD and the activity of cardiac myocytes. However, serum containing crocin showed no significant protective effect. Compared to the model group, crocetin downshified the J point and T wave in the ECG evaluation, decreased the levels of serum LDH and CK and the area of the myocardial infarction. Crocetin reduced the histopathological changes caused by myocardial injury. CONCLUSION: ig crocetin can significantly protect the injured myocardial cell both in vivo and in vitro while ig crocin can not. So, it is suggested that crocetin by oral administration is suitable to cure myocardial ischemia in clinical practice, while crocin by oral administration is not.
The possible toxicological effects and in vitro antioxidant activity of the ethanolic extracts of Crocus sativus and Propolis were investigated. Both extracts did not cause any mortalities or signs of toxicity in mice when administered orally at doses up to 5g/kgb.wt. In the sub-chronic study; the tested extracts did not produce any significant change in liver and kidney functions of rats, following oral administration for 8 successive weeks at doses of 500mg/kgb.wt. of each. Propolis showed remarkable in vitro antioxidant activity at concentrations of (40–100mg/ml). In contrast, the ethanolic extract of C. sativus ethanolic extract showed weak antioxidant activity in concentrations of (1–10mg/ml) while at concentrations of (20–100mg/ml) failed to exhibit any antioxidant activity. It was concluded that: both extracts were non-toxic, as they did not cause any mortalities or signs of toxicity in mice when administered orally at doses up to 5g/kgb.wt. Daily oral administration of C. sativus, Propolis ethanolic extracts alone or in combination for 8 successive weeks to rats was quiet safe and didn’t cause any toxic changes in liver and kidney. Antioxidant study showed that Propolis ethanolic extract was a more potent antioxidant than C. sativus extract.
In the present research, saffron (Crocus sativus L.) was dried using three methods namely; traditional (25°C), modified Spanish (55°C) and microwave oven (300 watts). Changes in chemical indices of saffron according to ISO 3632 were studied during 6 months storage both in dark and exposed-light. The results indicated that the time of storage and drying method had significant effects (p<0.05) on chemical properties such as colouring strength, aroma and bitterness values. Samples dried in microwave oven had the highest colouring strength, aroma and bitterness values. Samples dried by a modified Spanish method had higher colouring strength than samples dried by a traditional method, but for aroma, traditional samples had significantly higher values. Regarding bitterness, samples dried by microwave oven and modified Spanish method were the same but traditional samples had significantly lower values than. The colouring strength of saffron decreased but aroma increased during storage and the bitterness did not follow an established pattern. It was also noticed that in samples exposed to artificial light (20 watts) the colouring strength was decreased while, bitterness values were unchanged and aroma values increased at first but remained almost intact after 6 months.
Moprhology and anatomy of Crocus speciosus Bieb. subsp. speciosus, C. speciosus Bieb. subsp. ilgazensis, C. speciosus subsp. xantholaimos were done. Two of them (subsp. ilgazensis and xantholaimos) are endemic to small areas of Turkey. The subsp. xantholaimos has flowers with tube stained yellow. The subsp. ilgazensis has a corm splitting into vertical fibres. Thes e properties are characteristic for the two subspecies investigated. Cross-sections of root and aerial stem of three subspecies were examined and characterized. A key to the identification of the three taxa, based solely on anatomical features is provided here.
Objective(s): This study was designed to evaluate the cardioprotective effect of Crocus sativus L. (saffron) aqueous extract and safranal, the major constituent of the essential oil of saffron, on lipid peroxidation, biochemical parameters and histopathological findings in isoproterenol (ISO)-induced myocardial infarction in Wistar rats.
Materials and Methods: The saffron extract (20, 40, 80 and 160 mg/kg/day IP) or control were administered for 9 days along with ISO (85 mg/kg, SC, at 24 hr interval) on 8th and 9th day in rats. Activities of creatine kinase-muscle, brain (CK-MB) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were measured using standard commercial kits. The level of malondialdehyde in heart tissue was estimated with thiobarbituric acid reactive species test. For histopathological examination, hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining was used.
