Motivational Factors Influencing Teachers’ Job Performance in Pre-School Centres in Kenya

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Motivational Factors Influencing
Teachers Job Performance in Pre-School Centres in Kenya
1. Introduction
Teacher’s motivation has become an important issue given their responsibility to impart knowledge and skills to learners and this
should start with ECDE teachers because the sector is aimed at caring and nourishing all dimensions of life of young children to
enhance holistic development. The early years of zero to eight years are important in laying firm foundation for adulthood therefore it
is of great importance that all the stakeholders should treat this without any contempt. Teachers’ motivation is that drive that is exerted
on teachers to improve their professional tasks with enthusiasm (Wilson, 2013). Teaching is a noble task that requires keen attention.
Teachers help to shape the future of children because children are the future of the society and generations to come hence most nations
of the world have invested heavily on early childhood education to help them realize international education goals. However, teachers
being the engines that drive the nations towards the attainment of the goals feel neglected as they draw no satisfaction from their work.
Related research shows that teacher motivation may determine their productivity in the process of teaching and learning yet little
attention has been paid to their motivation as most focus is paid on the learners.
According to Storey (2009), it is widely recognized in the human resource literature that promotion of the motivation of workers in
both private at public sector leads to a high quality of human resources and optimum performance. Consensus is also growing among
scholars about the significance of combing good human resource performance approaches on motivation incentives to encourage good
performance. As an organization seeks to improve its workers performance severe challenges exist to achieve the overall objective of
the organization to extend adequate motivation incentives to its entire population.
ISSN 2278
–
0211 (Online)
Zablon Mike Owala
PG Student, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University of Science and Technology, Bondo, Kenya
Dr. Benson Odongo
Lecturer, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University of Science and Technology, Bondo, Kenya
Dr. Pamela Raburu
Lecturer, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University of Science and Technology, Bondo, Kenya
Abstract:
Pre-school teacher’s performance has become an important issue in the contemporary society given their responsibility of
imparting knowledge and skills to learners by moulding them towards realizing their potentials in life at formative years. This
calls for the need to create a favorable environment for teachers to perform their work. In order for public ECDE centers to
provide the necessary conditions for children’s holistic development, teachers should be motivated. Their employment is not
stable, resources are not adequate, the salaries are not sufficient and the leadership styles in the schools is not involving This ex
post facto design study framed from Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory aimed at establishing motivational factors influencing
job performance of preschool teachers in public ECDE centers in East Karachuonyo Division, Rachuonyo North sub –county.
The objectives of the study were to establish the influence of working conditions and socio-economic factors on job performance
of preschool teachers in public ECDE centers. The target population was 150 preschool teachers and 60 head teachers totalling
to 210 while a sample size was 97 preschool teachers and 39 head teachers achieved through stratified random sampling
technique. Quantitative data was collected using questionnaires while qualitative data was collected through interviews.
Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics while qualitative data was analyzed thematically and
presented through verbatim reporting. Two ECDE experts were used to examine the instruments for construct validity while
piloting was done for reliability. The study findings revealed that teachers had the potential to perform but they need to be
motivated for them to have increased output in public ECDE Centres. The study recommended that the county governments and
the communities should design means of motivating their teachers by improving their terms and conditions of service to enhance
their productivity.
Keywords: Working conditions, socio-economic, pre-school

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According to Sheldon (2013), relevance of job satisfaction and are very crucial to the long term growth of any educational system
around the world. They probably rank alongside professional knowledge and skills, centre competencies, educational resources and
strategies as the veritable determinants of educational success and performance. Professional knowledge, skills and centre
competencies can be seen when one is taking on and mastering challenging tasks directed at educational success and performance. In
addition, needs satisfaction and motivation to work is very essential in the life of teachers because they form the foundation for
working in life. While almost every teacher was works in order to satisfy his or her needs in life, he or she constantly agitates for need
satisfaction. Job performance in this context is the ability of the teaching job is to meet teachers needs and improves their job/teaching
performance (Spector, 2007).
There is a growing awareness that certain profession within Western societies, including teaching profession, and facing series of
crises (Preston, 2010). Many professionals in these fields are leaving their chosen profession, resulting in a drain of knowledge and
expertise from each particular field. Those who stay are increasingly dissolution with having to cope with changing work demands.
The teaching profession is also perceived to be increasingly less attractive to the younger population, offering few promotional
opportunities, challenging work conditions and poor professional prestige (Hammond, 2003).Whereas those entering the profession
are also likely to possess unrealistic expectations, resulting in their early exit from the profession further compounding the situation.
Early childhood centers should have qualified teachers who are well remunerated with incentives besides their pay such as tokens,
cash awards to motivate them, they should be provided with teaching learning resources to enable them carry out their craft because
good foundation laid in early years of the child has far reaching benefits not only to the individual child but also to the society as a
whole, in supporting the child holistic growth and development of quality education is core in enhancing good transitional rates to
greater competence in primary school life (Forbes, 2006).
Teacher’s job performance is a concern of everybody in the society. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2006) defines
performance as the act or process of carrying out something or execution of an action, a repetitive act, a fulfilment or implementation.
According to Hornby (2006) in this respect, teacher performance encompasses the teacher’s role of teaching pupils in and outside the
classroom. He stresses that the key aspects of teaching involve the use of instructional materials, teaching methods, making
professional documents, participating in co-curriculum activities and guiding the learners. Therefore, teacher job performance is the
teacher’s ability to integrate the experience, teaching methods, instructional materials, knowledge and skills in delivering subject
matter to the learners in and outside the classroom.
Report from Rachuonyo North District Office in 2011 indicates that East Karachuonyo Division has poor systems of operation in
provision of education to the young ones in public ECDE centers. This is so because the division in rural areas where most parents are
poor and they cannot afford good private centers that are endowed with resources and motivated staff among others. According to
Essa (2010) conditions need to be secured within the learners learning environment which in this case is the ECDE centre. Essa (2010)
stresses that the effectiveness of the teachers depends on the existing levels of motivation as they facilitate enabling and stimulating
environment in the foundation of young children to enhance long term development and learning, a shaky foundation subsequently
alters the child opportunity for holistic learning and growth.
