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Late Weichselian deglaciation chronology and
palaeoenvironments in northern Karelia, NW Russia
Niko Putkinen
mallikuva;
kuva-alan koko voi vaihdella
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF FINLAND
Espoo 2011
Academic Dissertation
Geological Survey of Finland
Espoo 2011
LATE WEICHSELIAN DEGLACIATION CHRONOLOGY AND
PALAEOENVIRONMENTS IN NORTHERN KARELIA, NW RUSSIA
by
Niko Putkinen
Geological Survey of Finland
P.O. Box 97
FI-67101 Kokkola
Finland
ACADEMIC DISSERTATION
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science
To be presented, with the permission of the Faculty of Science of the University of Oulu,
for public criticism in auditorium L10, on November 25th, 2011, at 12 o’clock noon.
Supervisors:
Prof. Juha Pekka Lunkka
Department of Geology,
University of Oulu, Finland
Acting Prof. Antti E. K. Ojala
Department of Geosciences and Geography,
University of Helsinki, Finland
Reviewers:
Prof. Philip L. Gibbard
Department of Geography,
University of Cambridge, England
Docent Peter W. Johansson
Geological Survey of Finland,
Rovaniemi, Finland
Opponent:
Docent Peter W. Johansson
Department of Geography and Geology,
University of Turku, Finland
Cover: Glacial geomorphology and the end moraine zones of the Kalevala area.
Picture: Niko Putkinen, GTK
To Satu and Nelli
Putkinen, N. 2011. Late Weichselian deglaciation chronology and palaeoenvi-
ronments in northern Karelia, NW Russia. Geological Survey of Finland, Espoo.
21 pages, 4 gures, with original articles (I–IV).
ABSTRACT
The Scandinavian Ice Sheet (SIS) was one of the largest ice sheets in Eurasia
during the Weichselian glaciation. It attained its maximum extent in the east
during the Late Weichselian between 18000–15 000 years ago, covering the
whole of Fennoscandia, northwestern Russia and northern Continental Europe
and coalescing with the Barents Ice Sheet and the British Ice Sheet. The Weich-
selian deglaciation was interrupted by a sudden climate cooling episode known
as the Younger Dryas Stadial (ca. 12800–11 500 years ago). This thesis exam-
ines the palaeoenvironments in front of the SIS during the Late Weichselian and
Early Holocene (ca. 12500–11 000 years ago). The eastern and western Ruka-
järvi, Kalevala and Pääjärvi end moraines were dated in order to reconstruct
the position of the ice margin in Russian Karelia during the last deglaciation.
A number of palaeoenvironmental research techniques were used. Morpho-
logically different land systems in the eld were examined by glacial geomor-
phological studies and in aerial photos and satellite images. Internal structures
of glaciouvial formations, especially delta plains and beach deposits, were
studied using ground penetrating radar (GPR). These at plains were used as el-
evation data to produce distance diagrams for GIS-based reconstruction of the
White Sea Basin water levels in the Younger Dryas Stadial. Early development
of the White Sea was also studied, using conventional shoreline displacement
methods. Finally, deglaciation chronology of the study area was determined
using a combination of glacial varve chronology and palaeomagnetic dating
of three lacustrine sediment sequences from basins situated in the end moraine
zones. Geomorphology, 14C AMS dating and previous knowledge of ice lobe
retreat rates were also used for chronological analysis.
The results indicate that the Kuusamo-White Sea and Northern Karelian
ice lobes of the SIS operated in the area and deposited several fan-shaped ge-
omorphological landform patterns and end moraine zones. Indications were
found that four ice advances occurred in the area during the Late Weichselian
and Early Holocene deglaciation. The eastern arc of the Rukajärvi end mo-
raine, in the Rukajärvi-Belomorsk area, marks the southernmost limit of the
Kuusamo-White Sea ice lobe advance, the oldest in the area. The Onega sub-ice
lobe (part of the Kuusamo-White Sea ice lobe) apparently advanced from the
north-northwest to the eastern Rukajärvi end moraine zone, which was depos-
ited ca. 12500–12 300 years ago. As deglaciation continued, the northern Kare-
lian ice lobe was formed and advanced from west to east, depositing the western
arc of the Rukajärvi end moraine 11700–11 600 years ago.
The North Karelian ice lobe retreated westward but advanced again and
the Kalevala end moraine was deposited in front of the ice margin 11 400–
11 300 years ago. Further north, the Pääjärvi end moraine was accumulated at
the margin of the Kuusamo-White Sea ice lobe 11 000 years ago. There were
indications that the western Rukajärvi end moraine was correlated in time with
the Salpausselkä II in southeastern Finland, while the Kalevala end moraine
was possibly deposited as the same time as Salpausselkä III in southwestern
Finland.
The results also suggest that the Kuusamo-White Sea ice lobe terminated
in a glacial lake that occupied the White Sea Basin and adjacent land areas.
Around 12 050 years ago the waters of this ice lake burst into the Barents Sea
via the Gorlo Strait and the lake water level fell by approximately 50–60 metres
within 200 years. After this event the White Sea Basin was connected to the
Barents Sea. The northern parts of the Kuittijärvi and Tuoppajärvi sub-ice
lobes terminated in shallow water.
Keywords (GeoRef Thesaurus, AGI): glacial geology, Scandinavian ice
sheet, deglaciation, ice-marginal features, end moraines, chronology,
paleoenvironment, glacial lakes, Weichselian, Younger Dryas, Russian
Federation, Republic of Karelia, Kalevala, Belomorsk, White Sea
Niko Putkinen
Geological Survey of Finland
P.O. Box 96
FI-67101 Kokkola
Finland
E-mail: niko.putkinen@gtk.
ISBN 978-952-217-166-5 (paperback)
ISBN 978-952-217-167-2 (PDF version without articles)
Layout: Elvi Turtiainen Oy
Printing house: Tammerprint Oy
6
Geological Survey of Finland
Niko Pu tkin en
CONTENTS
List of original papers ............................................................................................................7
1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................8
2 Study area ........................................................................................................................10
3 Methods ........................................................................................................................... 12
4 Results: review of papers I–IV ..........................................................................................13
4.1 Paper I ........................................................................................................................ 13
4.2 Paper II .....................................................................................................................13
4.3 Paper III ..................................................................................................................... 14
4.4 Paper IV .....................................................................................................................14
5 Discussion ........................................................................................................................ 15
6 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................18
Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. 19
References ............................................................................................................................19
Original publications
7
Late Weichselian deglaciation chronology and
palaeoenvironments in northern Karelia, NW Russia
LIST OF ORIGINAL PAPERS
This thesis is based on the following articles,
which will be referred to in the text by their Ro-
man numerals.