Results: ISO administration induced a statistically significant increase (P< 0.001) in serum LDH and CK-MB and a significant increase (P< 0.001) in the levels of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARs) in the heart as compared to vehicle control rats. Saffron pretreatment (20, 40, 80 and 160 mg/kg IP) or safranal pretreatment (0.025, 0.050, 0.075 ml/kg IP) for 8 days, significantly decreased (P< 0.001) the serum LDH and CK-MB and myocardial lipid peroxidation as compared to ISO- induced rats. Histological findings of the heart sections confirmed myocardial injury with ISO administration and preserved nearly normal tissue architecture with saffron or safranal pretreatment.
Conclusion: Saffron and safranal may have cardioprotective effect in ISO-induced myocardial infarction through modulation of oxidative stress in such a way that they maintain the redox status of the cell.
Objective(s): Crocin is the chemical ingredient primarily responsible for the color of saffron. It has different pharmacological effects such as antioxidant, anticancer and memory improving activities. Crocin tablets were evaluated for short-term safety and tolerability in healthy adult volunteers.
Materials and Methods: The study was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled design consisting of one month treatment of crocin tablets. Volunteers who fulfilled inclusion and exclusion criteria were randomized into 2 groups of 22 each (males and females) and received 20 mg crocin tablets or placebo. General measures of health were recorded during the study such as hematological, biochemical, hormonal and urinary parameters in pre and post-treatment periods.
Results: No major adverse events were reported during the trial. Crocin tablets did not change the above parameters except that it decreased amylase, mixed white blood cells and PTT in healthy volunteers after one month.
Conclusion: This clinical safety evaluation showed a relatively safe and normal profile for crocin in healthy volunteers at the given doses within the trial period.
Different petal extracts of Crocus sativus "Cashmerianus" were examined for anti-inflammatory activity by in-vitro human red blood cell (HRBC) membrane stabilization method and in-vivo carrangeenan-induced rat paw edema. The petroleum ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate, methanol and aqueous extracts of petals showed 49.36%, 59.39%, 48.10%, 70.37% and 68.89% protection at the dose of 400mg/ml respectively by in-vitro method. However, in-vitro most promising effective chloroform, methanol and aqueous extracts were selected for in-vivo anti-inflammatory method. The in-vivo anti-inflammatory activity was found as 50%, 63.16% and 57.89% inhibition of paw volume after 5h of chloroform, methanol and aqueous extracts treated at the dose of 400mg/kg groups respectively. The potency of the petals extracts were compared with Diclofenac (10 mg/ml) for in-vitro and 10mg/kg for in-vivo model. The methanol and aqueous extract showed the most promising anti-inflammatory activity in membrane stabilizing action on human red blood cell membrane and reduction of edema in carrageenan induced rat paw edema model. The results of present and first time reporting this study on petals extracts of Crocus sativus "Cashmerianus" demonstrate that extracts of petals possess significant (p<0.05) anti-inflammatory potential.
The beneficial effect of saffron has been recognized since ancient times. Scientists have attributed its healthy benefits to its antioxidant properties; however, the nutrigenomics of saffron are poorly understood. Here, we have investigated the effect of aqueous extract of saffron (AES) on human vascular endothelial cells (HUVECs) under oxidative stress induced by free radical generators; 2,2-azobis (2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride (AAPH) and tert-butylhydroperoxide (TBHP). The biocompatibility, the protective effect on DNA damage, and the AES ability to neutralize reactive oxygen species (ROS) were evaluated. Furthermore, the modulation of cell signalling pathways by saffron was studied. The results showed that saffron not only acts as a direct antioxidant agent but as a modulator of micro-RNAs (mir-21 and mir142-3p) and RNAs profile (PTEN/AKT1) on HUVECs under stress conditions. Ultimately, the modulation of signalling pathways by saffron improves cell survival and provides a therapeutic approach in the prevention and treatment of oxidative stress mediated diseases.
