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The role of process information in narrations while learning with animations and static pictures
... Since several studies have shown adverse effects on learning due to a loss of focus on content or problems associated with processing it [10,11], most research has been performed from the perspective of variables associated with these issues. These variables include cognitive load [12,13], student attention [14,15], student attitude [16,17], student engagement [18,19], and lecturer relationship [20,21]. ...
... Even further, some studies on the effects of these characteristics have found inconsistent or unexpected results. The latter was the case for the two experiments performed by Stebner et al. [13], which studied the effects of adding animations to video lectures that rendered the video's narration redundant. In the first experiment, he found that the students presented an improvement in information retention when watching animations together with the video narration. ...
... The studies discussed above propose some explanations for their unexpected results. Some of them propose that the effect of the video's characteristics on the learning variables could be dependent on its content: whether the subject matter is theoretical or experimental [13] or whether its difficulty is high or low [13,39]. Another proposal is the existence of factors inherent to the students, which could influence their learning outcomes differently [37,39]. ...
The increasing importance of video lectures in diverse educational settings underscores the need for further research on designing universally accessible and effective learning experiences. While several design guidelines have been proposed, a consensus on optimal values for certain features remains elusive, possibly due to students' varying personal preferences. This study examines the effects of video lectures features-specifically the instructor's speech rate-on students' attitude and attention, with a focus on tailoring to individual preferences. An exploratory study was conducted with the participation of 54 undergraduate engineering students in a flipped classroom course analyzing their interaction with 17 video lectures. Initial findings showed no universal speech rate preference affecting students' attitude and attention. However, subsequent cluster analysis identified distinct preference groups, underscoring the necessity for customizable speech rates. The study further investigated whether students' speech rate preferences could be predicted based on their historical preferences, finding that such predetermination positively influenced only the learning variable used for preference selection, without broader applicability. The findings emphasize the need for adaptive video lecture features, promoting the use of educational technologies that support customization to enhance the alignment with student preferences. Further, the paper addresses the impact of video content type and topic complexity on the student preferences.
... Empirical studies into these three pictorial representation formats have mostly focused only on pairwise comparisons, such as between static graphics and animations (e.g. Lin & Atkinson, 2011;Stebner et al., 2017;Strømme & Mork, 2021) and between animations and simulations (e.g. Patwardhan & Murthy, 2015;Wang et al., 2011). ...
... Accordingly, such property of animations may give rise to the superiority over static graphics in studying protein synthesis, mechanical movements like the operation of a pump, the chemical processes of surfactants, and natural phenomena such as the processes of the rock cycle (e.g. Lin & Atkinson, 2011;Stebner et al., 2017;Strømme & Mork, 2021). Some empirical studies also indicated that animation could outperform static graphics in learning, for example, Höffler and Leutner (2007) found that multimedia-based learning materials with dynamic visualizations could be superior to static text-diagram materials in the learning of specific knowledge (e.g. ...
We investigated interaction effects of multimedia representation format and learner’s prior knowledge level on learning outcomes. Eighty-seven high school students with a lower or a higher level of physics prior knowledge learned about the operation of a nuclear power plant and the concepts of generating electricity by studying static graphics, an animation, or a simulation. Results indicated that the lower physics prior knowledge level students learned more from the animations than from the static graphics, and the simulation. However, learning outcomes of the higher physics prior knowledge level students did not differ between the three multimedia format conditions. The results suggest that the learner’s prior knowledge level should be considered when choosing an appropriate multimedia representation format, especially for students with low prior knowledge.
... Across the literature, it seemed that this definition is widely accepted as there are not many variations among recent scholars, although Clark [27] perceived it as a mere vehicle that conveys learning, while Kozma [71] argued that it is an integral part of learning. The benefits of IM are widely documented in the literature, including attention-grabbing [14], improved cognitive load [37], improved learner participation [87], and increased overall achievement [135]. However, these benefits tend to differ depending on the type of media. ...
... Despite this ambiguity, these classifications have provided insight and understanding of the various media formats along with their representations. Across the literature, emphasis is given to animation and static IM [11,59,107,108,135]. ...
Over the last few decades, computer programming has become an important
field of endeavor due to rapid development in the information sector. Despite
the importance of programming, there is a growing concern that it is relatively
difficult. In the process, researchers have started employing media tools to
reduce programming difficulties and motivate learners to approach programming
problems. One of the common tools widely used is program animation—
an instructional medium that incorporates animated characters. However,
little is known about the research trends in this field of study. This article,
therefore, employed a systematic mapping method to review this trend to find
patterns and gaps left in the literature. The study extracted 48 articles
published between 2000 and 2022 from four scientific databases (Web of
Science, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and ERIC) and three digital libraries (ACM
Digital Library, IEEE Xplore Digital Library, and Wiley Online Library). The
review discovered important trends. First, there is a paucity of research
evidence evaluating program animation in the context of secondary and
elementary levels; the majority of the extracted studies focused on participants
from tertiary institutions. A similar paucity of research evidence employing
mixed methods and qualitative approaches was also noted. Scratch programs
were used in recent research more often than other program animations.
There is also too little evaluation of psychomotor variables. Finally, there exist
inconsistent findings on the effect of program animation although plenty of
studies revealed positive results in favor of these media tools. The study
therefore recommends that future research should be conducted to fill these
identified gaps.
... For instance, the use of static pictures may be better for supporting learning when presented with text on paper than dynamic pictures narrated on a computer (Mayer, Hegarty, Mayer & Campbell, 2005). On the contrary, dynamic pictures may support narrative comprehension significantly better than static pictures (Stebner, Kühl, Höffler, Wirth & Ayres, 2017). However, Arguel and Jamet (2009) in their study showed that when both static and dynamic pictures are combined, students perform the best. ...
... Although both forms of pictures may help support students' comprehension (e.g. Mayer, Hegarty, Mayer & Campbell, 2005;Stebner, Kühl, Höffler, Wirth & Ayres, 2017), Arguel and Jamet (2009) in their study showed that when both static and dynamic pictures are combined, students performed the best. We found significant effects on the digital text group's listening comprehension, supporting Arguel and Jamet's (2009) findings. ...
The purpose of this study was to improve fourth grade students' listening comprehension with digital listening texts. An experimental research design was used to compare student outcomes with digital listening texts and outcomes for students who completed the same texts as traditional classroom activities. The digital listening texts included static and animated visuals compatible with the texts, which were digitally recorded. The experimental group (n=30) completed the digital texts in an individual learning environment in a classroom with computers. The control group (n=31) activities with traditional texts were completed in the students' classrooms under the supervision of one of the researchers. Students in the digital listening group attained statistically significant higher gain scores than those in the traditional treatment group. Recommendations are made about expanded use of digital listening texts, and further research into factors such as student motivation and availability of computers in classrooms.
... The revolution of technology allowed learners and innovators to collect massive supply of learning resources. Nevertheless, there is a difference between progressive technologies and the learners' comprehending of how they can benefit from these technologies, such as animation (Stebner et al., 2017;McElhaney et al., 2015;Chandler, 2004). Recently, animation has been included in the learning environment that depends on technology in developed countries (e.g., Arguel and Jamet, 2009). ...
... Consequently, this increases the productivity of the students and the chances of earning a good grade. These vital findings are aligned with the work of several researchers, such as Stebner et al. (2017); Chauhan and Jaiswal (2016); Lowe and Boucheix (2016); Luzon and Leton (2015); Tosuntas et al. (2015); Suki and Suki (2013). ...
This research aims to test the antecedents that influence behavior intention of animation usage among marketing students in universities depending on the extended unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT2) introduced by Venkatesh et al. (2012). Partial least square structural equation modeling approach was used to analyze information gathered from undergraduate marketing students in Jordanian universities. The results revealed that hedonic motivation, performance expectancy, students' innovativeness, learning value and effort expectancy were significant constructs influencing the behavior intention of animation usage. The research extended UTAUT2 in the field of animation usage by integrating the constructs of learning value and students’ innovativeness to the model. The research provides practitioners and teachers in the marketing field with advantageous methods in their learning process.
... However, some studies reported mixed results regarding the excellence of animation in learning [4,5,6,7]. It is necessary, therefore, to investigate more thoroughly in what situation the animation based multimedia learning provides best results [8]. ...
... The students have to select and organize incoming auditory/verbal and visual/pictorial information in working memory. Finally, they have to integrate existing knowledge to form the mental model [8] (see Figure 1). ...
As many as seventy-six undergraduate students in Indonesia were involved in this quasi-experimental study investigating the modality effects of animation-based multimedia learning in e-learning courses. They were divided into three experimental groups (narrated animation, on-screen text animation, animation only) and one control group (printed materials). All groups learned the same materials during four-week sessions. The findings showed that narrated animation achieved bigger effect compared to their counterparts. Detailed results are as follows. 1) Students in the narrated animation group obtained higher scores than those in the on-screen text animation group, (2) Students in the narrated animation group achieved higher scores than those in the animation only group, (3) Students in the narrated animation group gained higher scores than those in the printed materials group, (4) Students in the text animation group had higher scores than those in the printed materials group.
... The software returned a minimum total sample size of 102 for the two-group experiment by setting the effect size (f) at 0.5, the Type 1 error (α) at 0.05, and the power (1-β) at 0.8. According to some scholars, the more participants are involved in experiments, the more convincing the findings of the experiments will be (Stebner et al., 2017). However, considering the time constraints of the experimental online teaching (only 2 h), the researchers eventually recruited 120 participants (all of them were first-year e-learning college students majoring in telecommunications or computer science) for the experiment. ...
The present study explores the impact of different levels of competition involved in gamified learning on adult e-learners’ intrinsic motivation, learning engagement, and language learning performance. One hundred and twenty participants were evenly and randomly assigned to two groups. A gamified learning procedure with a higher level of competition was applied in the experimental group, while a similar gamified learning process which was less competitive was assigned to the reference group. A pretest, a posttest, and three questionnaires concerning the participants’ perceived competition, intrinsic motivation, and perceived learning engagement were employed as the instruments. The results showed that the higher-level competition exerted a more positive impact on the learners’ intrinsic motivation, learning engagement and language learning performance than the lower-level one. The results suggest that gamified learning involving appropriate competition levels could be considered for generating efficient learning outcomes.
... Cartoons can be used effectively in teaching because they do not only provide information, they also capture the students' attention and stimulate the active involvement of students in the learning process [20]. Animation makes the subject more visually appealing than text-based teaching materials, according to [21] but it has no discernible impact on understanding. Computer models permit students to link their microscopic explanations of chemical phenomena with their macroscopic observations and students can visualize microscopic processes in chemistry and they have better understanding of chemical knowledge [22]. ...
... Most participants perceived that although healthcare professionals have provided most content while receiving care at the primary care clinics, the animated videos provide a more profound understanding of knowledge/ information. Similar results were found by Stebner et al., indicating that people who learned from animations could better comprehend the content than those who learned from static pictures [29]. This educational advantage is consistent with another study that found that spoken animation enhanced patients with low literacy in recalling health information [27,30]. ...
