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Chemical composition and antioxidant activity of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.) aboveground parts

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Biochemical assessment was performed of leaves, flower buds and flowers of lavender. High positive correlation was demonstrated between the essential oil contents and antioxidant activity (AA) (R = 0.9688), total phenolic acids and AA (R = 0.9303), as well as high negative correlation between flavonoid contents and AA (R = -0.9760). Results of the foregoing studies also suggest that AA of lavender (77.5-86.3%) is more correlated with the essential oil and phenolic compound contents than with the contents of flavonoids, anthocyanins and tannins. The predominant compounds in the oil obtained from leaves were epi-α-cadinol (17.8%), cryptone (10.4%), 1,8-cineole (7.3%) and caryophyllene oxide (7.2%), and of the oil distilled from flowers: linalyl acetate (22.3-32.1%) and linalool (23.9-29.9%). © by Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Przyrodniczego w Lublinie, Lublin 2016.
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ISSN 1644-0692
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Acta Sci. Pol. Hortorum Cultus, 15(5) 2016, 225-241
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND ANTIOXIDANT
ACTIVITY OF LAVENDER (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.)
ABOVEGROUND PARTS
Renata Nurzyńska-Wierdak, Grażyna Zawiślak
University of Life Sciences in Lublin
Abstract. Biochemical assessment was performed of leaves, flower buds and flowers of
lavender. High positive correlation was demonstrated between the essential oil contents
and antioxidant activity (AA) (R = 0.9688), total phenolic acids and AA (R = 0.9303), as
well as high negative correlation between flavonoid contents and AA (R = -0.9760). Re-
sults of the foregoing studies also suggest that AA of lavender (77.5–86.3%) is more cor-
related with the essential oil and phenolic compound contents than with the contents of
flavonoids, anthocyanins and tannins. The predominant compounds in the oil obtained
from leaves were epi-α-cadinol (17.8%), cryptone (10.4%), 1,8-cineole (7.3%) and caryo-
phyllene oxide (7.2%), and of the oil distilled from flowers: linalyl acetate (22.3–32.1%)
and linalool (23.9–29.9%).
Key words: total phenolic acids, DPPH radical scavenging activity, essential oil constituents
INTRODUCTION
Medicinal oil plants are popular throughout the world, both on natural stands and as
cultivated plants. Biosynthesis of volatile oils can take place in different plant organs
and its course is determined by ontogenetic and environmental factors [Najfian et al.
2012, Zheljazkov et al. 2012]. Similarly, the synthesis and accumulation of other active
substances, such as flavonoids, phenolic compounds, anthocyanins or tannins, so it is
modified through the course of plant development [Shafaghat et al. 2012] and depends
upon climatic factors. Medicinal lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.) is an appreci-
ated curative plant, used also in cosmetic industry, perfumery, food and for decorative
purposes. The main active substance of lavender raw material is essential oil, accumu-
Corresponding author: Renata Nurzyńska-Wierdak, Department of Vegetable Crops and Medici-
nal Plants, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, University of Life Sciences in
Lublin, Leszczyńskiego 58, 20-068 Lublin, Poland, e-mail: renata.nurzynska@up.lublin.pl
© Copyright by Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Przyrodniczego w Lublinie, Lublin 2016
226 R. Nurzyńska-Wierdak, G. Zawiślak
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Acta Sci. Pol.
lated in the amounts ranging from 1.13 to 9.25% [Jianu et al. 2013, Kara and Baydar
2013]. The lavender essential oil (LEO) composition depends on cultivar and growing
conditions. Medicinal lavender from north eastern Iran accumulated in its inflorescences
and leaves respectively: 6.25 and 0.64% of volatile oils [Hassanpouraghdam et al.
2011]. As predominant components of LEO the following are mentioned: linalool, li-
nalool acetate and linalyl acetate [Stanojević et al. 2011, Najafian et al. 2012,],
1,8-cineole, borneol, fenchon and camphor [Afsharypuor and Azarbayejany 2006,
Torabbegi and Aberoomand Azar 2013], as well as menthol and α-pinene [Rostami et
al. 2012]. The share of above-mentioned components undergoes is subject to, among
others, ontogenetic variability. Concentrations of 1,8-cineole, borneol and terpinen-4-ol
in LEO was higher before blooming than in full blooming, quite contrary to the contents
of linalool and linalool acetate [Najafian et al. 2012] It was also demonstrated that the
manner of distillation may affect the chemical profile of EO [Zheljazkov et al. 2012,
Torabbegi and Aberoomand Azar 2013].