Crocetin, the aglycone of crocin, is a carotenoid found in fruits of gardenia (Gardeina jasminoides Ellis) and saffron (Crocus sativus L.). We investigated the protective effects of crocetin against ultraviolet-A (UV-A)-induced skin damage and explored the underlying mechanism. Human skin-derived fibroblasts cells (NB1-RGB) were damaged by exposure to UV-A irradiation (10 J/cm2). Crocetin protected these cells against cell death and reduced the production of reactive oxygen species induced by UV-A irradiation. Crocetin treatment also suppressed induction of caspase-3 activation by UV-A irradiation. The effects of crocetin against oxidative stress were also examined by imaging of Keap1-dependent oxidative stress detector (OKD) mice. UV-A irradiation upregulated oxidative stress in the OKD mice skin, while crocetin administration (100 mg/kg, p.o.) ameliorated this oxidative stress. Crocetin administration also decreased lipid peroxidation in the skin. These findings suggest that crocetin its observed protective effects against UV-A induced skin damage by reducing reactive oxygen species production and cell apoptosis.
Doxorubicin (DOX)-induced cardiotoxicity is well-known as a serious complication of chemotherapy in patients with cancer. It is unknown whether crocin (CRO), main component of Crocus sativus L. (Saffron), could reduce the severity of DOX-induced cardiotoxicity. Therefore, this study was undertaken to assess the protective impact of CRO on DOX-induced cardiotoxicity in rats. The rats were divided into four groups: control, DOX (2 mg/kg/48 h, for 12 days), and CRO groups that receiving DOX as in group 2 and CRO (20 and 40 mg/kg/24 h, for 20 days) starting 4 days prior to first DOX injection and throughout the study. Echocardiographic, electrocardiographic and hemodynamic studies, along with histopathological examination and MTT test were carried out. Our findings demonstrate that DOX resulted in cardiotox icity manifested by decreased the left ventricular (LV) systolic and diastolic pressures, rate of rise/drop of LV pressure, ejection fraction, fractional shortening and contractility index, as compared to control group. In addition, histopathological analysis of heart confirmed adverse structural changes in myocardial cells following DOX administration. The results also showed that CRO treatment significantly improved DOX-induced heart damage, structural changes in the myocardium and ventricular function. In addition, CRO did not affect the in vitro antitumor activity of DOX. Taken together, our data confirm that CRO is protective against cardiovascular-related disorders produced by DOX, and clinical studiesare needed to examine these findings in human.
Saffron is cultivated for production of the saffron spice. Nevertheless, a huge amount of saffron by-products including corms, tepals and leaves with little or no commercial value are generated during the processing of the spice. This biomass contains bioactive compounds whose exploitation can increase the profitability and sustainability of this traditional crop. A significant amount of polyphenols, mainly glycosides of kaempferol, luteolin and quercetin, have been determined in tepals and leaves of saffron. Proliferation of Caco-2 cells was greatly inhibited by the tepal and leaf extracts (ED50 0.42 mg/ml), while the corm extract caused some signs of toxicity and completely abolished proliferation (ED50 0.05 mg/ml). To our knowledge, these are the first data reporting the inhibition of the proliferation of Caco-2 cells by extracts from tepals and leaves of saffron, and polyphenols could be responsible for this effect.
Crocus sativus L. is an herbaceous perennial-cormous plant which is believed to show many pharmacological actions. The plant contains important constituents like crocetin, picrocrocin, safranal (main component for characteristic aroma). Safranal is the aglycon of picrocrocin; those are responsible for many pharmacological actions. In ayurveda saffron is used to cure chronic diseases such as asthma, arthritis, skin diseases, spasmodic disorders, digestive disorders, digestive disorders, kidney disorders. Saffron is also useful in liver and spleen enlargement. Very few modern preclinical and clinical studies have been performed on the plant. In this review, we have made an attempt to compile some of its important and scientifically proven pharmacological activities.