Background
Animation has promise for teaching complex health content through smartphone applications. However, smartphones have had limited use in Thailand for health literacy improvement among adults with chronic diseases. This study aims to explore the perceptions of adults with diabetes and/or hypertension resulting from 2D short animated videos for literacy against chronic disease that are available via smartphones.
Methods
Four animated videos were initially developed based on clinical practice guidelines and nursing experience. Physicians, an expert in health education, and an animation team developed and revised scripts and storyboards of the animated videos. Lastly, videos were validated by physicians and health educators for content breadth and depth and by media experts for motion graphics and illustration. Each video presents a different situation in diabetes, hypertension, missing appointments, and obesity, ranging from 2.18 to 4.14 min in duration. The inclusion criteria were adults 35–70 years old with diabetes or hypertension who received care from primary care units. Thematic analysis was performed on the extracted data.
Results
Twenty participants with a mean age of 58.4 years (SD 6.7; ranged 41–68) were focus-group interviewed. Three animation elements were assessed, including presentation, impacts, and suggestions. Participants had positive responses regarding the presentation (suitability of images and smooth motion graphics, short length of videos, simple language, understandable content, and clear sound) and impacts (recalling information, enhancing engagement, and motivating health awareness and behavior change). Suggested improvements were for a bigger font size for subtitles and considering the use of spoken text instead of on-screen text for recommendations at the end of the animations.
Conclusions
Animated videos are acceptable for delivering health information. Pilot testing animated videos for promoting literacy against chronic diseases in adults with diabetes and hypertension is needed for optimal utility.
... The findings in this study indicate that CoPAM has advantages in constructing procedural and conceptual fraction knowledge (Andriah & Amir, 2021;Copur-Gencturk & Doleck, 2021). The selection of CoPAM as animated multimedia is proven to support the continuity of learning compared to media that only use images (Kühl, 2021;Stebner et al., 2017). In addition, the effectiveness of CoPAM is expected to prevent students from difficulties and even misconceptions about fractions (Baek et al., 2017;Nasution et al., 2018;Ratnasari, 2018). ...
Penelitian ini memiliki tujuan guna mengembangkan multimedia animasi Powtoon berbasis konstruktivis sebagai media belajar pada mata pelajaran matematika di kelas IV materi pecahan sederhana. Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah jenis penelitian pengembangan atau R&D (Research and Development) dengan model yang dipilih adalah 4-D (Define, Design, Development, dan Disseminate). Pada penelitian ini, menggunakan subjek penelitian siswa kelas IV di SDN Salen dengan jumlah siswa 12 orang. Analisis data yang digunakan berupa analisis deskriptif. Teknik pengumpulan data menggunakan observasi, tes (pretest dan posttest), angket validasi (validasi ahli media, validasi ahli materi, respon guru, dan respon siswa), dan dokumentasi. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa multimedia animasi powtoon dinyatakan sangat layak atau valid, dengan skor yang didapatkan dari ahli materi sebesar 95% dan ahli media sebesar 85%. Dalam penggunaannya, multimedia animasi powtoon mendapatkan respon yang sangat baik dari guru dan siswa dengan perolehan skor pada uji kepraktisan respon guru sebesar 93,75% yang dinyatakan sangat praktis. Hasil untuk respon siswa didapati skor sebesar 91% yang dapat dikatakan multimedia animasi powtoon menarik bagi siswa. Hal ini tentu berdampak pada pemahaman siswa dalam materi pecahan sederhana dengan nilai rata-rata pretest 83,3 dan posttest 90,5. Sehingga multimedia powtoon dapat membantu siswa dalam belajar matematika di sekolah dasar.
... Two-dimensional animations, characterized by their simplicity and accessibility, have evolved beyond mere entertainment and found a place in educational settings. There have been several studies in the literature reporting on the usage of animation, particularly in teaching and learning purpose [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17]. In addition, there are some products which are related to the proposed visual animation for acid and alkali. ...
This research paper explores the transformative potential of 2D animations in revitalizing science education by enhancing understanding and engagement among learners. A comprehensive literature review examines previous studies on educational animations, emphasizing the cognitive impacts of visual aids on learning. The article presents an evaluation of 2D Animation for Science Secondary School Learning: Acid and Alkali. The developed application was produced to assist science students to understand the contents of the topic Acid and Alkali. An experiment was carried out to assess the effectiveness of the application as a learning tool for science students. There was a total of 32 respondents, including subject matter experts, multimedia experts and students. The findings of the current study showcased the positive impact on student engagement and learning outcomes. The results may assist in advocating for a paradigm shift in science education. The research underscores the need for innovative approaches that leverage the power of 2D animations to inspire and educate learners, thereby contributing to the ongoing revitalization of science education.
... Este programa propone una nueva relación con el conocimiento (Stebner, et al. 2017). Por un lado, se propone reducir la carga económica de los materiales a las familias, sin embargo, no se les explica e implica en la búsqueda de prácticas alternativas a los libros de texto tradicionales. ...
Se analiza una actuación de la administración sobre cofinanciación de los libros de texto mediante la iniciativa XarxaLlibres de la Comunidad Valenciana. Es un estudio de caso sobre cómo los distintos agentes se apropian de esta iniciativa en tres centros. Utilizando metodología cualitativa se emplean técnicas etnográficas para captar de modo natural la realidad, como entrevistas individuales, grupales, análisis documental y el diario de investigación. Entre las conclusiones destaca la desestructuración del modo convencional de acceso al conocimiento, fomentando alternativas diversas. Al focalizar la atención sobre la cofinanciación se descuidan otros aspectos como la participación o la igualdad de oportunidades, principal rasgo ideológico del programa. En definitiva, lo material es importante, pero aún más lo cultural y epistemológico que es sobre lo que hay que seguir indagando.
... In addition to presenting a novel means of expression and innovation, animation possesses a practical advantage in that the movement attracts more attention than static images [1]. Several studies in the literature have reported on the use of animation, particularly for teaching and learning purposes [2][3][4][5]. Though there are educational materials for law subjects [6][7][8], these products are delivered in non-interactive videos and instructional manuals, wherein multimedia elements have not been fully utilised. ...
... Additionally, the dynamic visualizations in animations usually flow forward frame by frame quickly, and information is only displayed for a limited amount of time. The continuous flow of information may cause learners to miss important information before it vanishes from the screen (Stebner et al., 2017). They also must remember previous information in order to integrate it with new information in subsequent frames. ...
Animated videos are being increasingly incorporated into health professions education, but evidence is limited and mixed regarding their educational impact. We have been providing dental students with complimentary access to whiteboard animated videos on a web-based and mobile learning platform. This exploratory study evaluated first-year predoctoral dental students’ ( n = 143) adoption, perceived value, and impact of the videos as supplementary learning resources in basic sciences. Students were surveyed about their perceived value of the videos, while the host website platform analytics captured video watching patterns. Regression analyses examined the correlation between video watching and students’ exam performance. Results showed that the mean score of students’ perceived value of the videos was 3.2 on a 4-point scale. The class watched a total of 10, 919 videos throughout the academic year. The number of videos watched by individual students ranged from 0 to 627. Video watching was positively correlated with students’ exam performance in biochemistry and nutrition. These findings suggested that students had a favorable attitude towards the animated videos. They frequently used the videos to supplement their learning in basic sciences, but usage varied among individual students. Factors impacting the effectiveness of animated videos such as the complexity of cognitive processing, students’ personal differences, and video watching strategies were discussed and future directions were proposed. The study contributed to the literature of whiteboard animated videos in the understudied context of dental education. Experience from our school could help other institutions identify and implement animated videos to augment student learning.
... The literature suggests that the focus of published studies is different. On the one hand, some experimental studies compare video against text when acquiring conceptual knowledge [17]. Yet very little is known about the acquisition of procedural knowledge in a step-by-step manner. ...
Video tutorials are a popular means of learning software applications but their design and effectiveness have received little attention. This study investigated the effectiveness of video tutorials for software training. In addition, it examined whether two multimedia design principles, signaling and practice types, contribute to task performance, mental effort, and self-efficacy. The study participants were 114 undergraduate students from a nursing department. A two (no signals vs. signals) × two (video practice vs. video practice video) mixed factorial design was used for testing the main study hypotheses. The analysis revealed a unique contribution of signaling and practice types on task performance and self-efficacy. Contrary to expectations, however, no combined effect of signaling and practice types was found. This paper is concluded with a discussion of the findings and implications for future research.
... Based on our classification, this is an investigation of the redundancy effect. Other examples include Harskamp et al. (2007), Herrlinger et al. (2017), and Stebner et al. (2017), and even studies that investigate the seductive details effect (e.g., Lehmann and Seufert, 2017). A further limitation is that this review provides only a first impression of the methodological similarities and differences in this area, while other important aspects-for instance, individual differences among learners (e.g., intelligence, spatial ability), different post-tests formats (e.g., retention, transfer, cognitive load, motivation), virtual reality learning environments (Baceviciute et al., 2022)-were not considered. ...
Regarding the redundancy effect in multimedia learning environments, more consistency is needed in the theoretical assumptions and investigation of this effect. Current research lacks a comprehensive account of different redundant scenarios in which materials facilitate or inhibit learning and provides little conceptual guidance on how learning processes are affected by different types of redundancy. Theoretical assumptions refer to redundancy as a contentual overlap of information provided by the learning material; in this case, processing duplicated information strains the learners’ limited cognitive capacities. Other assumptions refer to the role of processing limitations in working memory channels, including separate processing for visual and verbal information. In this case, an ineffective combination of sources leads to an overload of the limited working memory capacity. This paper reviews empirical research on the redundancy effect (63 studies) and classifies two types of redundancy: (1) content redundancy, and (2) working memory channel redundancy. From an instructional psychology perspective, the analyses reveal four different implementations of redundant scenarios: (1) adding narration to visualizations, (2) adding written text to visualizations, (3) adding written text to narration, and (4) adding written text to narrated visualizations. Regarding the effects of the two redundancy types within these scenarios, analyses indicate positive effects of content redundancy (affected by learners’ prior knowledge), negative effects of working memory channel redundancy (regarding visualizations and written text), and positive effects of working memory channel redundancy (regarding narration and written text). Moreover, results point to factors that might moderate the effect of redundancy and illustrate interactions with existing multimedia effects. Overall, this review provides an overview of the state of empirical research and reveals that the consideration of both redundancy types provides further explanations in this field of research.
... Concurrently, self-reports are the most prevalent approach to cognitive load measurement in the field of education (Anmarkrud et al., 2019). Usually, learners rate cognitive load perceived during a previously completed unit of instruction on a Likert scale referring to a single (e.g., Park et al., 2015;Stebner et al., 2017;Yung & Paas, 2015) or two subsequent items, often differentiating between mental effort and perceived difficulty (e.g., Eitel et al., 2014;Korbach et al., 2017;Lee & Mayer, 2015). ...
Background:
New methods are constantly being developed to adapt cognitive load measurement to different contexts. However, research on middle childhood students' cognitive load measurement is rare. Research indicates that the three cognitive load dimensions (intrinsic, extraneous, and germane) can be measured well in adults and teenagers using differentiated subjective rating instruments. Moreover, digital ink recorded by smartpens could serve as an indicator for cognitive load in adults.