I Putkinen, N. & Lunkka, J. P. 2008. Ice stream
behaviour and deglaciation of the Scandivian Ice
Sheet in the Kuittijärvi area, Russian Karelia.
Bulletin of the Geological Society of Finland 80
(1), 19–37.
II Lunkka, J. P., Putkinen, N. & Miettinen. A.
Shoreline displacement in the Belomorsk area,
NW Russia during the Younger Dryas Stadial.
Manuscript
III Pasanen, A., Lunkka, J. P. & Putkinen, N.
2010. Reconstruction of the White Sea Basin dur-
ing the late Younger Dryas. Boreas 39, 273–285.
IV Putkinen, N., Lunkka, J. P., Ojala, A. E. K.
& Kosonen, E. Deglaciation history and age
estimate of the Younger Dryas end moraines in
the Kalevala region, NW Russia. Manuscript
8
Geological Survey of Finland
Niko Pu tkin en
1 INTRODUCTION
The Scandinavian Ice Sheet (SIS) was one of the
largest ice sheets in Eurasia during the Weichse-
lian glaciation (Svendsen et al. 2004). It attained
its maximum extent during the Late Weichselian
period, covering the whole of Fennoscandia,
northwestern Russia and northern Continen-
tal Europe, and coalescing with the Barents Ice
Sheet and the British Ice Sheet. The southwestern
part of the ice sheet was at its maximum 22000–
20 000 years ago (all ages used in this synopsis,
except those are presented in preview of the origi-
nal papers, are calendar years before present),
while in the east it reached its maximum extent
18 000–15 000 years ago (Fig. 1) (cf. Ehlers et
al. 2004, Larsen et al. 1999, Boulton et al. 2001,
Lunkka et al. 2001, Johansson et al. 2011, Svend-
sen et al. 2004). On the eastern and southeastern
ank of the SIS, the ice retreat from its maximum
position is thought to have been a more or less
continuous process. However, prominent end
moraine complexes such as the Pommerian (ca.
14 600 years ago) and Gardno (ca. 15 400 years
ago) in the southeast, and the Vepsian-Krestets
(ca. 15 000 years ago), Luga (ca. 14 000 years ago)
and Neva (ca. 13 000 years ago) in the east-south-
east were deposited during minor standstills and
oscillations of the ice margin during the course
of deglaciation (cf. Kozarski 1986, Ekman & Iljin
1991, Boulton et al. 2001, Svendsen et al. 2004,
Rinterknecht et al. 2006).
During the Younger Dryas Stadial (ca. 12800–
11 500 years ago; cf. Muscheler et al. 2008) gla-
ciers advanced worldwide, not only in Fennos-
candia but also in Scotland, the Americas and the
high mountain areas of the Alps, Asia and New
Zealand as a result of climate cooling. The Sal-
pausselkäs and their relatives that run around the
whole of Fennoscandia and northwestern Russia
were formed at the ice margin during that time.
These moraines represent the most prominent
glacial geomorphological feature in Fennoscan-
dia and NW Russia, marking the Younger Dryas
Stadial ice sheet margin (cf. Donner 1995, Rainio
et al. 1995). The asynchronous SIS marginal for-
mations that formed in Fennoscandia during the
Younger Dryas Stadial can be traced over a dis-
tance of more than 2500 kilometres.
The Younger Dryas Stadial ice margin, which
is marked by the Salpausselkäs, Tuupovaara, Koi-
tere and Pielisjärvi end moraines in Finland and
the Rukajärvi, Kalevala and Pääjärvi and Keiva
end moraines in northwestern Russia (Fig. 1), can
be traced from Finland to Russian Karelia and
on to the Kola Peninsula (Ekman & Iljin 1991,
Rainio et al. 1995, Lunkka et al. 2004, Johansson
et al. 2011). In the northern, western and south-
ern parts of Fennoscandia, the Younger Dryas
Stadial ice margin followed the Lyngen, Tromsø,
Tautra, Herdla and Ra moraines in Norway and
the Central Sweden end moraines (Skövde and
Billingen moraines) in Sweden (Fig. 1) (Lundqvist
& Wohlfarth 2001, Mangerud 2004). In the south-
ern and western parts of the SIS, the chronology
of the Younger Dryas Stadial end moraines is
largely based on 14C dating, biostratigraphy and
varve chronologies (cf. Sauramo 1923, Lundqvist
& Wohlfarth 2001, Mangerud 2004). Lundqvist
& Wohlfarth (2001) were of the opinion that the
Swedish Skövde and Billingen moraines were
formed during the Younger Dryas Stadial. Both
of these end moraines were deposited into the
Baltic Ice Lake.
In Norway, the Central Sweden Skövde-Bill-
ingen end moraines continued as the Ra end mo-
raine in the Oslofjorden area towards the south-
west (Sørensen 1979, Mangerud 2004). In the
Oslofjorden area the Ås and Ski end moraines
were deposited at the end of the Younger Dryas
Stadial (Mangerud 2004). Further north, the
Halsnøy end moraine at the mouth of the Hard-
agerfjord and also the Herdla end moraine in the
Bergen area are correlated to the Ski moraine in
Oslofjorden. There are no Younger Dryas end
moraines between Ålfoten and Norrland, but in
9
Late Weichselian deglaciation chronology and
palaeoenvironments in northern Karelia, NW Russia
the Trondheim area, the Tautra and Hoklingen
end moraines were formed ca. 12 500 and 12 000
years ago, respectively (Mangerud 2004). The
Tautra end moraine continues towards the north
to the Tromsø-Lyngen area, while the Hoklin-
gen end moraine can be traced as far as southern
Norrland (Sveian & Solli 1997). Norwegian end
moraines were typically deposited onto the con-
tinental shelf.
The Salpausselkä I and II end moraines run
across southern Finland (Fig. 1). They are con-
tinuous ridges, ca. 25 kilometres apart, that can
be traced from the southern coast of Finland to
the Finnish Karelia in southeastern Finland (Fig.
1) (Niemelä et al. 1993, Rainio 1996). In Finn-
ish North Karelia, the Tuupovaara, Koitere and
Pielisjärvi end moraines are discontinuous mo-
raine zones that continue to Russian Karelia (Fig.