In this research, encapsulation efficiency of cress seed gum (CSG) as a native hydrocolloid was compared with Arabic gum (AG) and maltodextrin (dextrose equivalent of 20 (M20), and 7 (M7)) for saffron (Crocus sativus) petal's extract by freeze drying method. Combinations of CSG-M20, AG-M20, and M7-M20 with ratios of 50:50 and M20 alone (100%) were used as wall materials. A mixture of 1:5 (based on dry matter) between core (concentrated anthocyanin extract of saffron petal) and wall materials were freeze dried and stability of encapsulated anthocyanins along with color parameters (a∗, b∗, L∗, C, H° and TCD) of final powders were measured during 10 weeks of storage (at 35 °C as an accelerated method). Total anthocyanins were determined through pH differential method every week. Four prepared formulations of encapsulated powders didn't show any significant differences (P > 0.01) in terms of total anthocyanin content measured immediately after production and after 10 weeks storage. AG-M20 mixture and M20 alone showed the highest and lowest TCD, respectively. The mixture of CSG-M20 in comparison with AG-M20 and M20 had the same protecting effect (P < 0.01) but showed a relatively high TCD (9.33).
Background: Crocus sativus L. (saffron) is used in folk medicine, for example as an antiedematogenic agent. We aimed to evaluate the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity of saffron extracts in mice.
In this study, nano-particles of saffron extract (<100 nm) were encapsulated by spray drying. For this objective, the primary saffron water extract-in-oil (W/O) micro-emulsion containing 10% (w/w) saffron extract was re-emulsified in order to prepare W/O/W multiple emulsions, with a dispersed mass fraction of 0.25, and stabilized using protein (whey protein concentrate (WPC))/polysaccharide (pectin). Also, the encapsulation efficiency of crocin, picrocrocin and saffranal as core materials and surface characteristics of spray dried powders were investigated. Our results revealed that W/O/W multiple emulsions stabilized by sequential adsorption of WPC/pectin was the most efficient technique resulting in the better encapsulated efficiency for crocin, picrocrocin and saffranal, low yellow color (b∗) surface and, smooth surface in final powders, mainly due to fabrication of stable wall materials obtained by sequential adsorption of WPC and pectin.
In this study, response surface methodology (RSM) was applied to optimize the extraction of picrocrocin, safranal, and crocin, three major ingredients of saffron. The process parameters included ethanol concentration (0–100 %), extraction time (2–7 h), and temperature (5–85 °C). The extracted compounds were measured spectrophotometrically at 257, 330, and 440 nm at which picrocrocin, safranal, and crocin had the maximum absorbance values, respectively. Four models including linear, linear squares, linear interactions, and full quadratic were fitted to the final data. As expected, the best model was the full quadratic with R
2 values of 83.91, 86.60, and 92.42 % for the picrocrocin, safranal, and crocin contents, respectively. Our results indicated that high temperatures, short times, and moderate concentrations of ethanol had the superlative impact on the extraction efficiencies of the compounds. According to the response surface analysis, ethanol concentration of 33.33 %, extraction time of 2.0 h, and temperature of 85.0 °C were found to be as the optimum conditions of the process under which the empirical amounts of E
1cm
% 1
λ
max were 1,190.47 ± 154.45, 474.02 ± 95.00, and 2,311.68 ± 57.37 for the picrocrocin, safranal, and crocin contents, respectively. While the theoretical values for the same responses were 1,237.27, 652.08, and 2,821.23.
Background: Saffron, a spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus, has now undergone several trials examining its antidepressant effects and, in a recent meta-analysis, was confirmed to be effective for the treatment of major depression.
Objective: To provide an expanded systematic analysis of the completed clinical studies on saffron and depression, detailing dosages, extract sources, standardisations, safety profile and treatment duration; and, through a narrative review, to examine its potential antidepressant mechanisms of action.