Aims:
With the present research, we aimed at investigating the relation between subjective cognitive load ratings, velocity and pressure measures recorded with a smartpen, and performance in standardized sketching tasks in middle childhood students.
Sample:
Thirty-six children (age 7-12) participated at the university's laboratory.
Methods:
The children performed two standardized sketching tasks, each in two versions. The induced intrinsic cognitive load or the extraneous cognitive load was varied between the versions. Digital ink was recorded while the children drew with a smartpen on real paper and after each task, they were asked to report their perceived intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load using a newly developed 5-item scale.
Results:
Results indicated that cognitive load ratings as well as velocity and pressure measures were substantially related to the induced cognitive load and to performance in both sketching tasks. However, cognitive load ratings and smartpen measures were not substantially related.
Conclusions:
Both subjective rating and digital ink hold potential for cognitive load and performance measurement. However, it is questionable whether they measure the exact same constructs.
... Refs. [86,87]) and trying to avoid searching for small effects that are of little practical significance, a power analysis was conducted with G*Power ( [88]) using an effect size of η p 2 = 0.06, a test power of 1β = 0.80, and an error probability of α = 0.05. This test revealed a minimum number of participants of N = 128. ...
Although whiteboard animations are increasingly used for educational purposes, there is little empirical evidence as to why such animations can enhance learning. To specify essential elements, their dynamic visual presentation, as well as their narrative embedding, were found to be theortically important. In a first Experiment (N = 133) with a 2 (presentation mode: static pictures vs. progressive drawing) x 2 (narrative context: with vs. without a narrative) between-subject factorial design, motivational, cognitive, affective variables, as well as learning outcomes, of secondary school students were measured. Results revealed that progressive drawing, as well as a narrative context, are mostly associated with an increase in learning-relevant variables. In a second experiment with the same sample and the same experimental design but a different whiteboard animation, results from Experiment 1 generalize to another learning content. Again, a progressive drawing, as well as a narrative context within whiteboard animation, fostered learning relevant variables as well as learning outcomes. Results are discussed considering the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, the contiguity effect as well as the instructional design theory of anchored instruction.
... There have been several studies in the literature reporting on the usage of animation, particularly in teaching and learning purpose [1][2][3]. In addition, there are some products which are related to the proposed visual animation for verbal apraxia of speech. ...
This article presents an evaluation of 2D Animation of Learning Numbers and Letters for Children with Verbal Apraxia. The developed application provides some knowledge and encourage children with verbal apraxia to learn and know about numbers and letters. An experimental testing was conducted to evaluate the usability of the developed application, aimed as a therapy for the children who suffer this apraxia across all age. Five important evaluation components such as learnability, usability, accessibility, functionality, and effectiveness were included in this testing to investigate the user engagement and satisfaction of the proposed medical and educational learning system. Online questionnaires were distributed as a method to collect user testing outputs. A total of 33 respondents from multimedia designers, practitioners, psychologists, and parents were involved in this survey. The results of the testing indicate that majority of respondents are satisfied with the outcomes of the 2D animation video. The results presented may facilitate improvements in the teaching syllabus for students with speech and language disorder and produce a great visual animation treatment to the users. © 2022. International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications. All Rights Reserved.
... In the same vein, the picture superiority effect claims that pictures are better remembered than the corresponding words when it comes to recalling and recognising information, because they are mentally represented in both linguistic and perceptual codes. Thus, people can generate more than one code for pictures which enhances memorability (Curran & Doyle, 2011;Nelson et al., 1976;Stebner et al., 2017). ...
Individuals with intellectual disability may have limited narrative skills. The novelty of this study lies in the examination of strengths and weaknesses which may enable a more facilitative approach to narrative and other storytelling‐based methodologies among adults with intellectual disability who study in an academic enrichment program in comparison to typical students with the same chronological age. Seventeen adult students with intellectual disability and 16 typically developing students, produced narratives which were examined for microstructure (e.g., length, lexis, grammaticality, and complexity) macrostructure (e.g., goals, attempts, and outcomes) and Internal state terms (ISTs). The findings indicate that in spite of weakness of adults with intellectual disability in terms of coherence, syntactic complexity, and grammatical sentences, they exhibit strengths in narrative macrostructure story scheme and use IST. With increasing age, narratives performance of adults with intellectual disability continues to advance possibly due to maturity, life experience and indirect exposure to the environment.
... This study concluded that animation-enriched teaching materials did not significantly affect learning positively, and furthermore was found to support learning only moderately. In their study, Stebner, et al. (2017) reported that animation visualizes the subject more prominently compared to text-based teaching material, but it does not exert a significant effect on learning. Adesope and Nesbit (2013) compared the effect of animation-based concept maps with paper-based concept maps on learning and found no significant difference between the two learning materials. ...
This study examines the effect of using animation-based worked examples (ARAWEs) that are prepared using Augmented Reality (AR) technology instead of using traditional paper-based worked examples (TWEs) on the achievement, motivation, and attitude of high school students during their programming education. The research was designed through the "Nonequivalent Control Group Model", one of the quasi-experimental models. The participants consisted of second year students (N=94) who were taking the "Basics of Programming" course in the Department of Information Technologies a vocational and technical Anatolian high school in Turkey. An achievement test was applied to the participants as pre-test and final test. Motivation of the students was measured by means of the "Instructional Materials Motivation Survey" developed by Kutu and Sözbilir (2011), and participant attitudes towards using AR was measured by means of the "AR Attitude Scale" developed by Küçük, Yılmaz, Baydaş and Göktaş (2014). According to the results, both the achievement and motivation levels of the students studying on ARAWEs increased significantly compared to those studying on TWEs. There was a high level of correlation between the final test scores and the attitude levels of the students studying on ARAWEs. Considering that instructional materials containing animation-based worked examples prepared using AR technology increase students' interest and motivation in the subject, their use in lessons that include teaching problem solving skills, such as mathematics, physics, and chemistry, can be implemented in future studies.
... With the meta-analytic review by Höffler (2010), there were also studies that explicitly investigated the interaction between spatial ability and static compared to dynamic visualizations, but observed no interaction (Kühl et al., 2011b;Brucker et al., 2014;Chen et al., 2015;Imhof et al., 2011;Imhof et al., 2012;Wang & Tseng, 2020). It should also be noted that in several studies, it was not reported (since it was not in the focus of the research questions) whether an interaction between spatial abilities and type of visualization was observable (e.g., Kühl et al., 2011a;Kühl et al., 2012;Kühl et al., 2018a;Kühl & Münzer, 2019;Castro-Alonso et al., 2014;Castro-Alonso et al., 2018;Garland & Sanchez, 2013;Paik & Schraw, 2013;Stebner et al., 2017). ...
Spatial abilities have been found to interact with the design of visualizations in educational materials in different forms: (1) spatial abilities enhanced learning with optimized visual design (ability-as-enhancer) or (2) spatial abilities compensated for suboptimal visual design (ability-as-compensator). A brief review of pertinent studies suggests that these two forms are viewed as mutually exclusive. We propose a novel unifying conceptualization. This conceptualization suggests that the ability-as enhancer interaction will be found in the low-medium range of a broad ability continuum whereas the ability-as-compensator interaction will be found in the medium-high range. The largest difference in learning outcomes between visual design variations is expected for medium ability. A corresponding analytical approach is suggested that includes nonlinear quadratic interactions. The unifying conceptual-ization was confirmed in an experiment with a consistent visual-spatial task. In addition , the conceptualization was investigated with a reanalysis of pooled data from four multimedia learning experiments. Consistent with the conceptualization, quad-ratic interactions were found, meaning that interactions depended on ability range. The largest difference between visual design variations was obtained for medium ability, as expected. It is concluded that the unifying conceptualization is a useful theoretical and methodological approach to analyze and interpret aptitude-treatment interactions that go beyond linear interactions.
... The results showed that visualization is necessary for deep information understanding. Moreover, the experiment showed the superiority of animated material over static images (Stebner et al., 2017). ...
Purpose of the article is to analyze the influence of electronic visualization tools on the growth of students’ cognitive activity. En el estudio participaron were 108 students aged from 17 to 21. Students were asked to participate in a survey that allowed them to identify popular electronic resources that provide visualization in education. The survey was conducted with C. D. Spielberger method to study the level of cognitive activity before the use of electronic visualization tools and in the process of their use. The study showed that the use of electronic visualization tools helps to increase attention, students’ cognitive activity and reduces fatigue. Modern electronic visualization tools contribute to the students’ emotional memory development and form professional competencies.
... More recently, researchers have started to investigate the advantages of employing animations relative to other persuasive multimedia message strategies (Stebner et al., 2017;Moreno, 2007). For example, there are some indications that animations evoke positive emotions in viewers, and these emotions are associated with attitude change (Meppelink et al., 2015;Occa, 2018). ...
We propose cognitive absorption as a mental state that influences the processing of multimedia messages such as animations. An experiment was designed to assess (1) whether cognitive absorption is experienced when individuals view whiteboard animations; (2) the relationship between cognitive absorption and message elaboration; (3) the relationship between cognitive absorption and outcomes such as perceived argument strength, knowledge, and attitudes related to key concepts relevant to clinical trial participation. The study involved 927 cancer patients and survivors who were exposed to either whiteboard animations or brochures. Several interesting findings emerged. First, individuals experienced greater cognitive absorption while viewing the animations than when reading brochures. Second, cognitive absorption was associated with a systematic elaboration of the information provided by the animations. Third, cognitive absorption mediated the effect the animations had on individuals’ perceived argument strength and attitudes, but not knowledge. Theoretical explanations for the educational and persuasive effects of animations are provided.
... Innovative learning media contains elements of entertainment and does not only contain subject matter to increase students' motivation or interest in learning (Purnomo & Akhlis, 2012;Subali & Handayani, 2012;Williamson et al., 2019). Audio, video, e-text, slides, hypermedia, and others are forms of learning media that are widely used in the teaching and learning process (Mayer et al., 2005;Mcnamara & Shapiro, 2015;Park et al., 2015;Shang, 2017;Stebner et al., 2017;Ge, 2019). Learning media that uses video, images, and audio require smart media tools to record so that students can learn without having to experience directly what they have to learn (Ferawati & Rusilowati, 2012;Leinonen et al., 2016;Vartiainen et al., 2019). ...
p class="JIPIAbstractBodyEnglish">Perception is a person's assessment of the object or information. The purpose of this study was to determine how students perceive and see which students have a positive perception of the e-module physics-mathematics matrix based on gender differences. The type of research used is survey research. The research approach used is quantitative research. The research population is Jambi University physics education students with a total sample of 120 students. The data analysis technique used is descriptive statistical data analysis and inferential data analysis with Anova and post hoc Tukey B tests. The results of the study through the Anova test showed that female students and male students obtained sig. smaller than 0.05, namely 0.001 and 0.037, which means that the perception is significantly different from the post hoc results of the Anova test as a whole, indicating that the average perception does not have a significant difference. Male students have a more positive perception than female students. Gender differences that exist in students have an influence on student perceptions. Student perceptions can be used as a guide for lecturers to choose learning media that will be used in the classroom. This research can be used as a guideline for the development of student perception assessments on the mathematical physics e-module in the future with an update in this study, namely student perceptions of the mathematics physics e-module based on gender differences.</p
... It is noteworthy that extensive research has shown that ERs, including animations, could be used to enhance students' content knowledge of scientific phenomena (e.g., Chang et al., 2010;Kühl et al., 2018;Stebner et al., 2017). However, there is limited research regarding the use of these tools to enhance students' visualization skills. ...