The therapeutic properties of lavender mainly result from the activity of volatile
substances. The LEO demonstrates antibacterial [Hussain et al. 2011a, Rostami et al.
2012, Danh et al. 2013], anti-fungal [Canvanagh and Wilkinson 2005], antiviral [Orhan
et al. 2012], antioxidant [Hussain et al. 2011b, Hamad et al. 2013] and sedative activi-
ties [Huang et al. 2008]. Antimicrobial activity of LEO is quite difficult to assign the
presence of a particular component [Shafaghat et al. 2012, Jianu et al. 2013]. However,
antiviral activity of linalool, linalool oxide, linalool ester, borneol and eugenol against
Herpes simplex was confirmed [Orhan et al. 2012]. The antioxidant activity of LEO, in
turn, probably results from high concentration of linalool [Hamad et al. 2013]. Except
the essential oil in lavender flowers there also contain other active substances, such as
flavonoids, including anthocyanins, phenolic compounds, tannins, coumarins, phytos-
terols and mineral compounds. The most important feature of plant flavonoids and phe-
nolic compounds is their antioxidative activity that brings about many pharmacological
applications [Brunetti et al. 2013, Szwajgier et al. 2013]. There are reports confirming
the effectiveness of flavonoids and phenolic compounds in preventing neoplasms
[Roy et al. 2002, Soobrattee et al. 2006]. The antioxidant activity of plant extracts can
be explained both by the mechanism of phenolic compound activity and by the effect of
synergic activity of the above-mentioned compounds, as well as flavonoids [Eghdami
and Sadeghi 2010, Nuñez et al. 2012, Saeed et al. 2012]. Considering the above rela-
tionships, the essential oil and phenolics content and their corresponding antioxidant
potential of diverse organs (leaves, flower buds and flowers) were assayed.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Plant material. Leaves, flower buds and flowers of medicinal lavender (Lavandula
angustifolia Mill.) were collected from 2-year old plants grown in an experimental farm
of the University of Life Sciences in Lublin in South-Eastern Poland (51°23'N,
22°56''E). In this area there is fawn soil, formed on loess sediment, with the contents of
organic matter in the amount of 1.6%. The sowing material came from seed producing
company PNOS Ożarów Mazowiecki. Lavender was grown in the spacing of 60 × 40 cm.
Chemical composition and antioxidant activity of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.)... 227
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Hortorum Cultus 15(5) 2016
During vegetation period the indispensable cultivation procedures were performed (re-
moval of dried sprouts, several procedures of hand-weeding) and feeding the plants
twice with nitrogen in the form of ammonium saltpeter having 34% N (single dose of
about 7 kg N ha
-1
). Lavender leaves were collected before blooming (2.06.2013), flower
buds and flowers – in the initial phase of their development (respectively: 14.06 and
15.07.2013). The collected plant material was dried in the temperature of 35°C.
After drying, the leaves were characterized by light green hue and strong aroma, whereas
buds and flowers had the characteristic blue-violet colour and a specific aroma.
Total flavonoids content. Flavonoids content were spectrophotometrically deter-
mined. 10 g of medium powdered raw material was weighed out (sieve 0.315 mm) into
a round bottomed flask 20 ml acetone was added, as well as 2 ml of HCl (281 g l
-1
),
1 ml of metenamine solution (5 g l
-1
) and it was retained for 30 min in boiling state on
water bath under a reflux condenser. The hydrolysate was filtered through cotton-wool
into a 100 ml measuring flask, the precipitate with cotton wool was put in the flask and
20 ml of acetone was added and then it was kept in boiling state again for 10 minutes.
Etching was repeated once again. The extracts were filtered into the same measuring
flask and acetone was added to it. 20 ml of the solution was measured out into the dis-
tributor, 20 ml of water was added and extracted with ethyl acetate, by 15 ml portions
and 3 times 10 ml. The connected organic layers were washed twice with 40 ml of wa-
ter, filtered into a 50 ml measuring flask and topped up with ethyl acetate. Two samples
were prepared for determination: to 10 ml of basic solution 2 ml of aluminum chloride
solution (20 g l
-1
) and it was topped up with a mixture (1:19) of acetic acid (1.02 kg l
-1
)
with methanol up to 25 ml. To prepare a comparative solution, 10 ml of basic solution
was topped up with a mixture (1:19) of acetic acid (1.02 kg l
-1
) with methanol up to
25 ml. After 45 min absorbance of the solutions was measured at 425 nm, applying the
comparative solution as a reference. The total flavonoid content (%) was expressed
according to the formula: X =
m
kA
, where: A means study solution absorbance,
k – conversion factor for quercetin k = 0.875 (a
lcm
l%= 714), m raw material weighed
sample in g.