Design: In the systematic review of clinical trials, electronic databases were searched for high-quality, randomised, double-blind studies, with placebo or antidepressant controls. A narrative review of in vivo and in vitro studies was conducted to examine its potential antidepressant mechanisms of action.
Results: In the systematic review, six studies were identified. In the placebo-comparison trials, saffron had large treatment effects and, when compared with antidepressant medications, had similar antidepressant efficacy. Saffron's antidepressant effects potentially are due to its serotonergic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, neuro-endocrine and neuroprotective effects.
Conclusions: Research conducted so far provides initial support for the use of saffron for the treatment of mild-to-moderate depression. Further research is required to expand our understanding of the role and actions of saffron in major depression.
Crocetin is one of the major active constituents of saffron extract, and it is a carotenoid compound that prevents reactive oxygen species and has anti-inflammation and anti-apoptosis characteristics. This study aims to investigate whether crocetin repairs myocardial damage in vivo after ischemia reperfusion (I/R) and the mechanisms underlying its cardioprotective effects. Male wistar rats were randomly allocated into four groups: Sham, I/R, CRO. Crocetin (50mg/kg/day, i.g.) or sodium carboxymethylcellulose (CMC-Na) were intragastrically administered to Wistar rats for 7 d before operation. Myocardial ischemia reperfusion injury (MIRI) was induced by occluding the left anterior descending (LAD) coronary artery for 45min and subsequent reperfusion for 3h. The cardioprotective effects of crocetin were evaluated by biochemical values, histopathological observations and the antiapoptotic relative proteins and gene expressions. In the rat model, pretreatment with 50mg/kg crocetin reduced the cardiac injury, oxidative stress and inflammation compared with that of the non-treated rats, as shown by the decreased levels of infarct size, creatine kinase-MB (CK-MB), malondialdehyde (MDA), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) activity and the increased levels of total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD) and inflammation cytokines interleukin-10 (IL-10) activity. Crocetin activation also decreases the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining positive percentage and Bax expression, elevated Bcl-2 and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) expression and nitrite (NO) production, these indicating that crocetin can suppress the apoptosis damage. These results indicate that crocetin can provide protection against MIRI in rats by inhibiting ROS production, blocking inflammation, and reducing myocardium apoptosis.
Colorectal cancer is the third most common cancer in the Western hemisphere and the incidence increases with increasing age. Most colorectal cancers are localized with or without lymph node metastases. Up to 20% of patients present with metastatic disease, most commonly to the liver. Surgery is the only curative therapy for localized colorectal cancer and adjuvant chemotherapy is usually recommended for patients with lymph node metastases. Surgery, radiation therapy and chemotherapy are the key components of rectal cancer therapy. Selected patients with recurrent and metastatic disease can be salvaged with surgery but chemotherapy remains the mainstay of therapy for advanced colorectal cancer. Substantial progress has been observed in the treatment of metastatic colorectal cancer in recent years. Key words: Colorectal cancer, colon cancer, rectal cancer, screening, therapy, prognosis, surgery, radiation therapy. Correspondence: Thorvardur R. Halfdanarson, halfdanarson.thorvardur@mayo.edu.
In this work, anthocyanin stability and color of encapsulated freeze-dried saffron petal's extract with various matrices consisting gum Arabic (AG) and maltodextrin (M7 and M20) were studied. Total anthocyanins of powders and color parameters (a*, b*, L*, C, H° and TCD) were measured immediately after production and during storage up to 10 weeks by pH differential method and computer vision, respectively. Different compounds of wall materials did not show any significant differences in terms of stabilizing anthocyanins (P < 0.01) and no significant decrease in anthocyanin content of the powders was observed after storage. The efficiency order of wall materials considering total color differences (TCD) was AG > M20 > M7. By evaluating 3D surface and Cox trace plots it was revealed that wall formulas which had the lowest amount of AG and highest amounts of M20 and M7 showed the lowest total color differences after storage (P < 0.05). To conclude, microencapsulation by freeze drying could be recommended as a suitable method for stabilizing anthocyanins of saffron petal's extract.