The Kenyan ECDE objectives indicate that the education should be geared towards nurturing the child mental and physical prowess,
foster the child’s exploration skills, creativity, self expression and discovery, foster the spiritual and moral growth of the child and
develop the child aesthetic and artistic skills (ECDE Syllabus, 2008). It is upon the above objectives that the study sought establish the
factors that influence the motivational levels of the teachers as they strive to guide the children towards the achievement of the
objectives in East Karachuonyo Division, Rachuonyo North Sub County.
1.1. Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to establish motivational factors influencing job performance of preschool teachers in Public ECDE
centers in East Karachuonyo Division Rachuonyo North Sub-County.
1.2. Objectives
The study was guided by the following objectives.
a) To establish the influence of working conditions on job performance of preschool teachers in public ECDE centers
b) To find out the influence of socio economic factors on job performance preschool teachers in public ECDE centers.
1.3. Theoretical Framework
This study was guided by Abraham Maslow’s (1954) Theory of Hierarchy of Needs. This model considers different motivational
needs to be ordered in hierarchy. It suggests that before more sophisticated higher ordered needs can be met, certain primary needs
must be satisfied. The theory can be conceptualized as a pyramid in which the more basic needs are at the top. In order for a particular
need to be achieved and thereby guide a person’s behavior the more basic needs in the hierarchy must be met first. According to the
theory each one of us is motivated by needs. The most basic needs are inborn having evolved over a thousand of years. The theory
expands that only when the lower needs of physical and emotional well-being are satisfied are we concerned with the higher order
needs of influence and personal development (Maslow, 1954). Consequently, if things that satisfy lower order needs are swept away
we are no longer concerned about the maintenance of higher needs. In adopting humanistic theoretical belief as the framework, this
study assumed that early childhood teachers need to be given effective motivation in order to perform and enjoy their duties.
Conversely, if there is no motivation the performance will be dismal. With the knowledge that these teachers come from different

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familial social educational and pre-service training background; early childhood teachers have undergone a diverse range of
experiences before coming members of the teaching profession. Furthermore, their career paths within the teaching profession are not
identical. Factors such as years of teaching experiences, working environment professional colleagues and administrator, school
cultures among others contribute to early childhood teachers developing their own understandings regarding the realities of teaching.
Consequently, practicing early childhood teacher’s knowledge of what motivates them in the teaching profession and their careers
practice is varied but viable to their particular reality.
According to Maslow (1954) motivation is peoples’ belief about their capabilities to produce known levels of performance that
exercise influence over events that affect their lives. Maslow stress that the task of creating a learning environment that is conducive
leads to development of cognitive skills rests on the ability of the teacher. Teachers that has a high level of motivation in their schools
can in turn drive their pupils to enhance their academic potentials hence high achievement. In turn those who have low level of
motivation may not have the drive to get the pupils to achieve. For this study, in order to be able to provide physiological motivation
the public ECDE centers should promote work place motivation by offering adequate salaries that enable teachers to be able to meet
their basic needs. Safety needs can be provided through the creation of conducive environment, job security and a feeling that teachers
are safe from any threat. Esteem needs are provided through the recognition given to teacher’s hard work, listening to their views and
provision of status to make them feel valued and appreciated by colleagues. In order to enable the teachers to achieve the need of self-
actualization there should be challenging task, important work assignments which help to stimulate motivation (Boeree, 2006).
Maslow’s theory of need, therefore informs this study by first suggesting that satisfaction of needs is a driving factor to motivation.
Secondly it suggested that motivation is an important aspect of work performance, including that of teachers. Thirdly it provided
avenues that may be explored to enhance teacher’s motivation these among others that included good salaries, better working
conditions, good management styles and positive interpersonal relationships.
1.4. Empirical Review of Literature
This chapter involves the review of related literature revolving around influence of working conditions on job performance of
preschool teachers and influence of socio economic factors on job performance of preschool teachers.
1.5. Influence of Working Conditions on Performance of Early Childhood Teachers
A study conducted by Tayyab (2010) in India, Rawalpindi city adopted quantitative survey approach to examine the factors affecting
motivational level of teachers at secondary school level. The population of the study included the teachers of class X in the secondary
schools. A random sample of 10 schools was taken and 80 teachers were selected for the study. Data was collected using
questionnaire. The responses were analyzed and interpreted on percentage basis. The findings were that teachers were not satisfied
with their working, choice of profession, students behavior and examination stress. The research recommended that teacher should get
training, should be given due respect and should be paid according to their qualifications and abilities. While the reviewed study
adopted a quantitative approach there were no findings regarding the effect of the above factors with regard to teachers. At the same
time the study was conducted in a city and in secondary schools. Therefore, the current study employed a qualitative approach
conducted in a rural setting and in pre-primary schools filled the gap in literature and produce a Kenyan perspective.
A study by Kilgallon (2006) examined factors that influence early childhood classroom teachers’ sustainment in the profession and in
teaching in Perth, Western Australia. The study adopted qualitative research design with a population of 57 ECE qualified teachers.
Data was collected by in depth interviews and analyzed thematically. The findings were that, the ECE teachers were sustained through
maintenance of personal well-being and a life with balance, that is enjoyment of daily interactions with learners and the relationships
developed with work colleagues; positive attitudes towards learning, teaching and change were found to impact on sustainment as did
participants emotional intelligence and personal well-being. The findings were that teacher wisdom demonstrated through self-
awareness, realistic expectations and the ability to rationalize teaching practices to accommodate a range of needs, underlined their
maintaining personal well-being and life worth balance to be sustained in the profession and teaching in the classroom. The reviewed
study adopted a qualitative research design; the findings cannot be generalized in Kenya because the study was done in an urban set up
in a developed country. Therefore, the current study adopted a qualitative aspect to find out the situation in Kenya, a third world
country.
A study conducted by Faustino (2009) in Tanzania on whether there is a teacher motivation crisis in Tanzania. The study adopted a
triangulation of data approach. Sampling technique was purposive with a population of 10 government-funded primary schools in Dar-
es-Salaam. The head teachers and four randomly selected teachers were individually interviewed at each school. Qualitative data was
collected through document analysis and focus group discussions and analyzed through thematic framework. The findings of the study
were that there is a long list of things that need to be done to improve teacher job satisfaction and motivation in Tanzania. But, given
acute resource constraints, it was clear that some interventions, most notably pay increases and the introduction of non-trivial transport
and housing allowances. It further recommended that a national strategy that is comprehensive and coherent should be in place to
improve teacher job satisfaction and motivation over the next decade. Whereas the study adopted a qualitative approach, there were no
quantitative findings regarding the extent to which the factors influence the motivation of teachers. Therefore, the current study
adopted ex post facto approach with both qualitative and quantitative to fill the gap in literature and relate it to early childhood
teachers in Kenya.