Total phenolic acids content
. To a 10 ml measuring test-tube 1.0 ml of water ex-
tract was weighed out, as well as 1 ml of hydrochloric acid (18 g l-1), 1 ml of Arnov’s
reagent, 1 ml of sodium hydroxide (40 g l-1) and that was topped up with water to 10 ml
(solution A). Then the solution absorbance was measured at 490 nm, applying a mixture
of reagents without the extract as reference. The contents of phenolic acids (%) was
determined in conversion to coffee acid (C9H2O4), assuming absorbability a
lcm
l%
= 285,
according to the formula: X =
m
A5087.3
, where A means absorbance of solution A,
m – a weighted sample of raw material in g.
Anthocyanins content
. 1 g of dried, previously comminuted and averaged raw ma-
terial was weighed out. The weighed sample was quantitatively transferred to a measur-
ing cylinder of the capacity of 250 cm3, containing a mixture of HCl in methanol
(850 ml of methanol and 150 ml of hydrochloric acid were poured into a 1000 ml meas-
228 R. Nurzyńska-Wierdak, G. Zawiślak
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Acta Sci. Pol.
uring flask, and the combined reagents were left there for 24 hours). The prepared
maceral was left under the hood, tightly covered, for 24 hours. Then absorbance of the
filtrate was measured at wave length λ = 535 nm.
Tannins content. Tannins were spectrophotometrically determined after they had
been extracted from dried raw material. The determination was performed with protec-
tion against direct effect of light, applying water deprived of CO
2
. 5 g of finely pulver-
ized raw material (sieve diameter: 0.16 mm) was weighed out into a 250 ml measuring
flask, 150 ml of water was added and it was kept for 30 min in a bath with boiling wa-
ter. Then the mixture was cooled down with a stream of running water, quantitatively
transferred into a 250 ml measuring flask, topped up with water and left for complete
sedimentation of the raw material. The liquid from above the sediment through filter
paper, first 50 ml were rejected, the remaining filtrate was used for determinations.
To determine the total polyphenols content, 5.0 ml of filtrate was topped up with water,
to 25.0 ml of that solution 1.0 ml of phosphoro-molybdenic-wolframic reagent was
added, then 10.0 ml of water and that was topped up with a solution of sodium carbon-
ate (290 g l
-1
) to 25.0 ml. After 30 min absorbance was measured at 760 nm, applying
water as a reference (A
1
). To determine the contents of polyphenols not bounding with
powder, to 10.0 ml of filtrate 0.10 g of hide powder was added, which had been fiercely
shaken for 1 hour and then it was filtered. 5.0 ml of filtrate was topped up with water up
to 25.0 ml, and then to 2.0 ml of that solution 1.0 ml of phosphoro-molybdenic-
volframic reagent was added, then 10.0 ml of water and it was topped up with a sodium
carbonate solution (290 g l
-1
) to 25.0 ml. After 30 min absorbance was measured at
760 nm, applying water as a reference (A
2
). A comparative solution was prepared: im-
mediately before determination 50.0 mg pyrogalol was dissolved in water and topped up
with water to 100.0 ml. 5 ml of the obtained solution was topped up with water to
100.0 ml, to 2.0 ml of that solution 1.0 ml of phosphoro-molybdenic-volframic reagent
was added, as well as 10.0 ml of water and that was topped up with a sodium carbonate
solution (290 g l
-1
) to 25.0 ml. After 30 min absorbance was measured at 760 nm, apply-
ing water as a reference (A
3
). The content of tannins (%) was calculated in conversion
to pyrogalol (C
6
H
6
O
3
), according to the formula: X =
13
221
)(5.62
m
A
mAA
, where A
1
means absorbance of polyphenols in the studied solution, A
2
absorbance of polyphe-
nols not binding with hide powder in the studied solution, A
3
– absorbance of the
comparative solution of pyrogalol, m
1
a weighed sample of raw material in g,
m
2
– a weighed sample of pyrogalol in g.
DPPH radical scavenging activity assay. DPPH radical scavenging activity was ex-
pressed as % of DPPH inhibition. The determination was performed according to the
method given by Yen and Chen [1995], and the calculation of DPPH inhibition accord-
ing to the formula given by Rossi et al. [2003]: % DPPH =
100
100
r
t
A
A. To prepare
a reagent containing a solution of radicals 0.012 g DPPH (2,2'-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrasyl)
was weighed out, transferred to a measuring flask of the capacity of 100 ml, filled up
with methanol (100%), then it was dissolved in an ultrasound washer for 15 min.