Due to safety concerns and side effects of many antidepressant medications, herbal psychopharmacology research has increased, and herbal remedies are becoming increasingly popular as alternatives to prescribed medications for the treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD). Of these, accumulating trials reveal positive effects of the spice saffron (Crocus sativus L.) for the treatment of depression. A comprehensive and statistical review of the clinical trials examining the effects of saffron for treatment of MDD is warranted.
The purpose of this study was to conduct a meta-analysis of published randomized controlled trials examining the effects of saffron supplementation on symptoms of depression among participants with MDD.
We conducted electronic and non-electronic searches to identify all relevant randomized, double-blind controlled trials. Reference lists of all retrieved articles were searched for relevant studies.
The criteria for study selection included the following: (1) adults (aged 18 and older) with symptoms of depression, (2) randomized controlled trial, (3) effects of saffron supplementation on depressive symptoms examined, and (4) study had either a placebo control or antidepressant comparison group.
Using random effects modeling procedures, we calculated weighted mean effect sizes separately for the saffron supplementation vs placebo control groups, and for the saffron supplementation vs antidepressant groups. The methodological quality of all studies was assessed using the Jadad score. The computer software Comprehensive Meta-analysis 2 was used to analyze the data.
Based on our pre-specified criteria, five randomized controlled trials (n = 2 placebo controlled trials, n = 3 antidepressant controlled trials) were included in our review. A large effect size was found for saffron supplementation vs placebo control in treating depressive symptoms (M ES = 1.62, P < 0.001), revealing that saffron supplementation significantly reduced depression symptoms compared to the placebo control. A null effect size was evidenced between saffron supplementation and the antidepressant groups (M ES = -0.15) indicating that both treatments were similarly effective in reducing depression symptoms. The mean Jadad score was 5 indicating high quality of trials.
Findings from clinical trials conducted to date indicate that saffron supplementation can improve symptoms of depression in adults with MDD. Larger clinical trials, conducted by research teams outside of Iran, with long-term follow-ups are needed before firm conclusions can be made regarding saffron's efficacy and safety for treating depressive symptoms.
Corms, tepals and leaves of saffron are by-products generated during the processing of the stigmas of the flower (saffron spice). To increase the overall profitability of this crop, these by-products have been investigated as a potential source of antioxidant compounds. With this purpose, several in vitro antioxidant methods, such as the β-carotene/linoleate model system, reducing power, DPPH and nitric oxide radical scavenging, and iron and copper ion chelation have been assayed on corm, tepal and leaf extracts. Best antioxidant properties were observed for leaf extract, which totally inhibited the oxidation of β-carotene at 10 μg/mL and showed a DPPH scavenger activity up to 32 times higher than those reported for traditional sources of antioxidants like grapes and berries. Tepal extract showed an extensive inhibition of β-carotene oxidation, and significant scavenging NO radical and Cu2+-chelating activities. In contrast, corm extract was a poor antioxidant although showed a slight Cu2+-chelating activity. It can be concluded that tepals and especially leaves of saffron constitute an exploitable source of antioxidant and metal chelating compounds.
In the present research, a combined extraction method of ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) in conjunction with dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) was applied to isolation and enrichment of saffron volatiles. The extracted components of the saffron were separated and determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) technique. The mixture of methanol/acetonitrile was chosen for the extraction of the compounds and chloroform was used at the preconcentration stage. The important parameters, such as composition of extraction solvent, volume of preconcentration solvent, ultrasonic applying time, and salt concentration were optimised by using a half-fraction factorial central composite design (CCD). Under the optimal conditions, the linear dynamic ranges (LDRs) were 10-10,000mgL(-)(1). The determination coefficients (R(2)) were from 0.9990 to 0.9997. The limits of detection (LODs) and limits of quantification (LOQs) for the extracted compounds were 6-123mgL(-)(1) and 20-406mgL(-)(1), respectively. The relative standard deviations (RSDs) were 2.48-9.82% (n=3). The enhancement factors (EFs) were 3.6-41.3.