1). The existing chronology of the Salpausselkä
and Pielisjärvi end moraines is based on varve
Fig 1. Younger Dryas Stadial end moraines and their relatives in Fennoscandia, modied after Mangerud (2004). The main
end moraines in the NW Russia are: KA = Kalevala, P = Pääjärvi, RE = Eastern Rukajärvi, RW = Western Rukajärvi, K =
Keiva. The main end moraines in southern Finland are: SS I-III = First, second and third Salpausselkäs, PL = Pielisjärvi, K
= Koitere, T = Tuupovaara, J = Jaamankangas ice marginal deposit. The main end moraines in Scandinavia are: S = Skövde,
B = Billingen, RA = Ra, HA = Halsnøy, HE = Herdla, Å = Ålfoten, HO = Hoklingen, TA = Tautra, N = Norrland, T-L =
Tromsø-Lyngen. LGM indicates the maximum extent of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet (SIS) on its eastern ank, modied after
Demidov et al. (2004).
chronology and biostratigraphical evidence, sup-
ported by radiocarbon ages constructed from the
Salpausselkä area. The Finnish varve chronology
(Sauramo 1918, 1923, 1926) originally covered
2210 varve years and was later corrected to in-
clude 2900 years (cf. Taipale & Saarnisto 1991).
The chronology is based on the correlation of
marker horizons formed as a result of water level
changes in the Baltic Basin. The zero year, a thick
varve horizon in the varved clay sequence, is gen-
erally thought to have been formed when the Bal-
tic ice lake level (BIII) dropped 26–28 metres to
the Yoldia Sea level (YI). At the same time or im-
mediately afterwards, the Salpausselkä II end mo-
raine was formed (Sauramo 1923, 1929, Donner
1995, Lunkka et al. 2004, Johansson et al. 2011).
Using Finnish varve chronology, xed to the zero
year, together with 14C AMS and cosmogenic ex-
posure dating results (Saarnisto & Saarinen 2001,
Tschudi et al. 2001, Rinterknecht et al. 2006),
10
Geological Survey of Finland
Niko Pu tkin en
it has been concluded that Salpausselkä I was
formed 12300–12 100 calendar years ago and Sal-
pausselkä II 11800–11 600 years ago (cf. Lunkka
et al. 2004, Donner 2011, Johansson et al. 2011).
The Rukajärvi end moraine in Russian Kare-
lia (Fig. 1) runs 30 kilometres east of the south-
ern stretch of the Kalevala end moraine from
the Finnish Karelian Koitere end moraine to the
Tiksha area (Fig. 3). The Rukajärvi end moraine
was deposited in front of the North Karelian ice
lobe and the Lake Onega sub-ice lobe (Figs. 1 and
2). According to Saarnisto & Saarinen (2001), the
Rukajärvi end moraine was deposited 12 300–
12 100 years ago.
Two other end moraines in Russian Karelia,
the Kalevala and Pääjärvi end moraines, are rela-
tively well mapped but they have not been directly
dated. The Kalevala end moraine extends for 400
km from Jaamankangas in Finland to Kalevala in
Russian Karelia, while the Pääjärvi end moraine
runs from Kalevala to the northern part of Lake
Pääjärvi (Figs. 1 and 2). The age estimates of these
end moraines are based on radiocarbon dating of
lake sediments, consideration of ice retreat rates
and the correlation of the Russian Karelian end
moraines to the Salpausselkäs in Finland (Ekman
& Iljin 1991, Rainio et al. 1995, Boulton et al.
2001, Svendsen et al. 2004). It is generally ac-
cepted that the Kalevala end moraine was formed
at the margin of the North Karelian lobe 11800–
11 600 years ago (Fig. 2) (Boulton et al. 2001,
Svendsen et al. 2004) and that the Pääjärvi end
moraine was formed in front of the Kuusamo-
White Sea ice lobe 11800–11 600 years ago (Boul-
ton et al. 2001, Svendsen et al. 2004). However,
Ekman & Iljin (1991) suggested that these end
moraines were deposited at the same time as Sal-
pausselkä I.
As outlined above, the absolute ages of the
Younger Dryas Stadial moraines in Finland, Swe-
Fig 2. Ice streams in northern Karelia modied after Punkari
(1985) (E = North Karelian ice lobe, G = Kuusamo-White
Sea ice lobe, G1 = Onega sub-ice lobe, G2 = Tuoppajärvi
sub-ice lobe and E2 = Kuittijärvi sub-ice lobe). End moraines
and Maaselkä drainage divide (M) are also indicated, for ab-
breviations see Fig. 1.
den and Norway are relatively well constrained,
as are the palaeoenvironments that existed in
front of the ice margin (Lundqvist 2004, Manger-
ud 2004, Lunkka et al. 2004, Rinterknecht et al.
2006). However, the absolute chronology of the
last deglaciation and the palaeoenvironmental
setting during the course of the ice retreat in Rus-
sian Karelia is not well known. The purposes of
this thesis were therefore to reconstruct the pal-
aeoenvironments in front of the SIS in Russian
Karelia during the Late Weichselian and Early
Holocene periods and to date the Rukajärvi, Ka-
levala and Pääjärvi end moraines. The overall aim
was to reconstruct different positions of the ice
margin during the Weichselian deglaciation.
2 STUDY AREA
The study area is located in Northern Karelia, on
the western side of the White Sea in Russian Ka-
relia. The area examined was 400 km long and 200
km wide, situated between the Maaselkä drainage
divide and Lake Tuoppajärvi area (Figs. 2 and 3).
Russian Karelia belongs to the eastern part of the
Fennoscandian Shield (cf. Koistinen et al. 2001).
The bedrock of the area consists of eroded Ar-
chaean basement metamorphic rocks and Paleo-
proterozoic volcanic and/or metasedimentary
rocks with ultra-mac intrusions (Eilu et al. 2008).
Morphologically, this undulating area slopes to-
wards the White Sea graben. The coastal area ad-
jacent to the White Sea is at, while the morphol-
ogy of the inland area undulates to the amount
of tens of metres depending on rock types. The
altitude in the northwestern part of the study area
ranges from 110 to 200 metres above the present
day sea level (a.s.l.), while the altitude of the high-
est hills is 250–300 m a.s.l. In the western part the
11
Late Weichselian deglaciation chronology and
palaeoenvironments in northern Karelia, NW Russia
altitude ranges from 60 to 100 m a.s.l., the highest
hills locally being 240–348 m a.s.l., while in the
southwest it ranges between 120 and 145 m a.s.l.,
the highest point locally being 190 m a.s.l.