The blind assay (A
r
) was prepared as follows: 1 ml of distilled water was measured out
into a test tube (pH > 5), as well as 3 ml of methanol (100%) and 1 ml of DPPH solu-
tion. Having stirred it, after 10 minutes it was read on a spectrophotometer at 517 nm,
Chemical composition and antioxidant activity of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.)... 229
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Hortorum Cultus 15(5) 2016
against methanol (100%). To perform the examined assay (A
t
) 1 ml of a sample was
diluted in methanol and 3 ml of methanol (100%) was added, as well as 1 ml of DPPH
solution. The sample was stirred and after 10 min it was read on a spectrophotometer at
517 nm, against methanol (100%).
Essential oil distillation. The dried plant material, after samples had been weighed
out (20 g each) was placed in glass flasks of the capacity of 1 dm
3
, poured over with 400 ml
of water and designed for distillation conducted in Clevenger-type apparatuses for 3 hours,
counting from the moment when the contents of flask started to boil and the first drop was
distilled. The intensity of heating was regulated in such a way as to 3–4 ml of liquid flew
into the receiver per one minute. After distillation had finished, cooling was switched on,
the oil was led to micro-scale and after 30 min the result was read.
Essential oil composition. The quantitative and qualitative composition of lavender
oil obtained from leaves, flower buds and developed flowers was determined with the
use of gas chromatography and mass spectrometry methods (GC-MS) Varian
4000 MS/MS. For our studies we used the apparatus Varian 4000 MS/MS with VF-5 m
column (an equivalent of DB-5), the registered range 40–1000 m/z, scanning speed
0.8 sec/scan. The carrier gas was helium, the steady flow; 0.5 ml min
-1
. The temperature
of batcher was 250°C, the temperature gradient of 50°C was applied for 1 min, then the
increase to 250°C with the speed of 4°C min
-1
and 250°C for 10 min. Split 1:1000 m/z,
1 µl of solution was dosed (10 µl of assay in 1000 µl of hexane). Non-isothermal
Kovacs’ retention indexes were determined on the basis of a range of alkanes C
10
–C
40
.
The qualitative analysis was carried out on the basis of MS Spectral Library [2008].
The identity of the compounds was confirmed by their retention indices taken from the
literature [Adams 2004] and our own data.
Statistical analysis. All the chemical analyses were performed in three repetitions.
Significance of differences was assessed using Tukey’s confidence intervals at the sig-
nificance level alpha = 0.05. Correlation coefficients were calculated using the formulas
given by Oktaba [1986], at the level of 0.05 and 0.01.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Chemical composition and antioxidant activity of lavender leaves and flowers.
The chemical composition of examined lavender leaves and flowers was differentiated
and dependent upon the plant organ and stage of its development (tab. 1). Concentration
of essential oil was on average 2.2 ml 100 g
-1
and increased as lavender developed, from
0.6 ml 100 g
-1
(leaves) through 2.7 ml 100 g
-1
(flower buds) to 3.2 ml 100 g
-1
(deve-
loped flowers). Similarly, as plant development progressed in the examined organs the
contents of anthocyanins increased and in leaves it equaled 3.1 mg 100 g
-1
, while in
flowers it ranged from 4.3 to 9.9 mg 100 g
-1
(respectively: flowers in the phase of buds
and full development). The examined lavender flowers accumulated the oil on average
in the amount of 2.2 ml 100 g
-1
, which was mostly consistent with the results achieved
by other authors [Hussain et al. 2011b, Stanojević et al. 2011, Najafian et al. 2012, Jianu
et al. 2013]. It should be added that if a certain content of volatile oil in lavender leaves
was comparable in the works of other authors [Hassanpouraghdam et al. 2011],
230 R. Nurzyńska-Wierdak, G. Zawiślak
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Acta Sci. Pol.
the flowers of lavender may be distinguished by a much higher oil concentration:
6.25–7.57% [Hassanpouraghdam et al. 2011, Danh et al. 2013, Kara and Baydar 2013,],
which, most probably, results from ontogenetic and environmental variability, as well as
from the manner of extraction.