Akyem (2010) undertook a study in Togo to assess teacher development in the country and adopted a descriptive survey approach.
Sampling was through random of 1000 teachers. Researchers conducted audio taped, face to face interviews consisting of 26 questions

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posed. The transcribed data were surfed independently into categories and analyzed via a cross-case matrix. The findings were that
productivity and efficiency of teachers are directly affected by how they work and their working situations. It further noted that
working conditions have modest effect on job satisfaction, that if one expects a job to bring fulfilment then working environment
should be conducive. Furthermore, high demands on job will create dissatisfaction if the returns do not commensurate with the duties.
The study recommended that there is need of academic enticement and professional growth of teachers. It further recommended that
no teacher should be appointed without professional training in education and that refresher and in-service courses should be arranged
for teachers at regular intervals for this updated the teachers in the content of the related subjects as well in the areas of teaching skill.
The reviewed study adopted qualitative approach, there were no quantitative findings regarding strategies of motivating teachers.
Therefore, the current study adopted a quantitative aspect to fill the literature gap.
A study to find out teachers’ competence to perform at ECDE level by Makoti (2008) in Kigumo Division, Muranga County adopted
descriptive survey with qualitative approach. Sampling technique was random with a study population of 300 teachers drawn from
public, church sponsored and private sector. Data was collected through questionnaire and analyzed thematically. The findings of the
study found out that good conditions and conditions of service of pre-school teachers is a source of motivation. It further established
that working near home and relationship with pupils and other teachers satisfy them. Additionally, the study identified community
recognition for good work, manageable work load and fringe benefits as motivators of pre-school teachers. The study recommended
that working conditions should be favourable to enhance teacher motivation. Therefore, there is need to motivate teachers in order to
enable children to realize their potentials. Effectiveness of the teachers on the other hand depends on existing levels of motivation.
While the reviewed study adopted a qualitative approach, there were no findings with a quantitative aspect on strategies of motivating
teachers in pre-schools. Additionally, the study cannot be generalized in Homa Bay County due to socio-economic diversity.
Therefore, the current study adopted a quantitative approach to fill the gap in literature.
Osewe (2011) investigated the factors that contribute to lack of satisfaction among pre-school teachers in Kisumu Municipality and
adopted qualitative approach. Sampling technique was simple random with a population of 30 schools and 150 teachers. Qualitative
data was collected by use of semi-structured interviews and analyzed thematically. The findings were that most pre-school teachers
are de-motivate by the fact that the school curriculum assumes that the teachers have access to learning materials when in reality such
materials are scarce. It further noted that basic amenities such as water and electricity are important for teacher job satisfaction and
motivation. The recommendations were that there is need to make learning environment warm and welcoming to both the teachers and
the pupils. With this in mind he recommended that there is need to have good resources at learning centre to motivate teachers to
deliver good results hence high transition rates. While the reviewed study adopted qualitative approach, there were no quantitative
findings regarding the strategies for putting in place motivating factors in such schools. Additionally, the findings cannot be
generalized to East Karachuonyo as this is more of a rural setting while the above study was conducted in an urban set-up. Therefore,
the current study adopted quantitative approach to fill the literature gap.
A study by Cheptoek (2007) investigated influence of working conditions on job performance among nonacademic staff at African
Nazarene University, Kenya. The study employed descriptive survey design with a sample of 280 workers as the key respondents. The
data was collected using interviews and analyzed using descriptive statistics. The study revealed that job performance of workers is
squarely determined by the existing working conditions that range from management, participation in university development
activities adequate supervision and feedback among others. The recommendation of the study was that for the university to achieve its
developments plans there is need to improve the working conditions of non-academic staff for they too are important in enhancing
service delivery. The reviewed study was not directly related to the teacher’s role of teaching (job performance) therefore, the current
study focused on preschool teacher’s motivation and it employed an ex post facto research design whereas data was collected using
questionnaires and interviews thereby filling knowledge gap.
A study conducted by Akumu (2013) on impact of classroom supervision on the quality of teaching and learning among primary
school teachers in Rangwe Division, Homa Bay Sub County. The study adopted a correlation research design with a sample of 180
teachers in public primary schools. Saturated sampling technique was used to find the sample while data was collected using
questionnaires and analyzed using descriptive statistics such as mean and linear regression. The major findings of the study were that
there was significant correlation between supervision and quality teaching. The recommendation of the study was that supervision by
Ministry of Education through the Department of Quality Assurance and Standards should be strengthened and circuit supervisors
should be engaged to prevent teachers from participating in secondary employment. This called for strengthening of sub county
inspectorate by adequately allocating funds to carry out routine inspections in schools. Regular visits to the schools would motivate
the teachers to be more regular and early in school and avoid divided attention of searching for secondary employment. The reviewed
study was conducted among the primary school teachers and it used a correlation design and analyzed using descriptive statistics. The
current study was the conducted in preschool centers with a sample of 97 teachers additionally it employed an ex post facto design and
data was analyzed using inferential statistics thereby adding literature to the existing body of knowledge.
1.6. Influence of Socio Economic Factors on Pre School Teachers Performance
Workers are viewed as assets and are advantage to an organization or institution. Efforts should to be focused at winning employee’s
commitment and promote their level of adaptability through communication, motivation and leadership because they are seen to be
proactive towards development. A study by Frase (2012) on staff motivation towards effective job satisfaction in Sweden adopted a
qualitative approach using ethnography to study 47 Swede early childhood teachers. The study used purposive sampling so as to
obtain the respondents. Data was analyzed thematically. The findings were that the teachers were driven to work depending on the

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amount of salary given. They argue that money provides the means to achieve a number of different ends. She observed that salary
was a strong force that kept teachers on their jobs hence it is likely to influence their performance. Additionally, the amount of salary
and increments received motivates the teachers when it is paid in time. The recommendation was that salary of the workers should be
paid promptly and that promotion of workers should be accompanied by a corresponding increase in the salary they earn. While the
above reviewed study adopted qualitative approach there were no findings regarding nature of employment results cannot be
generalized to Kenya a third world country. Therefore, the current study adopted an ex post facto with quantitative aspect to fill the
literature gap.