Using external representations (ERs) to foster content understanding in biology education has increased as they allow for the visualization of abstract biological phenomena. However, the extent to which students have visualization skills required to learn from ERs effectively remains an open question. The current quantitative quasi-experimental research sought to determine the extent to which an animation could be used to enhance students’ visualization skills and reduce learning difficulties related to basic concepts of mitosis. Participants were 67 Grade 10 purposively selected learners from a South African school. An assessment test was used for data collection. Results showed that exposure to an animation, as an additional learning tool, improved students’ visualization skills while reducing visualization difficulties related to basic concepts of mitosis. We conclude that ERs may enhance students’ visualization skills, reduce learning difficulties and improve content understanding. ERs may also be used in broader student development which includes visual literacy.
... According to Dajani et al., students find it to apply IT in the learning process, as it allows them to accomplish tasks more efficiently [8]. This is in line with the work of several other researchers, such as Ameri et al. [6], Nikolopoulou et al. [5], Stebner et al. [44], and Tosuntas et al. [45]. In the context of this research, performance expectancy represents a students' perceived benefits of using the xRM e-service as a tool that enables them to finish their university-related tasks more quickly and efficiently. ...
... The study by Stebner et al. (2017) yielded a similar outcome when they compared German high school students in learning environments which had different combinations of visualization in their instructional materials (e.g. no visualization, use of static pictures and animations). ...
This chapter titled ‘Engaging learners through a flipped classroom approach’ will cover how a flipped classroom approach was developed, the authentic and contextualized framework adopted and tested, the learning aspects, elements and logistics involved in having this approach executed. This includes presentation of insights, analysis and discussions of evidence-based results on various aspects, say for example, effectiveness, efficacy of the approaches adopted, self-reports from students’ perspectives and experiences as learners, the different aspects of learning outcomes it focuses on and why using such a learning approach is more appropriate in preparing them for the industry or corporate world. In this chapter, the rationale and effectiveness as well as the pragmatic challenges in adopting such a learning design will be covered. Survey and interview findings will be shared to show evidence-based reflections on the claims made. Experiences and contextualized issues will be shared so that it could be seen how the findings could be extended beyond the sample group and applicable to varying learning cultures.
... Science. Unlike literacy, students gained a deeper understanding of chemical reactions when animations were used compared to static graphics (Stebner et al., 2017). That could be due to the abstract nature of scientific knowledge, for which digital technologies could provide representation. ...
http://researcharchive.vuw.ac.nz/handle/10063/9396
Using digital devices in primary classrooms has become a common practice in many schools around the world. A considerable amount of research has explored this phenomenon. However, the majority of studies published in highly ranked educational technology journals have focused on the effectiveness of interventions related to using digital devices in primary classrooms and few studies examine students’ use of digital devices during learning which reflects a dominance of the reductionist approach in studying classroom environments. While there is rich literature addressing the outcomes of using devices, much is still unknown about the use itself.
The present study aimed to understand how students use digital devices in classroom learning activities. It explored the ways of use, the factors that shaped these uses, and how the uses contributed to the purposes of learning activities. Approaches used to study phenomena in open recursive systems, such as classrooms, should be different from approaches used to study phenomena in closed systems under controlled conditions. Therefore, Complexity Theory provided a framework to understand the socio-materiality of digital devices in classrooms learning. In addition, Actor-Network Theory was used to study the phenomenon in action and Biesta’s (2009) framework of the functions of education to understand the contribution of the uses to educational purposes.
This multiple case study was conducted in New Zealand within two schools where two teachers and seven upper-primary students participated in the study. Data were collected across six months through observations, semi-structured interviews, group interviews, informal conversations, student think-aloud interviews and artefacts from learning including video screen-captures. Data were coded and analysed using the thematic analysis and an abductive strategy.
From a synthesis of the findings a ‘Using Devices for Classroom Learning’ model was developed in which seven patterns of use were identified. The children used their devices as a source of information, means of communication, production medium, external personal memory, collective memory coordinator, trial-and-error learning space, and as a research tool. Interconnected factors shaped these uses which were related to the educational system, school and classroom environment, teachers, students, and digital technologies. The findings showed how the seven uses contributed to the educational purposes of classroom learning which were classified into students’ qualifications, socialisation, and subjectification. However, some of these uses led to undesirable influence on students’ learning.
This study provides theoretical and practical contributions to the field of using digital technologies in education. Complexity thinking, as a holistic approach, sheds light on blind spots of the educational process and acknowledges the complexity and uncertainty when using devices for learning in social complex systems such as classrooms. What emerges in classrooms does not result from separate factors but from a network of relationships and interactions of interconnected factors. The model developed provides an analysis tool for researchers and assists educators and policymakers to understand and anticipate the role of digital devices in classroom learning.
... Other disciplines, such as the natural and physical sciences, have reported the positive effect of animations on student learning (Barak, Ashkar and Dori, 2011; Lin and Atkinson, 2011;Stebner, Kühl, Höffler, Wirth and Ayres, 2017;. A meta-analysis of experimental studies conducted by Berney and Bétrancourt (2016) found that the use of animations had an overall positive effect on learning compared to static graphics. ...
In South Africa, introductory accounting students for whom English is an additional language face two linguistic barriers. Besides dealing with the social practices of communicating in academic English as the medium of instruction in higher education, students studying in English as an additional language (EAL) also have to acquire the language of accounting.
The rationale for this thesis is threefold: first, it is based on my personal experience, as well as research findings by other scholars, regarding the linguistic barriers facing first-year accounting students with EAL; second, it is my perception that in the context of accounting education, language learning is mainly viewed as a neutral instrument of communication, which students studying in EAL are expected to master through remedial academic literacy courses; and third, there are very few empirical studies in the discipline of accounting that investigate the social and cognitive dimensions of language in the learning of accounting and that considers it the responsibility of accounting educators to make the norms and context of accounting language apparent to students.
The purpose of this research was to consider the impact of social and cognitive dimensions of language in the learning of introductory accounting in English as an additional language. The theoretical framework combines an Interactionist perspective of Second Language Acquisition, which considers the social environment in which learning takes place, with Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) and the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML). CLT accounts for students’ prior knowledge (including language proficiency) levels when designing effective instructional practices, and the CTML is based on the assumption that learning is enhanced when we build mental representations from words and pictures. A mixed methods design was used, comprising a qualitative interview analysis and two experimental studies.
Three independent yet related studies were conducted to fulfil the main aim of the research. The first study (chapter 2) explores the individual and social learning experiences of first-year accounting students studying in EAL. The findings highlight the importance of formal and social interaction for students with EAL to deal effectively with the academic literacy requirements of studying accounting in the first year at university. The outcomes of the interview study provided the impetus for the two experimental studies that consider the effectiveness of different instructional practices in assisting students with diverse language backgrounds to access the language used in introductory accounting topics.
The first experiment (chapter 3) tested the effect of using everyday language versus accounting language and the provision of formulas on students’ ability to transfer their knowledge of basic Cost-Volume-Profit analysis to application problems. The results indicate that students with EAL benefit more from the use of everyday language than students with English as a first language. The optimal condition for transfer performance was providing everyday language without formulas.
For the second experiment (chapter 4), a whiteboard animation was created to explain the concepts in the accounting equation by means of pictures and coloured blocks. The instructional efficiency of the animation was tested using a voice-over PowerPoint presentation as the control. All students enjoyed the animation more than the control presentation. The animation reduced the extraneous cognitive load of Grade 12 accounting students with EAL. The effect of both the test and control presentations were more beneficial for Grade 12 accounting students with EAL and for students without Grade 12 accounting.
The findings have implications for accounting educators in recognising the social and cognitive aspects of language use on learning in introductory accounting, particularly for students studying in EAL. This awareness should translate into pedagogical practices being adapted to accommodate the learning needs of students studying accounting through EAL.
... The structure of the digital-book could improve become interactive digital book by added audio, visual, audiovisual, and hyperlink such as conventional printed book which functions to facilitate the learning and teaching process when the teacher does not require the student to have the discussion. The implementation of a digital book in the school could improve the student's knowledge [5]. Interactive digital books have the same concept of animated digital books. ...
Computer and Network Fundamental is one of the teaching subjects at
Computer and Network Engineering Vocational High School in Indonesia. The
learning activities at the research location was less interactive because of the
learning process still uses conventional textbooks or static digital books.
Solutions that offered in the research are not only interactive digital book product
development inappropriate way but also product implementation in experimental
design. The development used Four-D Model. The experimental design used
Matching-Only Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design. The instrumentation used
observation, interviews, questionnaires, and tests. Content Validity Content
(CVR) value based on Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) evaluation result for goal,
learner, learning, context, and technical criteria are above 0.75. Paired T-Test and
Independent T-Test results showed that interactive digital book implementation
in the learning process can cause an enhancement in student learning outcomes.
... According to Schnotz and Lowe (2008) illustrations (e.g., Berney & Bétrancourt, 2016;Imhof, Scheiter, Edelmann, & Gerjets, 2012;Stebner, Kühl, Höffler, & Wirth, 2017), whereas others reported contrasting evidence that the use of static visualizations is superior (e.g., Lowe, Schnotz, & Rasch, 2011;Mayer et al., 2005). Moreover, there are comparisons showing no significant differences between using instructional dynamic and static visualizations (e.g., Boucheix & Schneider, 2009;Höffler, Prechtl, & Nerdel, 2010). ...
The purpose of this study was to investigate not only the effectiveness of dynamic versus static visualizations on learning star motions but also the influence of students' spatial abilities with these two types of visualizations on their learning. We assigned 155 fifth‐grade students to either a dynamic or a static condition. We used a science achievement test to measure student learning outcomes by assessing knowledge acquisition. We classified students as having either a low or high spatial ability based on their test scores for primary mental abilities, specifically spatial relations. The results showed that dynamic visualizations were more effective than static visualizations for learning complex concepts involving star motions. Furthermore, learners' spatial abilities had a positive effect on their learning outcomes but did not moderate the effectiveness of dynamic versus static visualizations for learning in this domain. Our findings suggest that when designing instructional materials, the dynamic properties of visualizations should be aligned with the dynamic nature of the subject matter. We conclude that students' spatial abilities are beneficial to learning, especially when they are studying a complex domain that demands spatial changes and moving processes; therefore, our findings support the importance of assessing spatial ability in learning with visualizations.