The quantity of flavonoids in turn, significantly the highest in leaves (0.4%), re-
mained on the same level in undeveloped and developed flowers (0.2%). The smallest
changes in concentration concerned phenolic compounds, the amount of which was
slightly bigger in flowers (0.5%) than in lavender leaves (0.4%). The examined plant
material was characterized by average contents of tannins in the amount of 0.6%, which
was significantly bigger (0.8%) in flower buds than in developed flowers (0.4%). Lav-
ender leaves turned out to be an especially valuable source of flavonoids, phenolic com-
pounds and tannins, equaling the biological value of flowers and even exceeding it
(content of flavonoids). The studies of Shafaghat et al. [2012] indicated that lavender
leaves contain, besides flavonoids, tannins and essential oil, also coumarins and they
suggest the potential anti-microbial activity of essential oil and extracts from lavender
leaves. While analyzing the chemical composition of examined lavender flowers, it was
found that as they develop, the contents of essential oil and anthocyanins significantly
increase, the share of tannins decreases, and the concentrations of flavonoids and pheno-
lic compounds remains on the same level. The results of studies by Najafian et al.
[2012] demonstrate the reverse pattern concerning the contents of lavender essential oil
in lavender flowers before and in full blooming, the authors suggest, however, that the
raw material should be harvested in the phase of full blooming due to increased share of
linalool in the oil.
Table 1. Chemical constituents of lavender raw material and its antioxidant activity (AA)
Samples Essential oil
ml 100 g
-1
Total
flavonoids
%
Total phenolic
acids
%
Anthocyanins
mg 100 g
-1
Tannins
%
AA by DPPH
Inhibition
%
Leaves 0.6 0.4 0.4 3.1 0.7 77.5
Buds 2.7 0.2 0.5 4.3 0.8 85.9
Flowers 3.2 0.2 0.5 9.9 0.4 86.3
Mean 2.2 0.3 0.5 5.8 0.6 83.2
LSD
0.05
0.44 0.09 0.89 0.84 0.19 7.81
The antioxidant activity (AA) of examined material was on average 83.2% and was
significantly the highest for lavender leaves (77.5%) (tab. 1). It was demonstrated that
AA of lavender flower buds and flowers was comparable (respectively: 85.9 and
86.3%). High positive correlation was demonstrated between essential oil contents and
antioxidant activity (R = 0.9688), total contents of phenols and AA (R = 0.9303), as
well as high negative correlation between flavonoid contents and AA (R = -0.9760)
(tab. 2). Antioxidant activity (AA) of plant extracts may result both from the presence of
phenolic compounds, cooperation of various phytocomponents, including flavonoids
[Eghdami and Sadeghi 2010, Stankevičius et al. 2010, Nuñez et al. 2012, Saeed et al.
2012, Stancheva et al. 2014], as well as the manner of extraction [Eghdami and Sadeghi
Chemical composition and antioxidant activity of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.)... 231
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Hortorum Cultus 15(5) 2016
2010, Ahmed and Shakeel 2012]. Moreover, flavonoids containing hydroxyl group (s)
in their structure were found more powerful antioxidants in comparison to the others
[Proteggente et al. 2002]. While analyzing the chemical composition of plant extracts it
is difficult to find out which of the components play the crucial role in the antioxidant
system. The ability of DPPH to neutralize a free radical is frequently consistent with the
high level of the total phenols and anthocyanins [Leja et al. 2007, Szwajgier et al.
2013]. On the other hand, however, the quantitative and qualitative differentiation of
phenolic components have not always reflected their antioxidant abilities [Świeca et al.
2013]. Besides, the ability to form chelate rings of the metal ions and the ability to in-
hibit lipid peroxidation is greatest at the lowest level of condensed tannins and flavon-
oids, as well as at relatively constant total content of phenolic compound [Fidrianny et
al. 2013]. The demonstrated high differentiation of the chemical composition of the
examined leaves, flower buds and flowers resulted from ontogenetic variability and
most probably was related to the complicated transformations of these compounds.
What seem to be most stable, the contents of phenolic compounds in the examined or-
gans of lavender, less dependent upon developmental factors. Interesting dependencies
also result from the performed analysis of correlation coefficients between the contents
of bioactive substances and antioxidant activity (AA) determined by DPPH, method,
indicating the significant share of phenolic compounds and essential oil in the antioxi-
dant potential of lavender. High negative correlation between flavonoid compounds and
AA in turn, most probably results from the specific structure of these compounds, and
mainly the position of OH radicles [Bunea et al. 2011]. To determine the antioxidant
potential the DPPH method seems to be the most appropriate, consistent with the con-
centration of polyphenols [Anasini et al. 2008, Szwajgier et al. 2013]. Most scientific
studies prove that AA is more correlated with the contents of phenolic compounds than
with that of anthocyanins or flavonoids [Jakobek et al. 2007, Anasini et al. 2008, Li et
al. 2009], which remains in consistence with the obtained results. However, there are
reports about the existence of a correlation between AA measured with the use of DPPH
method and total phenols and anthocyanins contents, and the coefficient of correlation
between the contents of anthocyanins and AA is lower than compared with phenols
contents [Saadatian et al. 2013]. Essential oils of some plants from Lamiaceae family,
rich in oxygenated terpenoids mainly monoterpenes, demonstrate a significant ability to
neutralize free radicals and anti-oxidant activity [Hussain et al. 2011b]. Studies on
chemical composition, as well as antioxidant activity of lavender oil demonstrated
a differentiated level of its activity, dependent upon the concentration and composition
of examined substance [Stanojević et al. 2011, Danh et al. 2013, Hamad et al. 2013].