A study by Adams (2009) in Finland on incentives and levels of production among junior staff in Helsinki University adopted
experimental research with a sample size of 70 staff sampled purposively. Qualitative data was collected by focus group discussions
and scheduled interviews and analyzed thematically. The findings were that rewards such as sickness payment, contributory pension
schemes, free life insurance and subsidized meals contributed to their job satisfaction. On the other hand, the study re-affirms the
application of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory of motivation in increasing occupational development, fringe benefits that
motivated the workers strike a fair balance to ensure a strong and productive relationship on their input versus output. The findings of
the study were that the values of incentives differ from individuals that most effective incentive system for a country is based on a
careful study of what individuals in such country value. Additionally, there is need to have an effective system of attracting, retaining
and motivating highly qualified staff to raise efficiency in service delivery. The recommendations of the study were that incentives
should be put in place as this has strong influence on a person attachment to an organization. While the above reviewed study adopted
a qualitative approach there were no findings on whether there were some quantitative aspects that are attached to these fringe
benefits. Furthermore, it was done at the university. Therefore, the current study adopted an ex post facto with quantitative aspect to
fill the literature gap from early childhood centers.
A study by Kohn (2008) in Mali on motivation of health workers in Mali and match their performance with implementation of
performance management. The study adopted quantitative survey approach with 254 health workers sampled purposely from different
health facilities. The findings were that health workers in Mali are mainly motivation was in line with Mc Gregory theory Y which
places a burden on rewards of any kind in order is win the commitment of workers to meet organizational objectives. The findings in
relation to responsibility and recognition was in line with Hertzberg’s two factor theory which emphases on people’s feeling of being
recognized as well as having a sense of responsibility over their jobs in order to be motivating factors. The recommendations were that
for employees to perform there is need to be committed to the organizational objectives the location for this influenced their desire to
perform. Therefore, the current study adopted an ex post facto with qualitative aspect to find how socio economic factors influence
performance of teachers. Additionally, it was done in education sector not health sector to fill the literature gap. Consequently, the
study was based on Abraham Maslow theory of Hierarchy of Needs.
Cissokho (2010) in Mauritania studied pertinent issues in teacher’s management adopted a case study with qualitative approach.
Sampling technique was simple random with a population of 15 schools, 20 teachers and principals and 5 parents. Qualitative data was
collected by use of interviews and analyzed thematically. The findings were that teaching profession has suffered greatly from the
negative effects of economic constraints and adjustment policies which have had severe impact in the standards of living of teachers.
Consequently, it was noted that when teachers’ salaries fail to keep pace with the cost of living their morale suffers and one shifts to
better paying jobs thus pulling down the quality. The recommendation was that the knowledge base of the pre-school teachers is an
important factor for supporting and nurturing children early literacy skills. Therefore, teachers need to be equipped with relevant skills
in order to provide quality care and education for the holistic development of the child. In other words, the quality of education and its
provision depends significantly on the quality of motivation that the teachers receive hence there is need for stakeholders to invest in
teacher’s motivation to increase quality production and profitability of educational programs. Furthermore, it recommended that if a
teaching force is adequately paid and well-motivated they can do much to improve the quality of education against the odds. While the
reviewed study adopted a qualitative approach there were no quantitative findings regarding the degree of satisfaction that can be
drawn from what amount of money being paid additionally the study adopted a quantitative approach specifically to determine
influence of socio economic factors on job performance of early childhood teachers to fill the literature gap
A study by Sogomo (2013) investigated factors that contribute to low satisfaction of primary school teachers in Samburu. The study
adopted a descriptive survey approach. Sampling was through stratification with a population of 300 teachers’. Qualitative data was
collected using semi structured questionnaire and analyzed through descriptive statistics. The findings were that morale of teachers is
low in Samburu because they possess low status, lack promotion opportunities and are poorly paid and have to teach under
unsatisfactory conditions. Furthermore, it was evidenced that poor working environment and low remuneration have attracted few
qualified (trained) teachers in the area due to the fact that they move from one place to another in search of water and pasture. The
recommendations were that the government should consider having monetary incentives in terms of salary and allowances that will
make fresh graduates entering the teaching to have enthusiasm in their job at the same time it will encourage those already in teaching
profession to do their best and make teaching job competitive and attractive rather than alternative career option. Additionally, it
recommended that supervision of teachers and maintenance of quality assurance should be put in place in such areas to give feedback
to the teachers by providing them with information about their performance. Effective feedback will further encourage and motivate
employees to stay with the organization in relation to work commitment. While the above study adopted basically a quantitative
approach there were no qualitative aspects regarding their desire to continue teaching in such areas if conditions that de motivates
them still exist. Furthermore, it was done among the primary school teachers in hardship area hence the study cannot be generalized to
East Karachuonyo Division. Therefore, the current study was done in early childhood centre with some qualitative aspects employed

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to fill the literature gap.
A study by Wesangula (2013) on motivational factors influencing public secondary school teachers to join the teaching profession in
Busia District, Kenya. A descriptive survey design was adopted. A sample of 125 respondents was selected from a target population of
335 teachers. The study was based on a theoretical framework of Hertzberg (1959) stratified random sampling was used to select 15
schools. Simple random sampling was used to pick 110 teachers and purposive sampling of 15 head teachers from the selected
schools. A modified Likert scale questionnaire was used to collect data whereas data analysis was facilitated by use of Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The findings of the study were that teachers were most satisfied with work itself and least
satisfied with interpersonal relationships time for family, pay and promotion opportunities. On the other hand, teachers were most
influenced to join the teaching profession by good salary, flexible teaching programme and pressure from parents. The main
recommendation included need to allocate more funds to the Ministry of Education to employ more teachers, improve the methods of
promotion in the teaching service so that many teachers can advance and formulate policies for decreased work load for teachers
involved in student discipline and guiding and counseling reviewed. Whereas the reviewed study adopted a quantitative approach
there was no qualitative aspect regarding the reviewed study Additionally it was carried out in secondary school and it was based on
Hertzberg theory of motivation. Therefore, the current study adopted qualitative aspects and it was being carried out in early
childhood centre moreover it was based on Abrahams Maslow theory of Hierarchy to fill the literature gap.