Three ice marginal zones and an interlobate
complex consisting of glaciouvial and/or till
material and also streamlined moraines are the
main glacial geomorphological landforms in the
study area (cf. Ekman & Iljin 1991, Niemelä et al.
1993, Putkinen & Lunkka 2008, Elina et al. 2010).
Otherwise, the Quaternary deposits that cover the
undulating bedrock topography are relatively thin
and consist of basal till. The lowland areas are
covered by silt, clay and peat deposits (cf. Niemelä
et al. 1993).
Fig 3. Main locations of the study area. Coring sites (triangles) are: AK = Ala-Kuittijärvi, KK = Keski-Kuittijärvi, T = Tuop-
pajärvi. End moraines (codes RE, RW, KA and P) and areas of interest in Papers I–IV are also indicated. For abbreviations
see Fig. 1.
12
Geological Survey of Finland
Niko Pu tkin en
3 METHODS
The methods used in this work included a number
of techniques applicable to palaeoenvironmental
research in glacial environments. The work began
with geomorphological mapping in the Karelian
ice marginal zones. Aerial photography stud-
ies were conducted at the Institute of Geology,
Karelian Research Centre, Petrozavodsk. Later,
the glacial landscape of the study area was also
mapped using satellite imagery according to the
procedures outlined in Paper I. Aerial interpreta-
tions of the glacial landforms in the study area
were checked during 10 eld expeditions in the
period 2002–2008. Particular attention was paid
to glacial geomorphological formations deposited
at the margin of the local ice lobes, ice ow direc-
tions and features indicating former water levels.
Glacial geomorphological studies concen-
trated on identifying different land systems that
are morphologically recognisable in the eld and
in aerial photographs and satellite images (cf.
Punkari 1985). These glacial landforms comprise
characteristic landform associations that can
be linked to glacier retreat history (cf. Stokes &
Clark 2001). Therefore, mapping of landforms
such as drumlins, drumlinoids and megautes,
non-streamlined topography, eskers and ice mar-
ginal landforms was used to reconstruct palaeo-
ice lobes (Paper I) (cf. Stokes & Clark 2003). Pa-
per I utilised a modied land-system approach to
reveal the ice lobe pattern in the study area.
Internal structures of glaciouvial formations,
especially at plains, were studied using ground
penetrating radar (GPR) (Paper III) and also
from shallow cable pits and ditches and shallow
test pits (Papers I and III). GPR is a powerful,
non-destructive electromagnetic proling tool for
revealing sedimentary structures in shallow sub-
surface sediment sequences. The method is based
on reection proling of pulsating electromagnet-
ic energy two-way travel times between a surface
and electrical boundaries, which typically exist
at sediment interfaces with different dielectrical
properties depending on water content and lithol-
ogy (cf. Annan & Davis 1976, Daniels et al. 1988).
In Papers II and IV, a study of soft sediment cores
was carried out using conventional sedimentolog-
ical logging and description methods as outlined
in these papers (cf. Håkanson & Jansson 1983).
The elevation data collected from the delta
plains and associated beach deposits were used
to estimate former water levels and to reconstruct
distance diagrams, which are commonly used for
determination of ancient shoreline gradients. In
Paper III the shoreline gradient in the east of the
Kalevala end moraine was used to reconstruct
the past water level of the White Sea during the
Younger Dryas Stadial. This procedure was partly
based on Mann et al. (1999) description of recon-
struction using the geographical information sys-
tem (GIS) software application.
Relative water level history can also be recon-
structed using conventional shore displacement
methods (cf. Miettinen 2002), as presented in Pa-
per II. These methods are based on identifying
and dating the isolation contact from lake sedi-
ment cores obtained from small raised lake ba-
sins. The isolation contact, which can often been
seen as a marked change in sediment type and
diatom content, indicates the event when a lake
basin becomes isolated from the ancient sea basin
or a large freshwater body. The isolation contacts
were dated here with a 14C AMS dating method,
using organic material collected directly above the
isolation contact. The data obtained were used in
Paper II for determining the threshold altitude
and the time when the water level dropped below
the threshold altitude and to reconstruct a shore
displacement for the Belomorsk area.
The basic framework of the Fennoscandian de-
glaciation chronology was established using gla-
ciolacustrine varve counting (De Geer 1912, Sau-
ramo 1918, 1923) and biostratigraphical methods,
combined with 14C dating (cf. Hyvärinen 1973).
During the past decade, methods involving lu-
minescence (Lian 2007) and sediment exposure
dating (cf. Ivy-Ochs & Kober 2007) have been
also used to date the Younger Dryas Stadial end
moraines (cf. Svendsen et al. 2004, Rinterknecht
et. al. 2004, 2006). However, in Paper IV the de-
glaciation chronology for Russian Karelia was
determined using varve counting together with
palaeomagnetic dating (cf. Thompson & Oldeld
1986). The palaeomagnetic method is based on
measuring the direction and intensity of Natu-
ral Remanent Magnetisation (NRM). Palaeo-
magnetic records of the studied lake sediments
were compared against the Nautajärvi palaeo-
magnetic master curve (Ojala & Saarinen 2002)
and the Mustalampi reference curve (Kosonen
& Ojala 2011). The whole procedure, including
echo sounding, coring, logging, sub-sampling
and measuring of the palaeomagnetic samples
and X-ray radiographs, is described in Paper IV.
In the area east of the Kalevala and Pääjärvi end
moraines, 14C AMS dating, geomorphology and
assumptions of ice lobes retreat rates were used to
picture different deglaciation events, as outlined
in Papers I and IV.
13
Late Weichselian deglaciation chronology and
palaeoenvironments in northern Karelia, NW Russia
4 RESULTS: REVIEW OF PAPERS I–IV
4.1 Paper I
In Paper I, glacial geomorphological landforms in
an area covering more than 7000 km2 were stud-
ied in detail using aerial photography and satellite
imagery and on-site eld observations. Drumlins,
drumlinoids and megautes, non-streamlined
landforms such as eskers and ice marginal land-
forms were manually drawn on 1:50 000 and
1:200 000 scale topographical maps. This was
done to reconstruct the detailed history of Scan-
dinavian Ice Sheet (SIS) behaviour and also de-
glaciation chronology in the Lake Kuittijärvi
area. The SIS deglaciation chronology presented
in Paper I is based on relative geomorphological
data, 14C AMS dating and assumptions on the ice
retreat rate.