The antioxidant activity of examined raw material (lavender leaves and flowers) may
result from high share of linalool in the oil [Hamad et al. 2013]. For the oil, besides
phenolic compounds, was the main “co-author” of antioxidant potential, expressed as
the ability to neutralize DPPH, and higher ability to neutralize the free radical DPPH
was demonstrated for flowers containing more linalool in oil than for leaves. Besides,
the process of increased accumulation of linalool in the oil in particular phases of plant
development (1.9 < 23.9 < 29.9%) was convergent with the increasing level of AA
(77.5 < 85.9 < 86.3%).
232 R. Nurzyńska-Wierdak, G. Zawiślak
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Acta Sci. Pol.
Table 2. Simple correlation coefficients between lavender compounds and antioxidant activity
(AA) of raw material
Compounds AA by DPPH Inhibition %
Anthocyanins 0.6483
Total flavonoids -0.9760*
Total phenolic acids 0.9303*
Tannins -0.2855
Essential oil 0.9688*
* – significant at the 0.01 level of probability
Table 3. Composition of lavender essential oil (%)
No Compound RI* Leaves Buds Flowers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
Cumene
ɑ-Pinene
Camphene
Verbenene
Octen-3-ol
3-Octanone
Myrcene
dehydro-1,8-Cineole
Butyl butanoate
dehydro-cis-Linalool oxide
Hexyl acetate
p-Cymene
orto-Cymene
Limonene
1, 8-Cineole
γ-Terpinene
(E)-β-Ocimene
trans-Linalool oxide
cis-Linalool oxide
3,5-Heptadienal
Linalool
1-Octen-3-y-yl acetate
trans-p-Mentha-2,8-dien
Octanol acetate
trans-p-Menth-2-en-1-ol
trans-Limonene oxide
E-Myroxide
Camphor
4-Hexen-1-ol
Borneol
Terpinen-4-ol
Cryptone
ɑ-Terpineol
979
982
987
993
994
996
997
998
999
1007
1012
1021
1027
1031
1035
1045
1059
1070
1086
1089
1097
1101
1112
1115
1123
1128
1136
1152
1165
1178
1184
1193
1201
1.0 ±0.0
0.5 ±0.0
1.4 ±0.0
0.4 ±0.0
0.9 ±0.0
0.2 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
0.4 ±0.0
0.7 ±0.0
1.5 ±0.0
3.8 ±0.2
7.3 ±0.1
0.1 ±0.0
0.6 ±0.0
0.2 ±0.0
1.9 ±0.1
0.2 ±0.0
0.2 ±0.0
tr
0.2 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
2.0 ±0.0
1.0 ±0.1
11.7 ±0.3
0.9 ±0.0
10.4 ±0.5
0.8 ±0.0
0.2 ±0.0
0.4 ±0.0
0.7 ±0.0
0.2 ±0.0
0.4 ±0.0
0.3 ±0.0
0.8 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
0.4 ±0.0
0.3 ±0.0
0.7 ±0.0
1.4 ±0.0
3.3 ±0.0
tr
2.3 ±0.0
2.1 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
23.9 ±0.2
1.0 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.2
0.8 ±0.0
0.6 ±0.0
4.3 ±0.1
1.7 ±0.0
3.6 ±0.0
5.0 ±0.1
0.1 ±0.0
0.2 ±0.0
0.2 ±0.0
Tr**
0.3 ±0.0
0.5 ±0.0
0.6 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
Tr
0.5 ±0.0
Tr
0.2 ±0.0
0.3 ±0.0
3.4 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
1.2 ±0.0
1.1 ±0.0
0.9 ±0.0
Tr
29.9 ±0.2
1.7 ±0.0
Tr
Tr
tr
0.1 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
0.4 ±0.0
0.6 ±0.1
1.7 ±0.1
5.1 ±0.0
0.6 ±0.0
2.4 ±0.0
Chemical composition and antioxidant activity of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.)... 233
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Hortorum Cultus 15(5) 2016
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
trans-Mentha-1(7),8-dien-2-ol
Verbenone
trans-Carveol
Nerol
Isobornyl
Linalyl acetate
Piperitone
Thymoquinone
Lavandulyl acetate
Bornyl acetate
p-Cymen-7-ol
Thymol
2,4-Cycloheptadien-1-one
3-oxo-p-Menth-1-en-7-al
Neryl acetate
Ni***
Sesquithujene
ɑ-Santalene
E-Caryophyllene
ɑ-trans-Bergamotene