2. Materials and Methods
The study adopted an ex post facto design because according to Orodho (2005) it measures the cause and effect relationship without
manipulating the independent variables. The target population was 150 preschool teachers in public ECDE centers and 60 head
teachers in East Karachuonyo Division Rachuonyo North Sub –County totaling to 210. This study employed stratified random
sampling technique in selecting the respondents. The sample size of the study was 150 ECDE teachers and 60 head teachers totalling
up) this will sum up to 136. The study used questionnaires that was administered to preschool teachers and interview schedule that
was conducted on head teachers. For this study validity was determined by content criterion where by the instrument was developed
under close guidance of the supervisors from Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University. Reliability of the instruments was determined
through split half test where half of the questions on the test was chosen randomly and the results compared with other half, if there is
a significant positive correlation between the two halves then the results was reliable. Data from questionnaires was analyzed using
inferential statistics. The study followed the principles of analysis according to Braun and Clarke (2006) and themes and coding as in
Raburu (2011) as a method of analyzing themes within data.
3. Results
The data used in this study was drawn from a population of 60 head teachers and 150 teachers in pre-schools in public ECDE centers
in East Karachuonyo Division Rachuonyo North Sub-County. From this population the sample of 210 respondents comprising of 150
ECDE teachers (n=150) and 60 ECDE head teachers (n=60). The return rate of the questionnaires used to collect quantitative data was
73(75%) from the pre-school teacher’s respondents. Given that the questionnaires were administered personally by the researcher; it
was noted that 90% of the questionnaires were appropriately filled.
3.1. How Working Conditions Influence Job Performance of Pre-School Teachers in Public ECDE Centers in East Karachuonyo
Division, Rachuonyo North Sub-County
The first research objective was to establish how working conditions influence job performance of pre-school teachers in public ECDE
centers in East Karachuonyo division, Rachuonyo North Sub-County. To explore this objective, research question; “How do working
conditions influence job performance of pre-school teachers in public ECDE centers in East Karachuonyo Division, Rachuonyo North
Sub-County?” was addressed. To investigate this relationship, two questionnaires were designed. The first one was a 10-items
questionnaire which was meant to seek respondents’ views on teacher’s job performance and the second, a 12-items questionnaire,
which sought views of teachers on working conditions among the ECDE teachers. They were all Likert-scaled type statements, in
which respondents choose from 5-point score; Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Undecided (U), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree
(D). The respondents were asked to score on each statement based on their perception of the statement in regards to working
conditions and job performance. The statements in the questionnaire were linked to the construct related to issues that had bearing on
job performance in view of their working conditions. The researcher computed percentage frequencies of the responses from the
respondents and was tabulated as shown in Table 1.

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Statement Strongly
disagree
Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly
disagree
I come very early to school 25.49 26.47 0.00 2.94 45.10
I make lesson plans 23.53 0.00 19.61 21.57 35.29
I have regular assessment of pupils and give feedback to Learners 28.43 0.00 0.00 45.10 26.47
I actively participate in co-curricular activities 0.00 26.47 0.00 0.00 73.53
I have regular parents meeting to monitor the progress of their
children
34.31 8.82 0.00 0.00 56.86
I supervise all school activities 0.00 0.00 0.00 26.47 73.53
I regularly attend to my lessons 0.00 22.55 0.00 50.98 26.47
I conduct remedial lessons to my learners 0.00 26.47 0.00 0.00 73.53
I efficiently maintain my pupils discipline 50.98 22.55 0.00 26.47 0.00
I regularly attend staff meetings 0.00 0.00 0.00 22.55 77.45
I have enough text books for my class 0.00 0.00 0.00 54.90 45.10
I have adequate play materials in my school 28.43 0.00 0.00 45.10 26.47
Table 1: Percentage response on working conditions
The study findings show that the ECDE teachers work in an environment that lack sufficient and relevant basic teaching and learning
materials. This renders their working conditions unfavorable. On whether the teacher had enough text books and learning resources for
their class disagreed: 54.90%; strongly agreed that they had sufficient relevant learning materials. It also emerged from the findings of
the study that not even enough play materials were at the disposal of the ECDE teachers in this region. Only slightly more than a
quarter (26.43%) of the respondents observed that they had adequate play materials in their schools, but the majority of the teachers
refuted the allegation with 45.10% of them disagreeing and another 26.47% strongly disagreeing with the researcher’s assertion that
that they had sufficient play materials for their learners. This, by implication, affected the teachers’ working conditions. Whereas only
26.73% of the teachers who took part in the study observed that they actively participate in co-curricular activities a bigger majority
confirmed that they hardly take part or involve their learners in co-curricular activities due to lack of the relevant play materials.
However, the results of the study show that despite these inadequacies the ECDE teacher does not lax in his/her work; they do so
much but still strive to accomplish them. Significant proportion (45.10%) of them was found to be punctual and timely to their duties,
50.98% said they efficiently maintain their pupils’ discipline and another 43.13% of the teachers added that they had regular parents
meeting to monitor the progress of their children. This revealed that the ECDE teacher has a lot work. These findings are in agreement
with Akyem (2010) who reported that there is need to make learning environment warm and welcoming to both the teachers and the
pupils for them to be motivated to work and enhance job performance.
On assessment of the pupils, 28.43% of the respondents strongly agreed that they regularly assess their learners and give them
feedback promptly. However, another significant teacher population was frank enough to accept that they hardly do that and majority
(56.86%) of them also revealed they rarely make regular lesson plans. Only 23.53% of the ECDE teachers interviewed strongly agreed
that they make regular lesson plans and the other 19.61% of them decided to remain non-committal on whether they made lesson plan
regularly or not. In fact, only about a fifth (22.55%) of the respondents confirmed by agreeing to the fact that they regularly attend to
their lessons. The others (77.45%) were honest and accepted that they were never regular in class attendance.