Based on the geomorphological data, three dif-
ferent ice ow patterns (two ice marginal zones
and an interlobate complex) were identied in the
area. The results indicate that the Tuoppajärvi
sub-ice lobe (TIS) formed after the White Sea ice
lobe became inactive. The Kuittijärvi sub-ice lobe
(KIS), which was part of the Northern Karelian
ice lobe, operated in the area during deglaciation.
Subglacially formed lineation patterns associated
with other indicative landforms, such as end mo-
raines and esker ridges, indicate a clear age rela-
tionship between the activity of the ice lobes. The
KIS was active after the linear landforms were
formed by the TIS. It is estimated that deglacia-
tion of the TIS from the Kalevala end moraine to
the Lake Pääjärvi end moraine took place 11300–
10 900 calendar years ago. It seems that the ice
margin of the KIS marked by the Kalevala end
moraine was formed around 11300–11 200 calen-
dar years ago. During this time an interlobate area
and later a passive ice area were formed between
the active KIS and the retreating TIS. During the
late deglaciation phase, the Kuusamo-White Sea
ice lobe activated (the Pääjärvi ow stage) after
the TIS became inactive and the Lake Pääjärvi end
moraine was deposited ca. 10 900 calendar years
ago. All three ice lobes (KIS, TIS and Kuusamo-
White Sea) terminated in a relatively large ice lake
extending from the Kalevala end moraine zone to
the White Sea Basin. The level of this ice lake in
the Kalevala end moraine zone and the Kepa area
was approximately 125 m a.s.l. and in the Pääjärvi
end moraine area approximately 145 m a.s.l.
4.2 Paper II
Paper II presents the results of the shore displace-
ment study carried out in the Belomorsk area,
NW Russia. A total of ve small lake basins at
altitudes of 72, 93, 113, 121, 134 m a.s.l. and one
paludied pond at 45 m a.s.l. were cored and
their sediments studied using traditional shore
displacement methods. The purpose of the study
was to identify and date the isolation contact
of the lake sediment cores obtained from raised
small lake basins. Each isolation contact, which
indicates the event when the lake basin became
isolated from the main water body, was dated by
applying a 14C AMS method to organic material
collected from around the isolation contacts.
In most of the basins studied, the isolation
contact was a sharp distinction where laminated
or massive clay and silt, often poor in diatoms,
changed into organic-rich clay or gyttja abundant
in diatoms. Diatom analysis suggested that both
minerogenic clay and silt and organic-rich clay
and gyttja were deposited in a freshwater environ-
ment. In some of the basins the minerogenic silt
and clay sediments included diatom taxa, indi-
cating that the basins were isolated from a large
glacial lake. At the isolation boundary the occur-
rence of Fragillaria species was very characteristic
and above the isolation boundary the diatom taxa
were typical for small lake basins. 14C AMS dating
of the isolation contacts of the lake basins at be-
tween 134 and 72 m a.s.l. showed an uncalibrated
14C age of between 10 190 ± 60 and 10 290 ± 50 yr
BP. The calibrated results indicated that there was
an extensive ice lake in the White Sea Basin prior
to ca. 12 050 cal. yr BP and initially all lake basins
studied were part of this ice lake. Based on 14C
AMS data, diatom content and lithostratigraphi-
cal observations, it was shown that the lake ba-
sins between 134 m to 72 m became isolated from
the White Sea basin ice lake within less than 200
years, around 12 050 cal. yr BP. There were sug-
gestions that at that time, the water level of a large
glacial lake in the Belomorsk area, which was part
of a substantial glacial lake in the White Sea Ba-
sin area, experienced a sudden water level drop
of approximately 50–60 m. As a result of this, a
huge amount of glacial meltwater was released,
most probably through the neck of the White Sea
into the Barents Sea. The resulting sudden water
14
Geological Survey of Finland
Niko Pu tkin en
level drop in the glacial lake in the White Sea Ba-
sin must also have affected the behaviour of the
eastern ank of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet and
the local climate around 12 000 cal. yr BP.
4.3 Paper III
Paper III presents the rst numerical reconstruc-
tion of the White Sea Basin water level during the
late Younger Dryas Stadial. In the study, geomor-
phological, sedimentological and ground pen-
etrating radar survey (GPR) methods were used
to study glaciouvial plains and shorelines at four
sites in the Kalevala end moraine area.
Geomorphological results for at glaciouvial
plains and their steep distal slopes, discontinuous
melt water channels and kettle holes were used to
dene the highest shorelines of the glaciouvial
formations studied. In addition to the geomor-
phological data, shallow test pits on at plains
and GPR indicated that three of the glaciouvial
plains represent glaciouvial Gilbert-type deltas,
deposited to the contemporary water level dur-
ing the late Younger Dryas Stadial. The distance
diagram for the study area was reconstructed us-
ing the data collected on shoreline altitudes, com-
bined with shore line altitude observations by
Ekman & Iljin (1991) and Putkinen & Lunkka
(2008). The shoreline gradient was estimated to be
0.42 m/km and this value was used for numerical
reconstruction of the White Sea water level during
the late Younger Dryas Stadial. This reconstruc-
tion revealed that the water body in the White Sea
basin was more extensive than today, inundating
the present onshore areas on the western side of
the White Sea and the Arkhangelsk area to the
east. The ice margin terminated in the White Sea,
which was connected to the Barents Sea via the
Gorlo Strait and separated from the Baltic drain-
age basin to the south.
4.4 Paper IV
Paper IV presents the Late Weichselian and Early
Holocene deglaciation history of the Kaleva and
Pääjärvi area, Russian Karelia, together with ab-
solute age determinations of the Kalevala and
Pääjärvi end moraines. Determination of the de-
glaciation history of the area was based on the
sedimentological and palaeomagnetic results ob-
tained from three lake sediment cores. Two of the
lakes, Ala-Kuittijärvi and Keski-Kuittijärvi, are
situated on the proximal side of the Kalevala end
moraine, while the third, Tuoppajärvi, is situated
on the distal side of the Pääjärvi end moraine.
One site from each lake basin was chosen for sedi-
mentological and chronological studies. The chro-
nology presented in Paper IV is based on palaeo-
magnetic measurements and varve counting re-
sults and comparison of these against the Finnish
palaeomagnetic master curve.