... Although many studies have shown that dynamic visualisations are an advantage over statics, the overall evidence is far from conclusive (see Tversky, Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002). There are studies that show: (a) animation superior to statics (e.g., Stebner, Kühl, Höffler, Wirth, & Ayres, 2017;Yarden & Yarden, 2010), (b) static pictures superior to animations (e.g., Koroghlanian & Klein, 2004), and (c) neither format superior to the other (e.g., Kühl, Scheiter, Gerjets, & Gemballa, 2011). ...
This chapter outlines a number of factors that have impacted the research into instructional animations. It describes how the findings from comparisons between animations and statics, the major research paradigm, has found mixed results showing that animations are not always more effective than equivalent static pictures. We also describe some mounting evidence that animations seem to be particularly more suited to learning human motor skills rather than other types of knowledge and skills. However, we conclude that it is difficult to have total confidence in the research because many studies have inbuilt design biases that have not been controlled for. In addition, three learner characteristics (spatial ability, gender, and prior knowledge), which have been shown to influence the effectiveness animations, are also often ignored in the research. We discuss the transient nature of information present in animations that increases cognitive load and is a major impediment to learning. We also outline a number of compensatory strategies, such as learner interactivity and segmentation, that can support learning from animations, and describe how more general learning strategies, such as gesturing and collaboration, can be used in tandem with animations to facilitate greater learning.
... Como destaca Cappello (2017), estudiar el papel de la imagen y la descodificación de su significado supone una estrategia esencial para el aprendizaje y el conocimiento del alumnado de cualquier etapa educativa, ya sean imágenes estáticas o dinámicas (en movimiento). Pese a los rasgos que comparten ambas, existen diferencias evidentes entre estos dos grandes grupos de representaciones, de forma que la investigación actual continúa explorando los factores que intervienen cuando son utilizadas en situaciones de enseñanza (Stebner, Kühl, Höffler, Wirth, & Ayres, 2017). Dentro de las imágenes estáticas, las que contienen un trasfondo histórico (o imágenes históricas), como fuentes documentales que nos aproximan a lo acontecido en el pasado, tienen un papel significativo en materias como las Ciencias Sociales al permitir a los alumnos/as discutir, argumentar y contrastar información (Brugar & Roberts, 2017), de forma que un adecuado tratamiento de las mismas fomenta el desarrollo social, emocional, cognitivo y la participación que debe caracterizar a toda sociedad democrática (Cooper, 2015). ...
La siguiente investigación pretende analizar en qué medida los recursos educativos, en este caso los libros de texto, contribuyen a la alfabetización visual del alumnado de Educación Primaria en Ciencias Sociales. Este tipo de alfabetización es un aspecto fundamental en cualquier etapa educativa tal y como ha venido confirmando la investigación hasta fechas muy recientes. Para ello se han seleccionado los manuales más utilizados en un determinado espacio geográfico desde 2006 y se han analizado siguiendo un método de investigación que combina procedimientos cuantitativos (ex post-facto) y cualitativos (análisis mediante categorías conceptuales) aplicándolos sobre las actividades relacionadas a imágenes figurativas de las unidades de Historia. La muestra está compuesta por 29 libros de texto de Conocimiento del Medio y Ciencias Sociales sujetos a las dos últimas reformas educativas aplicadas en España. El estudio realizado ha dado lugar a una base de datos compuesta por 2604 entradas, de las cuales 1068 corresponden a las actividades analizadas (basadas en 438 imágenes) y 1536 a las imágenes que pese a estar incluidas en los manuales no son utilizadas por ninguna de sus actividades. Los resultados demuestran que se mantiene un uso decorativo de la imagen en estos materiales de enseñanza y que existe una excesiva presencia de actividades descriptivas que no profundizan en las fuentes históricas presentadas por los libros. Todo ello redunda en adoptar posturas acríticas hacia los mensajes visuales por parte del alumnado y perjudica sus competencias comunicativas en el tratamiento de información gráfica. Junto con ello, se limitan las capacidades que este tipo de recursos pueden presentar para el desarrollo de habilidades cognitivas complejas vinculadas al pensamiento histórico de los estudiantes.
... The results showed that the whiteboard animations had positive effects on retention, engagement, and enjoyment. Such positive effects of animation were also found in other recent empirical research, where learners were involved in learning concepts, processes, and procedures (e.g., Castro-Alonso, Ayres, & Paas, 2015;Stebner, Kühl, Hoffler, Wirth, & Ayres, 2017). However, a number of empirical studies have revealed different findings in a variety of learning tasks. ...
The present study was to explore whether dynamic visualizations enriched with visuospatial cues can optimize learners’ cognitive processing of mechanical systems. The animated conditions and cueing patterns were the independent variables with an attempt to investigate their impacts on retention and transfer tests. Either dynamic or static visualizations with the presence of visuospatial cues served as the instructional material. 238 English as a foreign language (EFL) learners participated in the experiment. The learners were distributed to six groups—either dynamic or static visualizations enriched with non-cue, entity-cues and arrow-entity cues. Their prior knowledge was initially assessed, and then followed by retention and transfer tests and cognitive load measurements. The experimental results suggested that dynamic visualizations enriched with progressive visuospatial cues was more beneficial in helping learners to develop favorable quality of mental models.
The computer animations certainly help in deeply understanding the complex concepts. Moreover, computer animations are broadly used for nearly all subject disciplines. Some past studies highlighted that comprehension can be improved by deploying effective design principles within the computer animations. Thus, this study is aimed at finding the effectiveness of design principles particularly when segmentation and cueing design principles are served together within computer animations. A quantitative experimental study was designed and conducted. A total of 56 students willingly participated in the study which were then randomly divided into two groups of 28 students each. Both groups got different treatments and after the post-test the independent t-test was applied on the quantitative data and it was observed that modern animations made with segmentation and cueing design principles were more effective as compared to conventional animations. The mean post-test score of group-1 (M=7.6429, SD=0.95) who was treated withmodern animations was comparatively much higher than the group-2 (M=5.5000, SD=1.13). The limitation of the present study is that it did not consider the individual growth of students. In fact, cumulative group scores were measured. Theimplication of the present study is that it can certainly support the educational institutions in designing effective animations which in turn can improve the learning outcome. Keywords : Computer Animations, Effective Design Principles, Segmentation and Cueing
We examine the effect of an innovation in an educational context, a class of 500 + first-year economics students at a well-known Australian university. We study whether introducing content in the form of a multimedia presentation has a detectable effect on specific categories of student knowledge. The multimedia presentation has a narrator presenting concepts with images, words, and worked examples. Our key outcome measure is the probability of answering questions correctly on a mid-term test. A quasi-experimental design is followed to offer a causal interpretation of the results. We find that the multimedia presentation markedly increases students' academic outcomes on the test compared to those that did not view the presentation, especially in regards to procedural and evaluative knowledge. An additional survey reveals gains in students' metacognitive knowledge. These findings suggest that multimedia presentations contribute to improved student learning outcomes and offer valuable options at a time of increased online course delivery. The findings also highlight the relevance of investing in education and resources to develop the necessary design skills among academics and staff.
Supplementary information:
The online version of this article contains supplementary material available 10.1007/s11423-022-10147-3.
Student’s perception is the student's assessment of something or information. The objective of this study was to discover how students' general perceptions and gender differences in electronic modules of mathematical physics. The research type is survey-based research with quantitative approach. The research population consists of physics education students from Universitas Jambi with the sample of 80 students from class A and class B. The data analysis techniques used in the study are descriptive statistics analysis and inferential data analysis using t-tests. The results showed that, overall, students have a positive perception with a Sig. (2-tailed) value of 0.011 < 0.005, which means that there is a significant difference in students’ perception. The perception of class A students with gender differences has a Sig. (2-tailed) value of 0.003, while the grade B students have a Sig. (2 tailed) values of 0.020 and 0.013. This means that class A and classs B students have a discernible difference of perception. Student’s perception may be used as a determining factor in the choice of learning materials. This research can be used as a guideline for the development of student perception assessment in the electronic module of Mathematical Physics in the future. The update of this study aims to compare students' perceptions of the overall online module of mathematics and gender differences.
In remote learning, “animated (and interactive) infographics” combine—visual representations of concepts, data, information, and in-world phenomena; designed motion; designed interactivity; designed learner control; setup of learning contexts and learner sociality; and other factors—to enable various types of learning: observational, (disembodied) experiential, review and practice-based, and other approaches. This work explores the available best practices of designing, development, and deploying animated infographics for learning based on much of the available academic research and some present-day technologies.
Bu çalışmanın amacı, bilgisayar sunumlarına yönelik görüşlerin tespit edilmesini sağlayacak geçerli ve güvenilir bir ölçeğin geliştirilmesidir. Bu amaçla öncelikle madde havuzu (82 madde) oluşturulmuştur. Sonrasında konu uzmanlarının görüşlerinden yola çıkarak yüzey ve kapsam geçerlik analizleri yapılmıştır. Analizler sonrası kalan 58 madde Likert tipinde 5’li değerlendirmeye sahip deneme formu şeklinde hazırlanarak toplam 366 öğretmen adayına uygulanmıştır. Uygulamanın sonunda elde edilen verilerin analizinde SPSS 20.0 istatistik programından yararlanılmıştır. Ölçekteki her bir maddenin ölçme gücü madde-toplam korelasyonu bakılarak yapılmış, düşük güvenirliğe sahip 24 madde ölçekten çıkarılmıştır. Ölçeğin yapı geçerliğini belirlemek amacıyla yapılan açımlayıcı faktör analizi sonucunda toplam varyansın %41.324’ini açıklayan ve anlamlı olarak kabul edilen 3 faktörlü, 29 maddeden oluşan bir yapı elde edilmiştir. Ölçeğin genelinden elde edilen Cronbach Alpha iç tutarlık katsayısı 0,897 olarak hesaplanmıştır. Bu haliyle ölçeğin yüksek derecede güvenilir olduğu söylenebilir.
This quasi-experimental study examined whether or not attention cueing can benefit learners in learning the kinematic operation of a mechanical system. This study investigated the interaction effects of the dynamic and cued conditions on the test results as well as cognitive load. Self-regulatory, mobile-phone-based visualizations depicting the kinematics of a flushing cistern comprised the instrument. The participants consisted of 174 English as a foreign language (EFL) learners from four sections of a reading course. After assessing their backgrounds, they were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions—pictures only, pictures plus cueing, animation only, and animation plus cueing. Immediately, after administering the experimental treatment, the participants answered comprehension tests and a cognitive load questionnaire. The results demonstrated that visuospatial cues, particularly in static diagrams, ameliorated the learners' learning effectiveness by facilitating their local comprehension better than their global comprehension. While animation benefited the learners in terms of solving directions and troubleshooting problems, the static diagrams and animations complemented each other in helping the learners understand the different kinematic functions of a mechanical system. The static diagrams were beneficial in enhancing local comprehension, whereas the animations benefited the learners' global comprehension as indicated in the learners' transfer test results. The experimental results revealed that the effectiveness of animation and visual cueing depend on the subject matter and purpose of the tests.