Contrary to believe that ECDE teachers do everything in school, the results of this study show that it is not true. Nearly three quarters
of the teachers who took part in the study confirmed that they do not supervise all school activities, only 26% of them agreed that they
do this. On the contentious issue of remedial lessons, the research findings show that 26.47% of the ECDE teachers accepted that they
conduct remedial lessons to their learners. This finding is in agreement with Osewe (2009) who noted that the curriculum assumes that
the teachers have access to learning materials when in reality such materials are scarce. It was surprising to discover from the results
of this study that ECDE teachers in this area of study do not attend staff meetings in their schools; 22.55% of the teachers disagreed
and the other 77.45% of the teachers strongly disagreed with belief that ECDE just like other teachers regularly attend staff meetings.
This is in contrary to Kilgalon (2006) who noted that the teacher wisdom is demonstrated through self-awareness, realistic
expectations and the ability to rationalize teaching practice to accommodate a range of needs and a life worth balance to be sustained
in the profession and teaching in the classroom.
3.2. Whether there was Statistical Significant Relationship between Working Conditions and Job Performance
To establish whether there was any significant relationship between work conditions and job performance of an ECDE teacher, the
research computed Pearson’s Product-Moment Coefficient of correlation between the scores of the two variables. The analysis
revealed very high significant (r =.875; p < 0.05) positive relationship between job performance and work conditions among the
ECDE teachers in schools in Karachuonyo Division, with high levels of job performance associated with favorable working conditions
(SSPS output is shown in Table 2 and 3). Hence it is acceptable to conclude that there were significant positive association between
the ECDE teachers’ work conditions and their level of job performance. The coefficient of determination R
2
= 76.56, implied that
working conditions help to explain about 77% of the variance in respondents’ scores on the job performance in the questionnaire of an
ECDE teachers in schools in Karachuonyo Division, Rachuonyo North Sub-County.

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Mean Std. Deviation N
Working Conditions 31.2497 12.62384 102
Job Performance 29.9839 4.53535 102
Table 2: Descriptive Statistics
Working Conditions Job Performance
Working
Conditions
Pearson Correlation 1 .875
**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 102 102
Job Performance
Pearson Correlation .875
**
1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 102 102
Table 3: Correlations
3.3. Qualitative Findings on Working Conditions and Job Performance of Pre-school Teachers
Working conditions refer to situations in and under which work is performed as regards the work environment and the time, place and
organization of work. Qualitative data from interviews schedule was sought to ascertain the extent to which working conditions
influenced job performance of pre-school teachers in the study area. The head teachers affirmed that working condition is key to the
performance of teachers. For instance, one head teacher reported that,
• If you are going to do a good job, then you really need to have a strong belief in the working environment. Teaching and
learning for young children require that one must get them do something they manipulate and yet in my school these
resources are not adequate. (HT6).
This implies that the respondents felt that teaching learning resources make them enjoy their work hence feel motivated. The findings
are in agreement with a study by Akyem (2010) in Togo whose study revealed that productivity and efficiency of teachers is directly
affected by how the teaching resources are availed to them hence high job performance.
The second respondent underscored the fact that;
• “ECDE teachers in my school are wholly integrated into the school working system I treat them just like teachers with the
dignity they deserve. Allocate them responsibilities alongside other teachers and this has built their reputation.” (HT10).
This means that the above respondent felt that involving pre-school teachers in supervision of school activities is an effective way of
making teachers to be motivated. This finding is in agreement with Makoti (2008) in Kigumo Division, Muranga sub-county that there
is need to involve the preschool teachers in the daily running of the school programmes. This enables them to have self-esteem in the
school. The findings will be relevant to the county governments in Kenya since they have the responsibility of recruiting teachers by
creating favourable working condition for teachers to enjoy their work. Working in a stimulating and collegial work-environment
further sustains professional motivation as stated by one respondent who reported that:
• Professional commitment is more about behavior, attitudes and efforts that one makes to achieve your job performance. So in
my school I encourage my pre-school teachers to have high level of commitment then put a lot of effort and have a big strong
positive attitude in terms of what they do. [HT I5]
This implies that job performance has been sustained through experience the pre-school teachers believe that their willingness to
transform the physical environment to conform to the changing circumstances that eventually contribute to motivation hence positive
job performance.
This finding is similar to Osewe (2011) in Kisumu Municipality whose study revealed that pre-school teachers are de motivated by the
fact that the teachers have access to stimulating physical environment. The study further recommended that there is need to make
learning environment warm and welcoming to both the teachers and the pupils. The findings will be relevant to the communities in
that they will strive to improve the physical conditions of the school to motivate the teachers to enjoy their job.
The flexibility and autonomy afforded by working in early childhood settings also motivated the participants to perform well in their
job. Participants valued being able to teach as according to their own beliefs and having flexibility in their planning and practice as
one participant reported that:
• They believe in the work they do and I believe they can make a valuable contribution… (…HT 23).
This implies that altruistic beliefs and self-efficacy associated with a conducive work environment motivates these early childhood
teacher’s commitments to teaching hence good job performance.
The finding is in agreement with Cheptoek (2007) in Kenya whose study revealed that job performance of workers is determined by
working conditions that range from management to adequate supervision and freedom to perform given tasks. The implication of this
finding is that head teachers should be sensitized to ensure that the preschool teachers working environment is conducive for them to
teach according to their beliefs and for them to draw excitement in their job performance.
Working in a conducive environment collaboratively has empowered teachers to use their knowledge, pedagogical approaches and
engage in a reflective dialogue to develop teaching strategies that enhance early childhood teachers practice and pupil learning as
reported by respondents that:
• ……teachers want to pass on what they have found out, what they know to the children for they enjoy doing it without
supervision ……. (HT 6).

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This implies that the respondent believed that a good teacher should not wait to be supervised for him or her to do her work well that
the role of supervision is to give insight and oversight.
The finding is in agreement with Akumu (2013) who found out that regular visits to schools by quality assurance and standard officers
motivate the teachers to be more regular and avoid divided attention in searching for secondary employment. This finding is relevant
to preschool teachers in that they will be determined to do their level best without supervision hence draw satisfaction in their job
performance
3.4. How Socio-Economic Factors Influence Job Performance of Pre-School Teachers in Public ECDE Centers in East Karachuonyo
Division, Rachuonyo North Sub-County.