ɑ-26,33 Farnesene
ɑ-Humulene
Germacrene D
γ-Cadinene
trans-Calamene
9,11-epoxy-Guaia-3,10(14)-diene
Caryophyllene oxide
Thujopsan-2-ɑ-ol
Guaiol
1,10-di-epi-Cubenol
epi-ɑ-Cadinol
ɑ-Cadinol
trans-Calanen-10-ol
14-hydroxy-9-epi-(E)-Caryophyllene
cis-14-nor-Muurol-5-en-4-one
Guaia-3,10(14)-dien-11-ol
Ni
1212
1219
1226
1229
1238
1253
1265
1279
1289
1295
1303
1308
1321
1349
1362
1380
1421
1428
1433
1444
1461
1474
1502
1530
1537
1576
1595
1601
1608
1629
1658
1665
1673
1690
1708
1730
1757
tr
0.7 ±0.0
0.6 ±0.0
0.4 ±0.0
0.7 ±0.0
5.9 ±0.1
0.4 ±0.0
0.2 ±0.0
0.7 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
1.2 ±0.0
0.4 ±0.0
0.3 ±0.0
0.7 ±0.0
0.3 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
1.5 ±0.0
0.3 ±0.0
0.3 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
0.3 ±0.0
3.4 ±0.1
0.3 ±0.0
0.7 ±0.0
7.2 ±0.2
0.2 ±0.0
0.2 ±0.0
1.7 ±0.0
17.8 ±0.5
0.2 ±0.0
0.8 ±0.0
0.3 ±0.0
2.1 ±0.1
0.5 ±0.0
1.6 ±0.1
0.2 ±0.0
0.4 ±0.0
0.2 ±0.0
0.8 ±0.0
0.4 ±0.0
22.3 ±0.3
0.1 ±0.0
0.3 ±0.0
3.4 ±0.1
0.6 ±0.0
0.6 ±0.0
Tr
0.2 ±0.0
0.8 ±0.0
1.1 ±0.0
2.4 ±0.1
Tr
0.7 ±0.0
1.0 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
0.2 ±0.0
0.4 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
4.5 ±0.0
Tr
0.2 ±0.0
2.3 ±0.1
Tr
0.2 ±0.0
0.3 ±0.0
0.3 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
Tr
0.3 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
32.1 ±0.0
Tr
0.1 ±0.0
5.9 ±0.0
0.2 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
Tr
Tr
0.3 ±0.0
0.7 ±0.0
Tr
0.4 ±0.0
3.8 ±0.0
0.1 ±0.0
0.5 ±0.0
0.2 ±0.0
0.3 ±0.0
0.2 ±0.0
Tr
Tr
1.6 ±0.0
Tr
Tr
Tr
0.1 ±0.0
tr
Total (%) 99.91 99.78 99.49
*RI – non-isothermal Kovats retention indices (from temperature-programming, using the definition of Van
den Dool and Kratz [1963]) for a series of n-alkanes (C
6
–C
40
); **Tr – traces, contents below 0.05%;
***Ni – unidentified compound
234 R. Nurzyńska-Wierdak, G. Zawiślak
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Acta Sci. Pol.
A
B
Chemical composition and antioxidant activity of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.)... 235
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Hortorum Cultus 15(5) 2016
C
Fig. 1. GC-MS chromatogram of the lavender essential oil (respectively from the: leaves – A,
flower buds – B and flowers – C)
The essential oil obtained from lavender flowers to a significant degree differed in
its chemical composition from the essential oil distilled from lavender leaves. In the oil
obtained from lavender flower buds the presence of 66 compounds was determined
(tab. 3, fig. 1). The predominant compound was linalool (23.9%) and linalyl acetate
(22.3%). Comparing the composition of oil obtained from flower buds to the remaining
oil samples, one can notice the highest concentrations of trans-linalool oxide (2.3%)
and cis-linalool oxide (2.1%), neryl acetate (1.1%), nerol (0.8%) and bornyl acetate
(0.6%), similarly to γ-terpinene (3.3%) and terpinen-4-ol (5.0%). Analyzing the compo-
sition of essential oil obtained from developed lavender flowers the presence of
64 compounds was found, among which linalool acetate predominated (32.1%) together
with linalool (29.9%). Besides, in the oil from lavender flowers the highest shares of
lavandulyl acetate (5.9%), terpinen-4-ol (5.1%), E-caryophyllene (3.8%), 1-octen-3-y-yl
acetate (1.7%) and (E)-β-ocimene (1.2%) were found, compared to the remaining ones.