This study seeks to investigate the impact of a real-time multi-peer feedback process with the use of a web-based polling software on adult e-learners’ learning performance. Two groups of participants with 30 members in each were involved in the experiment. In the two-and-a-half-hour experiment, the experimental group adopted a web-based polling software – Rain Classroom to carry out the real-time multi-peer feedback activities for the learning of some English infinitive verbs, while the control group was applied the real-time single-peer feedback mode in learning the same content. A pretest, a posttest, a delayed posttest, a questionnaire survey and a follow-up interview were employed as the instruments for the experiment. The results revealed that the multi-peer group significantly outperformed the single-peer group on the delayed posttest, though no significant difference was found in the posttest between the two groups. The questionnaire survey and the follow-up interview showed that the multi-peer method gained great popularity among the participants and could enhance learners’ engagement in learning. Other related issues are also discussed.
Despite the benefits of a f lipped classroom, for instructors unfamiliar with the
format, it can create unease and ambiguity when they intend to structure and
organise a f lipped classroom with meaningful activities. This paper proposes
an improvised f lipped classroom framework embedded with an e-scaffolding
learning support system which can be adopted in ‘real-time’ during class. For
instructors, the framework would facilitate the development of a structured
and systematic approach which would enable them to achieve their course’s
intended learning outcomes. The proposed framework comprises pre-class
online learning and face-to-face seminars, with the goal of helping students be
more engaged in their learning through collaborative activities, to think deeply
and critically in the process, and be involved in peer learning. The face-to-face
seminars are enhanced through technology-enabled learning interventions and
are built upon the foundation of pedagogies such as active, experiential and
blended learning, where collaborative and team-based learning are the focal
points. Pre-class online learning takes the ‘information transmission’ aspect
of lectures out of the classroom and students enjoy freedom and f lexibility
in learning. A post-course survey was carried out with 59 undergraduate
business students, from which twelve were interviewed about their experience
of this f lipped classroom learning design and the e-scaffolding learning
support system. The results indicated that the majority of students had a
positive learning experience in terms of the course design enhancing levels
of engagement, collaborative learning, and enabling higher levels of critical
thinking. The student feedback also indicated that they would like to see more
of such a course design. A comparative analysis was also carried out on student
performance before versus after they had gone through the flipped learning. The
findings were positive, providing validation that the flipped learning approach
enables more thinking, which leads to better comprehension of course content,
eventually leading to better academic performance.
The present study aims to explore the impact of mismatch between learners’ media preference and media assigned to them on their learning performance. The participants were 214 adult Chinese e-learners enrolled for an English course, and were assigned to 6 groups based on their media preferences and the media assigned to them. A 2 × 3 ANOVA analysis with dependent variable of learning results and independent variables of media preferences (auditory vs. visual) and media types (audio-only vs. on-screen text-only vs. audio and on-screen text combined) was performed for the results of the experiment. Results indicate that the mismatch between media preferences and received media did not bring the expected worst learning outcome. Moreover, the learners’ media preferences did not lead to significant differences on the learners if they were provided with the same type of learning media; however, if different learning media were assigned to the learners with the same media preference, significant differences in learning outcome can be found. Another finding is that the combined medium has the most positive impact on the participants’ learning performance. The questionnaire survey and the semi-structured interview conducted at the end of the experiment also revealed the popularity of the combined medium.
This article reviews contemporary research on multimedia learning that uses cognitive load theory as the major theoretical framework. In particular, we address the extent to which working memory has been conceptualized and measured in this research, what kind of subjective measures of cognitive load have been used and whether such measures are combined with other measures of cognitive load, and how results from subjective measures have been related to learning and achievement. The findings show that most of the reviewed studies did not include any clear conceptualization or measurement of working memory, used only general subjective measures containing one or very few items, and did not report findings consistent with the hypothesized relationship between cognitive load and multimedia learning. The findings are discussed in relation to the broader goal of improving research on cognitive load in the context of multimedia learning.
Studies comparing the instructional effectiveness of dynamic versus static visualizations have produced mixed results. In this work, we investigated whether gender imbalance in the participant samples of these studies may have contributed to the mixed results. We conducted a meta-analysis of randomized experiments in which groups of students learning through dynamic visualizations were compared to groups receiving static visualizations. Our sample focused on tasks that could be categorized as either biologically secondary tasks (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics: STEM) or biologically primary tasks (manipulative–procedural). The meta-analysis of 46 studies (82 effect sizes and 5474 participants) revealed an overall small-sized effect (g+ = 0.23) showing that dynamic visualizations were more effective than static visualizations. Regarding potential moderators, we observed that gender was influential: the dynamic visualizations were more effective on samples with less females and more males (g+ = 0.36). We also observed that educational level, learning domain, media compared, and reporting reliability measures moderated the results. We concluded that because many visualization studies have used samples with a gender imbalance, this may be a significant factor in explaining why instructional dynamic and static visualizations seem to vary in their effectiveness. Our findings also support considering the gender variable in research about cognitive load theory and instructional visualizations.
The purpose of this quasi-experimental study is to examine whether attention cueing benefits learners of ancient Egyptian culture using mobile-assisted instrumentation. A self-regulatory, mobile phone based set of visualizations depicting ancient Egyptian culture served as the primary instrument. A total of 50 learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) from two sections of a reading course were randomly assigned to one of two groups. First, the participants were tested to assess their English reading level and prior knowledge of Egyptian culture. Next, they were randomly assigned to one of two modes: picture-plus-text or picture-plus-text-plus-signal. Immediately after experimental treatment, participants were administered tests of pictorial recall, matching, jigsaw puzzles, and retention as well as cognitive load measurement and attitude questionnaires. Experimental treatment was the independent variable, while the comprehension test, cognitive load questionnaire, and attitude questionnaire were the dependent variables. The results indicated that learners in the cueing condition outperform those in a non-cueing condition for matching and total score, but not for retention. The analysis of cognitive load revealed that learners in the cueing condition experience lower germane load than those in the non-cueing condition. However, the result of the questionnaires indicated that all the students felt mobile phones were convenient and useful in English learning regardless of the presence or not of attention cueing. The results stress the importance of presenting attention-capturing arrows in external representation as it can result in better learning efficiency.
The present study aims to explore the impact of three reward strategies on adult e-learners’ learning performance in a gamified teaching process. One hundred and eighty participants who were recruited for the experiment were evenly assigned to three groups, with Group A adopting the forfeit-or-prize reward strategy, Group B employing the prize-only reward strategy, and Group C applying the no-prize-no-forfeit strategy. A pretest, an immediate posttest, a delayed posttest and two questionnaires were adopted as instruments for the study. The results showed that the forfeit-or-prize pattern and the prize-only pattern could exert a significantly better impact on the e-learners’ learning than the no-prize-no-forfeit pattern. Additionally, the forfeit-or-prize pattern elicited better knowledge retention than the prize-only pattern. The two questionnaires revealed that the forfeit-or-prize pattern and the prize-only pattern could stimulate students’ motivation in learning, although a high-level anxiety was perceived by the subjects assigned to the forfeit-or-prize pattern. Possible explanations and implications are discussed.
Recent advances in technology have provided a wide variety of possibilities for incorporating animation in computer-based learning environments. In a very general sense, the term ‘animation’ can refer to any display element that changes its attributes over time. Taken this broadly, examples such as words that fly across the screen or objects that vibrate, blink, or change their color would be regarded as animations (Wright, Milroy, & Lickorish, 1999). In this chapter, we use the term in a more restricted sense. We define ‘animation’ as a pictorial display that changes its structure or other properties over time and which triggers the perception of a continuous change. Our definition includes examples of dynamic visualization such as pictorial displays that present objects continuously from different perspectives, show the assembly of a complex object from its parts, present the functioning of a technical device such as a bicycle pump, display the dynamic behavior of a meteorological system, or model the co-variation of variables in a graph (Bodemer, Ploetzner, Feuerlein, & Spada, 2004; Hegarty, Narayanan, & Freitas, 2002; Lowe, 2004; Mayer, 2001, 2005; Mayer & Moreno, 2002; Schwan & Riempp, 2004).
Although the use of animation has been enabled and stimulated by technology, our definition excludes technical considerations such as the number of frames per second and whether or not the pictorial display is computer generated. However, our definition does include video (cf. Baek & Layne, 1988; Betrancourt & Tversky, 2000). Steven Spielberg’s film "Jurassic Park" demonstrated that viewers cannot distinguish sequences generated by computer from those filmed in a conventional studio. Although these differences in how sequences were generated may be important from a technical perspective, they are obviously of no psychological relevance to the viewer.
On the one hand, animations are frequently considered as inherently superior to static pictures. Whereas static pictures display only visuospatial information, animations display temporal information as well. Accordingly, animations can be considered as more informative, more natural or more ‘authentic’ than the corresponding static pictures. Thus, it is very tempting to assume that learning from animation will be more effective than learning from static pictures. On the other hand, learning from animation can also be seen as more demanding because more information has to be processed and this imposes a higher cognitive load on the learner’s working memory (Sweller, van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998).
These two views encapsulate the prevailing tendency to emphasize differences between animated and static graphics rather than to consider their commonalities. From a technological perspective, there may well be clear differences between static and animated pictures with regard to the physical nature of the representation. However, from a psychological perspective, they are fundamentally linked in terms of the human information processing capacities that operate upon them both during learning. Our evolutionary history has given us a perceptual and cognitive system that is well equipped to cope with world in which change is part of the normal condition. The highly dynamic environment in which we live usually includes both temporally stable and temporally changing components. In our everyday lives, we do not continually compartmentalize our environment into static and dynamic parts. Rather, we deal with these components in an integrated and flexible manner as we continually construct a coherent functional mental representation of the world around us. Even when we move through a static environment, our visual field is continuously changing. The flux of our everyday experience is thus a seamless blend of changing and unchanging stimuli without fixed boundaries between static and dynamic components. On this basis, it seems difficult to justify a sharp distinction between learning from animated and learning from static pictures, and there appears to be little reason to assume that animations are necessarily easier or more demanding than static pictures.
In this chapter, we will therefore argue for a more unified approach to dealing with animations and static pictures. The basis for this argument is that animations and static pictures are not fundamentally different from a psychological point of view because animated and static pictures are processed by the same perceptual and cognitive system. Given that this system has evolved by interacting with a complex environment containing an ongoing blending of both dynamic and stable stimuli, the same set of basic perceptual and cognitive principles should underlie learning from both types of representation. It follows that the principles for using animation effectively are not fundamentally different from those for using static pictures and that the former can be considered as an extension of the latter. With regard to educational practice, we suggest that designers and developers of learning resources should not consider animation as something totally different in a qualitative sense and that therefore requires totally new design principles. Rather, they could learn from our history’s rich legacy of visual communication in order to understand and apply underlying principles that are common to static and animated graphics. With regard to educational theory, we suggest that researchers should not ‘re-invent the wheel’ by considering learning from animation as a fundamentally different branch of scientific analysis. Rather, they should view this topic as closely related to other research on visual communication.
The potential educational benefits of animation arise from its capacity to portray temporal change directly and explicitly. However, these benefits come with associated costs that can pose considerable challenges to learners. The processing requirements of conventionally designed instructional animations are too often poorly aligned with the characteristics of human perceptual and cognitive capacities. Five animation principles that can help animations fulfil their educational potential are described and exemplified. However, in order to make major improvements in effectiveness, conventional ways of designing animations need to be replaced by fresh approaches that take proper account of learners’ capacities. The Animation Processing Model provides an informed basis for principled animation design and opens up new possibilities by emphasizing internal rather than external representation.