The second research objective was to establish the effects of socio-economic factors in job satisfaction among pre-school teachers in
in public ECDE centers in East Karachuonyo division, Rachuonyo North Sub-County. To examine the effect of socio-economic
factors on the job performance among the ECDE teachers, the researcher developed eleven-itemed questionnaire. The items were
Likert-scaled item type statements, where the respondents choose from 5-point score; Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Undecided
(U), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (D). The respondents were expected to score on each statement based on their opinion on the
item in regard to job performance given the socio-economic factors. The statements in the questionnaire were linked to the construct
related to issues that had bearing on job performance of pre-school teachers in East Karachuonyo, Rachuonyo North Sub-County. The
percentage frequency was computed from the respondents’ responses and summarized as in Table 4
Strongly
disagree
Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly
disagree
I am paid a salary that is enough to cater for my basic needs 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 100.00
The school provides me with lesson preparation materials 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 100.00
I get free meals at school 0.00 0.00 0.00 100.00 0.00
Salary payments are prompt 0.00 0.00 0.00 28.43 71.57
I am give incentives at school 0.00 0.00 0.00 22.55 77.45
I get financial assistance when am in need 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 100.00
It possible to get advance payment from the school in case I
have a financial problem
0.00 50.98 0.00 22.55 26.47
The school organizes trips and tours for teachers 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 100.00
Teachers who perform well are given recognition in form of
awards
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 100.00
I am given leave absence in case i have a reason to justify 28.43 71.57 0.00 0.00 0.00
I am given free medical care in case I am ill 28.43 71.57 0.00 0.00 0.00
Table 4: Percentage response on socio-economic factors
Consistent to the generally held opinion that economic factor alone is not enough motivating factor or cause of job performance, the
findings of this study showed that socio-economic factors which includes both financial and non-financial aspect contributes
immensely to job performance among the pre-school teachers. The study revealed that some of social factors frequently used and
valued by employees consist of recognition and appreciation, leave and personal growth of employees. However, the economic
reward found includes merit salary and allowances pay, timely pay and financial assistance when am in need.
The findings from the analysis of the support staff responses revealed varied views as indicated in Table 4. It emerged from the study
that all pre-school teachers confirm that they were not given incentives at school, with 22.55% of the respondents disagreeing and
another 77.45 of them strongly disagreeing with the researcher’s assertion that they are given incentives at school. All the teacher
respondents also confirmed that even teachers who perform well are not given any recognition in form of awards. No trips are
organized by the school for the pre-school teachers as a form motivation; this was confirmed by all the teachers who participated in
this study. The findings are contrary to the findings of Adams (2009) that incentives should be put in place as this has a strong
influence on a person attachment to an organization.
On salary and remunerations, all the respondents were strongly disagreed that they were paid salary that is enough to cater for their
basic needs, they all added it was so little that even their basic needs were easy. Even the meagre salary the pre-school teacher is paid
are never prompt, as was confirmed by most of the teachers who interviewed in this study. Also, contrary to general believe that
because most pre-school learners are given meals in school so the teacher benefits, all the teachers who participated in this study
refuted that believe that they get free meals at school. The findings are in agreement with Cissokho (2010) that the teacher salaries
fail to keep pace with the cost of living hence the teacher’s morale suffers and one shifts to better paying jobs eroding the quality of
education.
The study findings show that the pre-school is not even given lesson preparation materials. In fact, all the respondents confirmed that
their schools do not provide them with lesson preparation materials and that was deemed to be the responsibility of the teacher to look
for relevant and sufficient materials to prepare their lessons. However, the findings of the study reveal that although all the teachers
agreed that they never get financial assistance from the schools they teach when they are in need, a significant proportion (50.98%) of

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the teachers interviewed agreed that it was possible to get advance payment from the school in case they had financial problem but
pegged on the availability of funds. The other proportion said they never get such privileges at all. It was discovered that most teaches
enjoy leave or sick off when needed; more than a quarter (28.43%) of the teachers strongly agreed and another 71.57% generally
agreed that they were given leave absence in case they had reasons to justify for the same. The study findings therefore are in
agreement with Khon (2009) who found out that peoples feeling of being recognized as well as being given time off duty when needs
arise is a motivating factor to teachers.
3.5. Whether There Was Statistical Significant Relationship between Socio-Economic Factors and Job Performance
To answer the research question of this objective, the researcher established whether there was any statistically significant relationship
between socio-economic factors and job performance among the pre-school teachers in the ECDE centres in East Karachuonyo
Division by computing the Pearson’s Product-Moment Coefficient of correlation between the two variables. The study established a
strong positive (r =.745) correlation between the two variables. The analysis indicated that there was significant (p< 0.05) positive
relationship between socio-economic factors and job performance among the pre-school teachers in the ECDE centres in East
Karachuonyo Division; better socio-economic conditions/factors would result in to high level of pre-school teacher job performance
and vice versa. The SSPS output shown in Table 5 and 6 indicate this. Given the plausible correlation, it was necessary to compute the
coefficient of determination. The R
2
= 55.50 found indicated that socio-economic factor alone assisted to explain more than half (56%)
of the variance in respondents’ scores on the job performance in the questionnaire of a pre-school teacher in ECDE centres in East
Karachuonyo Division. This was a very respectable effect of a single factor on job performance, assuming other factors constant.
Mean Std. Deviation N
Job Performance 29.9839 4.53535 102
Socio-Economic 27.7990 5.64550 102
Table 5: Descriptive Statistics
Job Performance Socio-Economic
Job Performance
Pearson Correlation 1 .745
**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 102 102
Socio-Economic
Pearson Correlation .745
**
1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 102 102
Table 6: Correlations
3.6. Qualitative Findings on the Influence of Socio Economic Factors on Pre-school Teachers Job Performance
Socio economic factors are the social and economic experiences and realities that help moulds one’s personality attitudes and
lifestyles. Individual income and corresponding occupation are factors that can contribute to socio economic status. A career like
teaching for example places a person in higher income bracket, while also making that same person part of a social class of peers. In a
contemporary society when getting to know someone the question of what we do for a living often is the first addressed. Qualitative
data from interview schedule sought to find out the extent to which to socio-economic factors influence pre-school teachers job
performance. Most of the respondents reported that salary for the teachers was inadequate to meet their needs in the current increase
cost of living. As a form of motivation, therefore salary was inadequate to enable teachers to perform their efficiently. This was further
revealed by all the head teachers who participated in the interviews. Indeed, emphasizing the inadequacy of the salary one head
teacher said that,
 ……most teachers are not satisfied with the amount of money they are paid in schools. It is indeed inadequate. The cost of
living has gone up and most teachers find it difficult to meet daily expenses like transport, house rent, food, medical care and
school fees for their children from the meager pay they get (HT 11)
The above finding reveals that salary has not been able to increase teachers’ morale to perform their professional duties. This study
finding is contrary to Fraise (2012) whose study emphasized the value of financial rewards when he said that money provides the
means to achieve a number of different ends. The observation was also reiterated by respondent (HT20) who reported that,
• ………In most schools, low pay has forced teachers to find the additional sources of income inform of petty trading and
other secondary sources of income. These secondary income activities have created divided attention and loyalty to teaching
and thus impacting negatively on the quality of teacher performance.