The results indicate that the deglaciation sedi-
ments in Lakes Ala-Kuittijärvi and Keski-Kuit-
tijärvi were deposited mainly by extra-marginal
rivers, while those in Lake Tuoppajärvi were de-
posited in an ice-contact setting. After the glacial
meltwater input ceased, typical large-lake gyttja
clay/clay gyttja sediment accumulated in all three
basins. The longest and the most complete chro-
nology was obtained from Lake Ala-Kuittijärvi,
for which the palaeomagnetic record extends back
to 10 800 cal. BP. The sediment sequence from
Lake Keski-Kuittijärvi covers at least 9 800 years
and that from Lake Tuoppajärvi 9 800 years.
Palaeomagnetic records together with 450 count-
ed varves in Lake Ala-Kuittijärvi indicate that the
basin was deglaciated 11 250 cal. BP and the Ka-
levala end moraine was formed 11400–11 300 cal.
BP while the Pääjärvi end moraine was formed
11 000 cal. BP. It was shown that the Kalevala end
moraine is not correlated in time to the Younger
Dryas Salpausselkä I and II moraines. It was sug-
gested that the Kalevala end moraine was formed
at the earliest Holocene at the same time as the
Salpausselkä III and Pielisjärvi end moraines.
15
Late Weichselian deglaciation chronology and
palaeoenvironments in northern Karelia, NW Russia
5 DISCUSSION
The Younger Dryas Stadial end moraines are im-
portant landforms for reconstruction of the de-
glaciation history of Fennoscandia and NW Rus-
sia. Glacial geomorphological features in Russian
Karelia have been described in numerous maps
and papers during past decades (cf. Kurimo 1982,
Niemelä et al. 1993, Punkari 1985, Ekman & Il-
jin 1991, Rainio et al. 1995, Kleman et al. 1997,
Boulton et al. 2001, Putkinen & Lunkka 2008).
The most prominent end moraines in the western
part of Russian Karelia are the Rukajärvi, Kale-
vala and Pääjärvi end moraines (see Fig. 1) (cf.
Punkari 1985). It is thought that the Kalevala and
Rukajärvi end moraines were deposited in front
of the SIS during the Younger Dryas Stadial, ca.
12800–11 500 years ago (Muscheler et al. 2008),
although absolute age determinations are lacking.
Two different ice lobes, the Kuusamo-White
Sea and Northern Karelian ice lobes, operated
time-transgressively in the study area during the
last deglaciation (Fig. 2) (cf. Punkari 1985, Ek-
man & Iljin 1991, Boulton et al. 2001). The ice
margin of the Kuusamo-White Sea ice lobe was
situated further east of the study area, i.e. in the
White Sea Basin, when the streamlined landforms
parallel to ice ow were formed in the Lake Tuop-
pajärvi area. Punkari (1985) concluded that the
southern margin of the Kuusamo-White Sea ice
lobe (i.e. the southern margin of the so-called
Lake Onega sub-ice lobe) is marked by the Ruka-
järvi end moraine running from Rukajärvi to Be-
lomorsk. Based on one OSL date, Lunkka et al.
(in prep.) suggest that the eastern part of the Ru-
kajärvi end moraine was deposited around 12 500
years ago (Fig. 4A). At this time, the Lake Onega
sub-ice lobe terminated in a glaciolacustrine lake
that occupied the Onega Bay of the present White
Sea Basin (cf. Ekman & Iljin 1991, Rainio 1995,
Yevzerov 1998) and lowland areas onshore to the
south of the eastern arc of the Rukajärvi end
moraine.
However, based on geomorphological observa-
tions which indicate that a part of the eastern arc
of the Rukajärvi end moraine was deposited in
the supra-aquatic setting (Punkari 1985, Ekman
& Iljin 1991, Niemelä et al. 1993), it is evident that
there were no major glaciolacustrine basins into
which the ice front terminated in this area.
The beach deposits on the anks of the Ruka-
järvi eastern arc end moraine ridges and the Ru-
kavaara hill clearly indicate that there must have
been transgression in the area when ice retreated
towards the north. The transgression event that
occurred in the glaciolacustrine basin post-dates
the formation of the eastern arc of the Ruka-
järvi end moraine. Since there are no thresholds
between the Rukajärvi hill and the White Sea
Basin, which was already ice-free at that time, a
major transgression took place in the White Sea
basin and the adjacent onshore areas. On the Ru-
kavaara hill the highest beach deposits occur at
175 m a.s.l., indicating the highest level of this ice
lake (Fig. 4B). The results presented in this the-
sis suggest that the threshold for this glacial lake
was situated in the present Gorlo Strait area to
the northeast and in the Maaselkä upland area to
the south (Fig 2).
As the ice retreated further from the Rukajärvi
end moraine towards the north, the ice lake be-
came larger and transgression continued until the
new outow route opened ca. 12 050 years ago,
leading to an approximately 50–60 m regression
in the glaciolacustrine basin within 200 years, as
discussed in Paper II. The results suggest that the
drop in water level in the glaciolacustrine basin
had a major impact on the ice or sediment/sedi-
mentary rock threshold in the Gorlo Strait area.
This was eventually eroded as the waters of the
White Sea Basin ice lake broke catastrophically
through the threshold. Deglaciation continued as
the ice margin of the former Lake Onega sub-ice
lobe retreated to the northwest.
Geomorphological evidence indicates that the
Northern Karelian ice lobe advanced subsequent-
ly from the west (cf. Punkari et al. 1985, Ekman
& Iljin 1991, Niemelä et al. 1993). The direction
of eskers and end moraines west of Tiksha clearly
shows that the Northern Karelian ice lobe over-
rode the westernmost part of the eastern Ruka-
järvi end moraine arc (Fig. 4C) (cf. Niemelä et al.
1993, Putkinen & Lunkka, unpublished). It has
also been suggested that the western arc of the
Rukajärvi end moraine was deposited during this
ice advance (cf. Punkari 1985, Rainio et al. 1995,
Lunkka et al. 2004). It seems evident that the
northern part of this end moraine in the Tiksha
area was deposited supra-aquatically (Putkinen &
Lunkka, unpublished). Since the end moraines in
the Tiksha area are lower than the highest shore
line altitude of the adjacent sub-aquatic Ru-
kavaara hill area, the deposition of the end mo-
raines in the former area occurred after the wa-
ter level drop in the White Sea basin Ice lake ca.
12 050 years ago.