Analyzed reaction time (RT) and eye-fixation data to investigate how people infer the kinematics of simple mechanical systems (pulley systems) from diagrams showing their static configuration. It is proposed that this mental animation process involves decomposing the representation of a pulley system into smaller units corresponding to the machine components and animating these components in a sequence corresponding to the causal sequence of events in the machine's operation. Although it is possible for people to make inferences against the chain of causality in the machine, these inferences are more difficult, and people have a preference for inferences in the direction of causality. The mental animation process reflects both capacity limitations and limitations of mechanical knowledge. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved)
College students learned about botany through an agent-based multimedia game. In Experiment 1, students received either spoken or identical on-screen text explanations; in addition, the lesson was presented either via a desktop display (D), a head-mounted display (HMD) used while sitting, or an HMD used while walking (W). In Experiment 2, we examined the effects of presenting explanations as narration (N), text (T), or both (NT) within the D and W conditions. Students scored higher on retention, transfer, and program ratings in N conditions than in T conditions. The NT condition produced results in between. Students gave higher ratings of presence when learning with HMDs, but media did not affect performance on measures of retention, transfer, or program ratings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Studied the differential effect on training performance, transfer performance, and cognitive load for 3 computer-based training strategies. The conventional, worked, and completion conditions emphasized, respectively, the solving of conventional problems, the study of worked-out problems, and the completion of partly worked-out problems. The relation between practice-problem type and transfer was expected to be mediated by cognitive load. It was hypothesized that practice with conventional problems would require more time and more effort during training and result in lower and more effort-demanding transfer performance than practice with worked-out or partly worked-out problems. With the exception of time and effort during training, the results supported the hypothesis. The completion strategy and, in particular, the worked strategy proved to be superior to the conventional strategy for attaining transfer. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Verbal redundancy arises from the concurrent presentation of text and verbatim speech. To inform theories of multimedia learning that guide the design of educational materials, a meta-analysis was conducted to investigate the effects of spoken-only, written-only, and spoken–written presentations on learning retention and transfer. After an extensive search for experimental studies meeting specified inclusion criteria, data from 57 independent studies were extracted. Most of the research participants were postsecondary students. Overall, this meta-analysis revealed that outcomes comparing spoken–written and written-only presentations did not differ, but students who learned from spoken–written presentations outperformed those who learned from spoken-only presentations. This effect was dependent on learners' prior knowledge, pacing of presentation, and inclusion of animation or diagrams. Specifically, the advantages of spoken–written presentations over spoken-only presentations were found for low prior knowledge learners, system-paced learning materials, and picture-free materials. In comparison with verbatim, spoken–written presentations, presentations displaying key terms extracted from spoken narrations were associated with better learning outcomes and accounted for much of the advantage of spoken–written over spoken-only presentations. These findings have significant implications for the design of multimedia materials. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This meta-analytical review focuses on the role of spatial ability when learning with pictorial visualizations. By means of
selective theoretical review and meta-analysis (the latter regarding 27 different experiments from 19 studies), several sub-factors
of spatial ability are considered as well as dynamic and non-dynamic, interactive and non-interactive visualizations. An overall
effect of r = 0.34 (95%-CI 0.28 to 0.39) demonstrating a medium advantage for high-spatial-ability learners when working with visualizations
is calculated. More importantly, two moderators could be identified: Learners with low spatial ability can be significantly
supported by a dynamic instead of a non-dynamic visualization as well as by 3d- instead of 2d-illustrations. Results are discussed
in consideration of contemporary theories of multimedia learning.
KeywordsVisualization-Spatial ability-Meta-analysis-Static pictures-Animation
Two experiments investigated alternatives to split-attention instructional designs. It was assumed that because a learner has a limited working memory capacity, any increase in cognitive resources required to process split-attention materials decreases resources available for learning. Using computer-based instructional material consisting of diagrams and text, Experiment 1 attempted to ameliorate split-attention effects by increasing effective working memory size by presenting the text in auditory form. Auditory presentation of text proved superior to visual-only presentation but not when the text was presented in both auditory and visual forms. In that case, the visual form was redundant and imposed a cognitive load that interfered with learning. Experiment 2 ameliorated split-attention effects by using colour coding to reduce cognitive load inducing search for diagrammatic referents in the text. Mental load rating scales provided evidence in both experiments that alternatives to split-attention instructional designs were effective due to reductions in cognitive load. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Cognitive load theory (CLT) is one of the most important theories in educational psychology, a highly effective guide for the design of multimedia and other learning materials. This edited volume brings together the most prolific researchers from around the world who study various aspects of cognitive load to discuss its current theoretical as well as practical issues. The book is divided into three parts. The first part describes the theoretical foundations and assumptions of CLT, the second discusses the empirical findings about the application of CLT to the design of learning environments, and the third part concludes the book with discussions and suggestions for new directions for future research. It aims to become the standard handbook in CLT for researchers and graduate students in psychology, education, and educational technology.
The redundancy principle (or redundancy effect) suggests that redundant material interferes with rather than facilitates learning. Redundancy occurs when the same information is presented concurrently in multiple forms or is unnecessarily elaborated. According to cognitive load theory, coordinating redundant information with essential information increases working memory load, which may interfere with learning. Eliminating such redundant information removes the requirement to coordinate multiple sources of information. Accordingly, instructional designs that eliminate redundant material can be superior to those that include redundancy. This chapter summarizes research and theory concerned with the effect of processing redundant information in multimedia learning, a history of research in instructional redundancy, the conditions of applicability of this principle, and its instructional implications.
The capacity limitations of working memory are a major impediment when students are required to learn new material. Furthermore, those limitations are relatively inflexible. Nevertheless, there is one technique that can effectively expand working memory capacity. Under certain well-defined conditions, presenting some information in visual mode and other information in auditory mode can expand effective working memory capacity and so reduce the effects of an excessive cognitive load. This effect is called the modality effect or modality principle. It is an instructional principle that can substantially increase learning. This chapter discusses the theory and data that underpin the principle and the instructional implications that flow from the principle.
This chapter is divided into two parts. The first describes the effect of Pat Rabbitt's influence in encouraging the first author to use the increasingly sophisticated methods of ageing research to answer questions about the fundamental characteristics of working memory, together with reflections on why so little of this work reached publication. The second part presents a brief review of the literature on working memory and ageing, followed by an account of more recent work attempting to apply the traditional method of experimental dissociation to research on normal ageing and Alzheimer's disease. The discussion suggests that even such simple methods can throw light on both the processes of ageing and the understanding of working memory.
In Experiment 1, inexperienced trade apprentices were presented with one of four alternative instructional designs: a diagram with visual text, a diagram with auditory text, a diagram with both visual and auditory text, or the diagram only. An auditory presentation of text proved superior to a visual-only presentation but not when the text was presented in both auditory and visual forms. The diagram-only format was the least intelligible to inexperienced learners. When participants became more experienced in the domain after two specifically designed training sessions, the advantage of a visual diagram-auditory text format disappeared. In Experiment 2, the diagram-only group was compared with the audio-text group after an additional training session. The results were the reverse of those of Experiment 1: The diagram-only group outperformed the audio–text group. Suggestions are made for multimedia instruction that takes learner experience into consideration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) began as an instructional theory based on our knowledge of human cognitive architecture. It proved successful in generating a series of cognitive load effects derived from the results of randomised, controlled experiments (Clark, Nguyen, & Sweller, 2006). This chapter summarises the theory, including its general instructional implications. Many of the theory's specific instructional implications, which provide its prime function and purpose, are discussed in other chapters in this volume and therefore will not be discussed in detail in this chapter (see Table 2.1 for a summary). HUMAN COGNITION The processes of human cognition constitute a natural information-processing system that mimics the system that gave rise to human cognitive architecture: evolution by natural selection. Both human cognition and biological evolution create novel information, store it for subsequent use, and are capable of disseminating that information indefinitely over space and time. By considering human cognition within an evolutionary framework, our understanding of the structures and functions of our cognitive architecture are being transformed. In turn, that cognitive architecture has profound instructional consequences. CLT is an amalgam of human cognitive architecture and the instructional consequences that flow from that architecture. From an evolutionary perspective, there are two categories of human knowledge: biologically primary and biologically secondary knowledge (Geary, 2007, 2008). Biologically primary knowledge is knowledge we have evolved to acquire over many generations. Examples are general problem-solving techniques, recognising faces, engaging in social relations, and listening to and speaking our native language.
In 2 experiments, mechanically naive college students viewed an animation depicting the operation of a bicycle tire pump that included a verbal description given before (words-before-pictures) or during (words-with-pictures) the animation. The words-with-pictures group outperformed the words-before-pictures group on tests of creative problem solving that involved reasoning about how the pump works. In a follow-up experiment, students in the words-with-pictures group performed better on the problem-solving test than students who saw the animation without words (pictures only), heard the words without the animation (words only), or received no training (control). Results support a dual-coding hypothesis (Paivio, 1990) that posits two kinds of connections: representational connections between verbal stimuli and verbal representations and between visual stimuli and visual representations and referential connections between visual and verbal representations.
In 2 experiments, students studied an animation depicting the operation of a bicycle tire pump or an automobile braking system, along with concurrent oral narration of the steps in the process (concurrent group), successive presentation of animation and narration (by 4 different methods), animation alone, narration alone, or no instruction (control group). On retention tests, the control group performed more poorly than each of the other groups, which did not differ from one another. On problem-solving tests, the concurrent group performed better than each of the other groups, which did not differ from one another. These results are consistent with a dual-coding model in which retention requires the construction of representational connections and problem solving requires the construction of representational and referential connections. An instructional implication is that pictures and words are most effective when they occur contiguously in time or space.
In 2 experiments, students who lacked prior knowledge about car mechanics read a passage about vehicle braking systems that either contained labeled illustrations of the systems, illustrations without labels, labels without illustrations, or no labeled illustrations. Students who received passages that contained labeled illustrations of braking systems recalled more explanative than nonexplanative information as compared to control groups, and performed better on problem solving transfer but not on verbatim recognition as compared to control groups. Results support a model of meaningful learning in which illustrations can help readers to focus their attention on explanative information in text and to reorganize the information into useful mental models.
Multimedia instructional materials require learners to select, organize, and integrate information across multiple modalities. To facilitate these comprehension processes, a variety of multimedia design principles have been proposed. This study further explores the redundancy principle by manipulating the degree of partial redundancy between written and narrated content. Ninety high school students learned about cohesion via animated lesson videos from the Writing Pal intelligent tutoring system. Videos were crafted such that narrated and onscreen written content overlapped by 10%, 26%, or 50%. Across conditions, students gained significantly in their knowledge of cohesion-building strategies and the effects of cohesion on writing quality. However , degree of redundancy did not influence learning gains. Additionally, although more-skilled readers outperformed less-skilled readers, reading skill did not interact with the degree of redundancy. These results provide evidence that a broad range of partially redundant multimedia materials may be viable instructional tools that benefit diverse learners.