In agreement, Cissokho (2010) cited that when teacher’s salary fail to keep pace with the cost of living they undergo a reduction in
real income their morale suffers and the able ones shift to better paying jobs thus pulling down the quality of education. The
implication of the above findings will benefit the community to invest on the payment of teaching force for them to be well motivated,
hence they can achieve much for the quality of education even against great odds.
Qualitative data was sought to find our incentives that are available in the pre-school centers. One of the head teachers (HT 29)
reported that:

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• My teachers are provided with breakfast during break time as well as lunch when resources allow. Even when there is a
problem with one of the teachers the school or the staff usually comes in to assist
This means that respondent believed that besides the salary that are being paid some fringe benefits should come along with it to
motivate the teachers to work. The above finding is supported by Sogomo (2013) whose study revealed that monetary incentives in
terms of salary and allowances that will make fresh graduates entering the teaching profession to have enthusiasm in their job at the
same time make job competitive and attractive. The implication of this finding involves both the school administrators and the bigger
community to look beyond the salary to provide other incentives that will motivate the teachers to perform their job efficiently.
Enjoyment is part of job motivation and it goes beyond the intrinsic rewards as reported by one of the respondents that:
• …It is not only the pay that keeps them going. It becomes the love of the job. The love of the children always lifts their
spirits all the time’……. (HT 11)
• Developing self-reflection on what teachers do improve their approach of doing things…. (HT 22)
This implies that enjoyment of the company of children provides teachers not only with job performance but motivates teachers to
continue teaching in the classroom. Knowledge of child development, a strong moral background and reading of educational literature
allows teachers to reflect on what will benefit their pupils hence enrich learning programs. This finding is contrary to the finding of
Frase (2012) who argued that teachers are driven to work depending on the amount of salary given he argues that money provides the
means through which teachers achieve different ends.
4. Conclusion
Motivation in education is key as it seeks to bridge the gap that makes the teachers not to enjoy their work hence lack job
performance. Motivation is the force that determines how much effort an individual put into a given task. The engines of human
motivation are interests and desires. When these are working at full power in an individual, remarkable results can be achieved. The
following were conclusions of the study based on the research findings on respective objectives. Working condition have influence on
job performance of pre-school teachers in ECDE centers’. The way in which pre-school teachers implement their teaching programme
enhance their ability to cope with their demand of their work in a conducive atmosphere that motivates them to perform their job. The
availability and use of resources in the classroom are important and necessary to their sustainment in their profession. Socio-economic
factors are a strong force to job performance of pre-school teachers. It effectively motivates the teachers it can be inform of salaries,
allowances wages and other monetary rewards. Financial rewards have greater effects than non-financial rewards on the performance
of pre-school teachers in public ECDE centers.
5. Recommendations
From the study findings, the following recommendations were made:
i. The county Government should work out incentives packages to increase pre-school teachers’ motivation to teach in pre-schools
in public ECDE centers. Special attention should be put at raising teachers’ pay because it is a major concern about the
inadequacy of their pay to meet their needs, adequate payment will increase their morale to teach. This is because teachers must
be interested in what they teach and in the children when they are teaching. If they are not interested in the work themselves, they
can never motivate the class to learn.
ii. Ministry of Education should be given the mandate to manage all levels of education in Kenya. Teachers Service Commission
(TSC) should be given the mandate of employing the teachers at all levels. Some of the community required interventions may be
in the form of intensified community participation, since it is communities that shape the job context. In particular, communities
need to establish friendly relationships with ECDE teachers and to appreciate the services they give to their children.
6. References
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ii. Cissokho, M. (2010). Value Orientation, Needs Satisfaction and Job Performance in Mauritius Phd Desertation. Calabar:
University of Calabar.
iii. Essa, D. (2010). Organizing for Effective Early Childhood Programmes. Cambridge: Havard University Press.
iv. Faustin, K. (2009). Motivation Through the Design of Work in Tanzania Primary Schools Published Thesis Dar-Es-Salaam:
Dar-Es-Salaam University Press.
v. Frase, E. (2006). Effects of Teaching Rewards on Recognition and Job Enrichment. Journal of Education Vol 83, 53-57.
vi. Khon, N. (2008). Employee Motivation and Job Satisfaction in Mali Hospitals Published Thesis University of Bamako.
Bamako: Bamako University Press.
vii. Kilgalon, B. (2006). The Sustainment of Early Childhood Teachers in the Classroom. Published Phd Thesis. Perth: Edith
Crown University.
viii. Makoti, M. N. (2005). Terms and Condition of Service and their Relationship to Motivation of Pre School Teachers in
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ix. Maslow, A. (1954). A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychology Review Vol 50, 370-395.
x. Osewe, B. (2011). Pre-School Teacher Factors that Influence the Teacher Child Relationship in Kisumu Municipality.
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xi. Raburu, P. A. ( 2011). Women Academic Careers In Kenya; London: Lancaster.

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xii. Rachuonyo, N. (2012). State of Pre School Education in the District.
xiii. Sogomo, B. (2013). Challenges of Nairobi Primary School Unpublished Phd Thesis. Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press.
xiv. Tayaab, M.A. (2010). Job Satisfaction in Education Faculty. New York: John Willey and Sons.
xv. Wesangula, W. (2013). Motivational Factors Influencing Public Secondary School Teachers to Join the Profession in Busia
District Unpublished Phd Thesis. Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press.
xvi. Wilson, K. (2013). Individual Teacher Incentives and Student Performance, Journal Of Public Economics 91 901-914.
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