As the ice margin retreated to the Kalevala
area, the geomorphological evidence, particularly
the fact that longitudinal eskers run from both the
Tuoppajärvi sub-ice lobe and the Kuittijärvi sub-
16
Geological Survey of Finland
Niko Pu tkin en
Fig 4. Late Weichselian and Early Holocene deglaciation of Russian Karelia. The palaeoshoreline of the ice lake that existed
in the White Sea Basin is also presented in gures B and D.
17
Late Weichselian deglaciation chronology and
palaeoenvironments in northern Karelia, NW Russia
ice lobe areas, indicates that interlobate forma-
tions were deposited between these two ice lobes
(Fig. 2). The positions of the ice margin in the
area of the Kuittijärvi sub-ice lobe and the Tuop-
pajärvi sub-ice lobe can be reconstructed from the
deltas that formed in front of the ice margin in
the glacial lake (Figs. 2 and 4D). The glaciou-
vial deltas with feeding eskers south of Shonga
and in Kepa lie at approximately 125 m a.s.l. and
both areas are approximately at the same south-
north trend of the modern isobase. This means
that these two areas have experienced the same
uplift history after the Weichselian deglaciation.
It is therefore most likely that the deltas south of
Shonga and around Kepa were deposited in the
glacial lake that existed next to the ice margin.
This ice lake must have been part of a large ice
lake that extended to the present White Sea basin
(Paper II).
As the geomorphological evidence suggests,
the Tuoppajärvi sub-ice lobe retreated before the
Kuittijärvi sub-ice lobe as deglaciation proceeded
(Fig. 4D). Based on the glaciouvial delta levels
between Kepa Village and Lake Suolajärvi in the
area of the Tuoppajärvi sub-ice lobe, it seems that
the ice margin terminated in this large ice lake, the
highest shoreline of which was at 145 m a.s.l. in
the area of Lake Suolajärvi. Delta levels higher
than 125 m a.s.l. are not present in the area of the
Kuittijärvi sub-ice lobe, which together with 14C
AMS dating results suggest that it still occupied
the low land area of the Lake Kuittijärvi basin
and its terminus was at the present Kalevala end
moraine and continued along the interlobate for-
mation to the north and west (Fig. 4D). Longitu-
dinal eskers, deltas, sandur deltas, sandar and the
kame-kettle topography between Kepa and Lake
Ohdanjärvi were deposited during the course
of the time-transgressive retreat of the Tuoppa-
järvi sub-ice lobe. Thus these landforms were not
formed in the collision zone of the above ice lobes,
as previously suggested by Punkari (1985).
It also seems evident that the Kuusamo-White
Sea ice stream, including the Tuoppajärvi sub-ice
lobe, did not operate with a surge fan mechanism,
as proposed by Kleman et al. (1997). This conclu-
sion is supported by the fact that there are end
moraines and eskers feeding into the ice marginal
deltas in the onshore area between the present
White Sea Basin and the Pääjärvi end moraine,
without any reorganisation of the streamlined,
subglacial features. This clearly indicates a succes-
sive and time-transgressive retreat of the ice mar-
gin. The Lake Pääjärvi drumlin eld and associ-
ated end moraine were formed during the Lake
Pääjärvi ow stage of the Kuusamo-White Sea
ice stream (Fig. 4E). This ow stage was consider-
ably younger than the Tuoppajärvi ow stage that
formed the Tuoppajärvi drumlin eld.
The shore displacement study in the Belomorsk
area, together with the geomorphological evidence
from the Tiksha area, show that the ice margin
followed the Rukajärvi end moraine eastern arc
from Tiksha to Belomorsk. This end moraine was
deposited prior to the transgression of the White
Sea ice lake. This means that the Rukajärvi end
moraine eastern arc was deposited slightly ear-
lier than the 12300–12 100 years ago suggested
by Saarnisto & Saarinen (2001), possibly 12500–
12 300 years ago. According to the geomorpho-
logical data discussed above, the western arc of
the Rukajärvi end moraine from the Tiksha area
to the Koitere end moraine in Finland was de-
posited after the formation of the eastern arc of
the Rukajärvi end moraine. The western arc of
the Rukajärvi end moraine was laid down in the
time interval between the rapid ice lake regression
12 050 years ago and the formation of the Kaleva-
la end moraine 11400–11 300 years ago. Assum-
ing an ice retreat rate of approximately 300–400
m/year during the last deglaciation (Boulton et al.
2001), this end moraine was formed at least 100–
150 years before the Kalevala end moraine. Based
on this, it is more likely that its age is 11 700–
11 600 years, corresponding roughly to the age of
Salpausselkä II and the Koitere end moraine in
Finland.
In the Kalevala end moraine area, 150 km
north of Tiksha, the palaeomagnetic dating and
varve-counting results from the Ala-Kuittijärvi
and Keski-Kuittijärvi lake sediment sequences
indicate that the ice had already retreated from
the Kuittijärvi basin 11 250 years ago. Since the
western margin of Ala-Kuittijärvi is situated ap-
proximately 30 km inside the Kalevala end mo-
raine, the end moraine itself must be older than
11 250 years. Assuming that the ice retreat rate in
northwestern Russian Karelia was approximately
300–400 m/year during deglaciation, as suggested
by Boulton et al. (2001) for example, then the age
estimate for the formation of the Kalevala end
moraine would be ca. 11400–11 300 years ago.
Recent age determinations of the Salpausselkä
I and II end moraines in Finland, adjacent to the
Russian Karelian Kalevala and Pääjärvi end mo-
raines discussed here, indicate that the Salpaus-
selkäs were deposited during the latter part of
Younger Dryas Stadial and the earliest Holocene,
12250–11 590 years ago (cf. Saarnisto & Saari-
nen 2001, Tschudi et al. 2000, Rinterknecht et al.
2004). According to the present results, the Kale-
vala end moraine was formed somewhat later than
18
Geological Survey of Finland
Niko Pu tkin en
the Salpausselkä II end moraine (Fig. 1). Previ-
ously, Andersen & Borns (1997), Rainio et al.
(1995) among others, correlated the Kalevala end
moraine with the Pielisjärvi end moraine in Finn-
ish northern Karelia. This correlation scheme is
supported by the results presented here. It is also
suggested that the Salpausselkä III in SW Finland
was formed at the same time, i.e. 11400–11 300
years ago.
Palaeomagnetic results from Tuoppajärvi, situ-
ated immediately on the distal side of the Pääjär-
vi end moraine, extend only 9 500 years back in
time. Therefore, this age is only the minimum age
for the formation of the Pääjärvi end moraine.