The goal-free effect was the first instructional effect investigated within a cognitive load theory framework. Goal-free problems occur when a conventional problem with a specific goal is replaced by a problem with a non-specific goal. For example, in high school geometry, a typical problem will ask students to calculate a specific angle, such as angle ABC. In contrast, goal-free problems will not require students to specifically calculate this angle, but use a more general wording such as ‘calculate the value of as many angles as you can’. This particular wording of the problem will still allow students to calculate the targeted angle of the conventional problem (angle ABC), but students are free to calculate as many other angles as they can, and are not required to focus on one ultimate goal. Goal-free problems are sometimes called no-goal problems, and the goal-free effect is sometimes referred to as the goal-specificity effect. Consider an example taken from the domain of geometry. The goal-free effect occurs when students, having solved goal-free problems with an instruction to ‘calculate the value of as many angles as you can’ during acquisition, demonstrate superior learning outcomes to students who have solved the equivalent, conventional problems that include a goal such as ‘calculate the value of angle ABC’.
In recent years, multimedia learning, or learning from words and images, has developed into a coherent discipline with a significant research base. The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning is unique in offering a comprehensive, up-to-date analysis of research and theory in the field, with a focus on computer-based learning. Since the first edition appeared in 2005, it has shaped the field and become the primary reference work for multimedia learning. Multimedia environments, including online presentations, e-courses, interactive lessons, simulation games, slideshows, and even textbooks, play a crucial role in education. This revised second edition incorporates the latest developments in multimedia learning and contains new chapters on topics such as drawing, video, feedback, working memory, learner control, and intelligent tutoring systems. It examines research-based principles to determine the most effective methods of multimedia instruction and considers research findings in the context of cognitive theory to explain how these methods work.
The benefits of visual representations that are added to (written or spoken) words to enhance learning are beyond doubt and have been well-established throughout educational research in the last two decades. In this regard, the preceding chapters have introduced and discussed the cognitive foundations for learning with different kinds of visual representations and the ways they can be used throughout different learning scenarios. This chapter adds another aspect to this overall view by addressing when and why dynamic representations are beneficial for learning and whether they are in any way superior to static pictures. Moreover, we focus on whether such learning effects differ with respect to different conditions as well as different learner characteristics, such as prior knowledge, cognitive style and spatial ability. We con-clude that different visual representations may be more useful in specific situations; however, using any visual representation is preferable to none at all.
The effects of computer animations and mental animation on people's mental models of a mechanical system are examined. In 3 experiments, students learned how a mechanical system works from various instructional treatments including viewing a static diagram of the machine, predicting motion from static diagrams, viewing computer animations, and viewing static and animated diagrams accompanied by verbal commentaries. Although students' understanding of the system was improved by viewing both static and animated diagrams, there was no evidence that animated diagrams led to superior understanding of dynamic processes compared to static diagrams. Comprehension of diagrams was enhanced by asking students questions that required them to predict the behavior of the machine from static diagrams and by providing them with a verbal description of the dynamic processes. This article proposes that predicting motion from static diagrams engages students' mental animation processes, including spatial visualization, and provides them with information about what they do and do not understand about how the machine works. Verbal instruction provides information that is not easily communicated in graphics and directs students' attention to the relevant information in static and animated diagrams. The research suggests that an understanding of students' mental animation abilities is an important component of a theory of learning from external animations.
A meta-analysis of 26 primary studies, yielding 76 pair-wise comparisons of dynamic and static visualizations, reveals a medium-sized overall advantage of instructional animations over static pictures. The mean weighted effect size on learning outcome is d=0.37 (95% CI 0.25–0.49). Moderator analyses indicate even more substantial effect sizes when the animation is representational rather than decorational (d=0.40, 95% CI 0.26–0.53), when the animation is highly realistic, e.g., video-based (d=0.76, 95% CI 0.39–1.13), and/or when procedural-motor knowledge is to be acquired (d=1.06, 95% CI 0.72–1.40). The results are in line with contemporary theories of cognitive load and multimedia learning, and they have practical implications for instructional design.
This paper proposes an alternative to both meta-analytic and traditional reviews. The method, “best-evidence synthesis,” combines the quantification of effect sizes and systematic study selection procedures of quantitative syntheses with the attention to individual studies and methodological and substantive issues typical of the best narrative reviews. Best-evidence syntheses focus on the “best evidence” in a field, the studies highest in internal and external validity, using well-specified and defended a priori inclusion criteria, and use effect size data as an adjunct to a full discussion of the literature being reviewed.
Two experiments investigated alternatives to split-attention instructional designs. It was assumed that because a learner has a limited working memory capacity, any increase in cognitive resources required to process split-attention materials decreases resources available for learning. Using computer-based instructional material consisting of diagrams and text, Experiment 1 attempted to ameliorate split-attention effects by increasing effective working memory size by presenting the text in auditory form. Auditory presentation of text proved superior to visual-only presentation but not when the text was presented in both auditory and visual forms. In that case, the visual form was redundant and imposed a cognitive load that interfered with learning. Experiment 2 ameliorated split-attention effects by using colour coding to reduce cognitive load inducing search for diagrammatic referents in the text. Mental load rating scales provided evidence in both experiments that alternatives to split-attention instructional designs were effective due to reductions in cognitive load. Copyright
The papers in this themed issue have investigated methods to make animations more effective. The purpose of this paper is to discuss each of the seven empirical papers. The discussion focuses on how they dealt with cognitive load during instruction and problem solving. Critical observations are made on each paper and avenues for future research are proposed. From the overall collection of papers a number of key results are identified and used as a basis for recommending principles for developing effective instructional animations. Lastly, a number of design issues are discussed in the context of enhancing future research in this field. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The development of new technologies allows for endless instructional possibi-lities in terms of dynamic visualizations for learning. The widespread use of PC technology and more recently web based and e-learning instructional platforms has led to highly dynamic and interactive instructional packages that can be easily accessed by many learners simultaneously. However, despite this seemingly endless potential and unbridled enthusiasm for technology based instruction, there is little empirical evidence to indicate that the widespread use of dynamic visualizations has resulted in any substantial benefit to learners. This situation is probably best summarized by Lowe (2004) in his discussion of the proliferation of internet based animations (a very popular form of dynamic visualization). He notes that ''. . . this explosion in the use of animation is occurring well in advance of adequate research based accounts of how people cognitively process and learn from such resources'' (Lowe, 2004). Instructors have frequently made the crucial mistake of allowing technology to generate the learning experience rather than using our growing knowledge of cog-nitive processes to guide us in how we can best utilize technology for instructional purposes. Fortunately, this situation is slowly changing. Researchers are starting to make major inroads with respect to our understanding of human cognitive archi-tecture and processes and how this knowledge can best be used to design effective dynamic visualizations (Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003; Kirschner, 2002; Lowe, 2003; Mayer, 2001; Mayer & Chandler, 2001; Mayer & Moreno, 2002; Ploetzner, Bodemer, & Feuerlein, 2001; Sweller, 1999; van Merriënboer, Schuur-man, de Croock, & Paas, 2002). The papers contained in this special issue rep-resent a very significant addition to the research base on cognition and its implications for technology based instruction. Before commenting on the new and à Tel.
Although the use of animated visuals is both common and popular amongCbi designers, the theoretical and empirical foundations for their use have not been firmly established. Animated visuals represent a subset of instructional visuals; for this reason, general conclusions from research on static visuals are thought to extend to animated visuals. The extent to which animated visual research represents elaborations or departures from static visual research is questioned, however. The purpose of this paper is to review current empirical evidence of the effectiveness of animated visuals in instruction. Tentative design recommendations resulting from this review are presented. Current applications of computer animations in instruction are discussed and a brief summary of static visuals research is also presented.
Cognitive load is a theoretical notion with an increasingly central role in the educational research literature. The basic
idea of cognitive load theory is that cognitive capacity in working memory is limited, so that if a learning task requires
too much capacity, learning will be hampered. The recommended remedy is to design instructional systems that optimize the
use of working memory capacity and avoid cognitive overload. Cognitive load theory has advanced educational research considerably
and has been used to explain a large set of experimental findings. This article sets out to explore the open questions and
the boundaries of cognitive load theory by identifying a number of problematic conceptual, methodological and application-related
issues. It concludes by presenting a research agenda for future studies of cognitive load.
KeywordCognitive load theory
Computer-based multimedia technologies allow designers to construct interactive and animated graphical presentations to communicate dynamic information. The conventional wisdom is that such presentations are more effective than printed materials. This paper presents research that critically examines this assumption. Design guidelines and principles were derived from a cognitive process model of multimodal comprehension. These guidelines and principles were used to create several expository presentations in two domains—the concrete domain of mechanical systems and the abstract domain of computer algorithms. A series of experiments evaluated the efficacy of these presentations and compared them with other kinds of presentations such as books, CD-ROMs and animations. The experiments also compared computer-based interactive graphical presentations and static printed presentations containing the same information. Experimental results suggest that the communicative efficacy of multimodal presentations is more related to their match with comprehension processes than with the interactivity and dynamism of the presentation media. The results support a model-based approach to the design of multimodal expository presentations of dynamic information. The comprehension model and corresponding design guidance should aid designers in building interactive graphical presentations that are more effective than intuitive designs in communicating dynamic content.
Graphics have been used since ancient times to portray things that are inherently spatiovisual, like maps and building plans. More recently, graphics have been used to portray things that are metaphorically spatiovisual, like graphs and organizational charts. The assumption is that graphics can facilitate comprehension, learning, memory, communication and inference. Assumptions aside, research on static graphics has shown that only carefully designed and appropriate graphics prove to be beneficial for conveying complex systems. Effective graphics conform to the Congruence Principle according to which the content and format of the graphic should correspond to the content and format of the concepts to be conveyed. From this, it follows that animated graphics should be effective in portraying change over time. Yet the research on the efficacy of animated over static graphics is not encouraging. In cases where animated graphics seem superior to static ones, scrutiny reveals lack of equivalence between animated and static graphics in content or procedures; the animated graphics convey more information or involve interactivity. Animations of events may be ineffective because animations violate the second principle of good graphics, the Apprehension Principle, according to which graphics should be accurately perceived and appropriately conceived. Animations are often too complex or too fast to be accurately perceived. Moreover, many continuous events are conceived of as sequences of discrete steps. Judicious use of interactivity may overcome both these disadvantages. Animations may be more effective than comparable static graphics in situations other than conveying complex systems, for example, for real time reorientations in time and space.
Considerable evidence indicates that domain specific knowledge in the form of schemas is the primary factor distinguishing experts from novices in problem-solving skill. Evidence that conventional problem-solving activity is not effective in schema acquisition is also accumulating. It is suggested that a major reason for the ineffectiveness of problem solving as a learning device, is that the cognitive processes required by the two activities overlap insufficiently, and that conventional problem solving in the form of means-ends analysis requires a relatively large amount of cognitive processing capacity which is consequently unavailable for schema acquisition. A computational model and experimental evidence provide support for this contention. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