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the fifth most prevalent cancer and the third leading cause of cancer-related death, and its incidence is increasing. The majority of HCC cases are associated with chronic viral hepatitis. With over 170 million individuals chronically infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV) worldwide, HCV is currently a serious global health concern, leading to chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis and HCC, thereby causing significant morbidity and mortality. With the incidence of HCV infection increasing, the problem of HCV-associated HCC is expected to worsen as well, with the majority of HCCs developing in the setting of cirrhosis. Thus, it is imperative to provide antiviral therapy to infected individuals prior to the development of established cirrhosis in order to reduce the risk of subsequent HCC. Indeed, the successful eradication of HCV is associated with clinical and histological improvement as well as a greatly reduced risk of subsequent HCC development. Even after the development of cirrhosis, successful viral clearance is still associated with reduced HCC risk. Current standard of care antiviral treatment consists of pegylated interferon-α and ribavirin, but viral clearance rates are suboptimal with this regimen, especially in difficult to treat cohorts. However, there is a myriad of different classes of HCV-specific direct-acting antiviral agents currently in development, which can be used in combination with one another or with standard of care treatment to improve HCV cure rates. Preventative and therapeutic vaccines against HCV remain an area of ongoing research with good progress towards developing an effective vaccine in the future.
The aromatic composition of a saffron sample from Valle de Jiloca (Teruel, Spain) was evaluated for the first time by gas chromatography–olfactometry (GC–O). Volatiles released by 10g of saffron sample were collected in a trapping system consisting of LiChrolut EN resins and eluted with dichloromethane/methanol (95:5). GC–O revealed that the aroma emitted by this kind of saffron is due to at least twenty different aroma molecules. From an olfactometric point of view, the most important aroma compounds of this saffron sample were safranal (modified frequency value [MF] 93%), followed by 2,3-butanedione, hexanal, E-2-nonenal and an odorant with a characteristic aroma of burnt curry that could not be identified. All of them had MF values higher than 70%. An estimate was made of the levels of these aromatic molecules detected by GC–O. Safranal and isophorone, both volatiles with aromatic descriptors of “saffron” were quantified using a headspace microextraction (HS-SPME) method.
Human serum albumin (HSA) is a principal extracellular protein with a high concentration in blood plasma and carrier for many drugs to different molecular targets. Flavonoids are powerful antioxidants and prevent DNA damage. The antioxidative protections are related to their binding modes to DNA duplex and complexation with free radicals in vivo. However, flavonoids are known to inhibit the activities of several enzymes such as calcium phospholipid-dependent protein kinase, tyrosine protein kinase from rat lung, phosphorylase kinase, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and DNA topoisomerases that exhibit the importance of flavonoid-protein interaction. This study was designed to examine the interaction of human serum albumin (HSA) with quercetin (que), kaempferol (kae) and delphinidin (del) in aqueous solution at physiological conditions, using constant protein concentration of 0.25mM (final) and various drug contents of 1μM–1mM. FTIR and UV–vis spectroscopic methods were used to determine the polyphenolic binding mode, the binding constant and the effects of flavonoid complexation on protein secondary structure. The spectroscopic results showed that flavonoids are located along the polypeptide chains through H-bonding interactions with overall affinity constant of Kque=1.4×104M−1, Kkae=2.6×105M−1 and Kdel=4.71×105M−1. The protein secondary structure showed no alterations at low pigment concentration (1μM), whereas at high flavonoid content (1mM), major reduction of α-helix from 55% (free HSA) to 42–46% and increase of β-sheet from 15% (free HSA) to 17–19% and β-anti from 7% (free HSA) to 10–20% occurred in the flavonoid–HSA adducts. The major reduction of HSA α-helix is indicative of a partial protein unfolding upon flavonoid interaction.