Based on the 14C AMS dates shown in Paper I,
the area 10 km on the distal side of the Pääjär-
vi end moraine had already become ice free ca.
10 800 years ago and the authors conclusion was
that the Pääjärvi end moraine was formed ca.
10 900 years ago. Due to the fact that the Pääjärvi
end moraine is situated around 80 km northwest
of the Kalevala end moraine measured along the
interlobate system and that it was formed at the
margin of a different ice lobe than the Kalevala
end moraine (Fig. 1), the Pääjärvi end moraine
must have formed later than the Kalevala end
moraine. The age estimate of 11 000 years ago
presented here is one hundred years older than
previously estimated in Paper I. This renement is
due to more precise absolute dating results of the
Kalevala end moraine together with the assump-
tion that the ice-retreat rate was 300–400 m/year
over a distance of 80 km.
6 CONCLUSIONS
Deglaciation of Russian Karelia took place time-
transgressively as the SIS retreated from the area
during the Younger Dryas Stadial and the earli-
est Holocene. A great variety of glacial landforms
were formed from which the deglaciation history
of the area can be reconstructed. The main con-
clusions presented here are based on mapping of
these glacial landforms using aerial photographs,
satellite imagery and eld investigations. The
chronostratigraphy and geochronology are based
on geomorphological considerations, 14C dating
and palaeomagnetic dating of annually laminated
large lake sediments cored from the end moraine
zones. A shore displacement study was conducted
in the Belomorsk area, together with modelling
of the water body of the ice lake that existed in
White Sea Basin to gain an overall picture of the
events and environmental changes that took place
in Russian Karelia during the Late Weichselian
and Early Holocene periods. Based on the evi-
dence presented in this thesis, the following con-
clusions can be drawn:
1. The Rukajärvi end moraine eastern arc was
deposited at the ice margin of the Onega sub-ice
lobe 12500–12 300 years ago.
2. A large ice lake then began to form 12 300
years ago and occupied the White Sea Basin and
onshore areas. The transgressive phase of this ice
lake ended 12 050 ± 150 years ago, when its water
level dropped rapidly by around 50–60 m due to
the opening of a new drainage route via the Gorlo
Strait.
3. The Rukajärvi end moraine western arc was
deposited at the margin of the Northern Karelian
ice lobe 11700–11 600 years ago.
4. As deglaciation proceeded, the conguration
of the ice lobes changed, which led to collision
between the active Kuittijärvi and more passive
Tuoppajärvi sub-ice lobes and the deposition of
the Kalevala end moraine 11400–11 300 years ago.
5. After the interlobate deposition of the north-
ern part of the Kalevala end moraine, ice retreat-
ed from the north of the interlobate zone more
rapidly than for the Kuittijärvi sub-ice lobe to the
south. After the retreat of the Kuittijärvi sub-ice
lobe from the Kalevala end moraine, the Pääjär-
vi end moraine was formed at the margin of the
Kuusamo-White Sea ice lobe 11 000 years ago.
19
Late Weichselian deglaciation chronology and
palaeoenvironments in northern Karelia, NW Russia
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The present research was carried out at the Geo-
logical Survey of Finland. Firstly, I wish to ex-
press my gratitude to my supervisors, Professors
Juha Pekka Lunkka and Antti Ojala, for their
patience, support and guidance through the re-
search and writing process, and Professor Matti
Saarnisto for the idea behind this thesis and his
guidance.
The reviewers, Professor Philip Gibbard and
Docent Peter Johansson, are thanked for their
valuable comments on the thesis. Dr. Mary
McAfee kindly revised the language of this thesis.
I would also like to thank Dr. Tommi Kaup-
pila, Dr. Arto Miettinen, Dr. Antti Pasanen and
Emilia Kosonen, who contributed to the original
papers and manuscripts included in this thesis,
and also the following persons, who contributed
to work in the eld and/or laboratory: Professor
Jussi Pekka Taavitsainen, Dr. Tomasz Goslar,
Jussi Annanolli, Arto Kiiskinen, Pertti Kinnu-
nen, Sari Lehtola, Erna Mäkeläinen, Miikka
Paalijärvi, Seppo Putkinen and Sami Tolppanen.
My colleagues at the Geological Survey and Finn-
ish universities are also thanked.
Finally, I would like to thank my loved ones for
their patience and understanding. I would also
like to thank my parents and friends who have
encouraged and supported me during these past
years.
This study was funded by the Jenny and Antti
Wihuri Foundation, the Finnish Graduate School
of Geology, the Geological Survey of Finland
and Professor Juha Pekka Lunkka’s Thule Insti-
tute PACE project.
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Late Weichselian deglaciation chronology and palaeoenvironments in northern Karelia, NW Russia • Niko Putkinen
ISBN 978-952-217-167-2 (PDF version without articles)
ISBN 978-952-217-166-5 (paperback)
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This thesis comprises a synopsis and four original papers dealing
with the deglaciation history and chronology of the eastern ank
of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet, and the evolution of the White Sea
Basin in NW Russia during the Late Weichselian. The studies
included mapping of the geomorphological formations and
determination of the age relationship between different landform
associations. This information was used in the reconstruction of
the dynamics of ice lobes in the area. In addition, studies on lake
sediments and shore displacement, as well as sedimentological
and geophysical investigations were carried out to reconstruct
the palaeoenvironments that existed in the White Sea Basin in
the Late Weichselian. The results indicate multistage evolution of
the Scandinavian Ice Sheet in the study area, where the Kalevala
and Pääjärvi end moraines, geomorphologically correlative to the
Younger Dryas Stadial Salpausselkä end moraines, were formed
shortly prior to 11 400–11 300 and 11 000 years ago, respectively.
The age estimates presented in this thesis suggest that the Kalevala
and Pääjärvi end moraines were deposited 100 to 500 years
earlier than previously thought, i.e. their deposition post-dates the
deposition of the Second Salpausselkä end moraine in SE Finland.
It is also shown that an extensive glacial lake existed in the White
Sea Basin during the early stages of deglaciation. This glacial lake
became connected to the Barents Sea at 12 050 years ago, when
the water level of the glacial lake rapidly dropped by ca. 60 m. It is
suggested that a huge amount of fresh water entering the Barents
Sea at 12 050 years ago, together with the freshwater input from the
ca. 28 m drop in the level of the Baltic Ice Lake slightly later, must
have had an impact on the climate all around Scandinavia and NW
Russia.