The chemical composition of LEO undergoes different kinds of variability: ontogenetic
[Hassanpouraghdam et al. 2011, Najfian et al. 2012], genetic and environmental [Hamad
et al. 2013, Jianu et al. 2013]. Besides, high variability of EOL chemical composition and
of its bioactivity results from different extraction methods [Jakobek et al. 2007, Stanojević
236 R. Nurzyńska-Wierdak, G. Zawiślak
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Acta Sci. Pol.
et al. 2011, Danh et al. 2013, Stancheva et al. 2014]. The obtained shares of 1,8-cineole,
caryophyllene oxide and linalool acetate were partly refers to the results achieved by other
authors [Hassanpouraghdam et al. 2011, Shafaghat et al. 2012]. Linalyl acetate and li-
nalool belong to the most frequently determined tents of these components are espe-
cially important due to their antiviral activity [Orhan et al. 2012], as well as the anti-
microbial and antioxidant activity of oils rich in these components [Danh et al. 2013].
The studies by Jianu et al. [2013] suggest that anti-microbial activity of lavender oils
results from antibacterial properties of main and secondary components of the oil. In the
group of main LEO components there are also: borneol [Afsharypuor and Azarbaye-
jany 2006], 1,8-cineole [Jianu et al. 2013], menthol [Rostami et al. 2012], camphor
[Kara and Baydar 2013], β-phelandrene and caryophyllene [Jianu et al. 2013]. The share
of above-mentioned components most probably results from environmental change-
ability, though it can also be related to the term of raw material harvest and the manner
of oil distillation. From among the components of the examined lavender oil occurring
in larger quantities and/or with significant biological activities, attention should be paid
to the increased share of linalool (1.9 < 23.9 < 9.9%), linalyl acetate (5.9 < 22.3 < 32.1%),
lavandulyl acetate (0.7 < 3.4 < 5.9%), E-caryophyllene (0.3 < 1.0 < 3.8%) and the de-
creasing contents of limonene (3.8 > 0.7 > 0.3%), camphor (2.0 > 0.8 > 0.4%), borneol
(11.7 > 4.3 > 1.7%), thymol (0.4% > tr > tr), caryophyllene oxide (7.2 > 4.5 > 1.6%),
epi-α-cadinol (17.8 > 2.3 > 0%) in the oil, as plant development (leaves – flower buds –
flowers). Similarly Najafian et al. [2012] found higher share of linalool in the oil and
lower share of borneol and caryophyllene oxide in full blooming period than before
lavender blooming period. One of the components of examined lavender oil was
1,8-cineole, a compound with anti-microbial and anti-cancer potential [Hendry et al.
2009, Wang et al. 2012], acting as a protection for blood vessels [Lahlou et al. 2002].
The concentration of 1,8-cineole in the examined lavender oil was the highest in the
samples distilled from leaves (7.3%), then it was decreasing in the oil from flower buds
(1.4%), and next it increased in the further stage of flowers development (3.4%). Other
dependencies were demonstrated by Najafian et al. [2012], examining lavender oil in
Iran, determining the highest share of 1,8-cineole before blooming. It should be noticed
that the oil distilled from lavender leaves from Iraq was characterized by significantly
higher share of 1,8-cineole: 17.6–31.9% [Hassanpouraghdam et al. 2011, Shafaghat et
al. 2012], which can indicate the effect of temperature during plant growth period upon
the accumulation of that component. Besides, the quantitative and qualitative changes in
certain components of lavender oil, demonstrated in the foregoing studies and in those
of other authors, most probably result from transformations of particular compounds
produced in separate metabolic routes. The composition of monoterpenes and level of
aliphatic alcohols seem to be more dependent upon the phenological phase of the cycle
than on sessquiterpenes [Schwob et al. 2004].
Chemical composition and antioxidant activity of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.)... 237
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Hortorum Cultus 15(5) 2016
Fig. 2. Spectrum of unidentified compounds (respectively from the left: RI 1380 and RI 1757)
238 R. Nurzyńska-Wierdak, G. Zawiślak
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Acta Sci. Pol.
CONCLUSIONS
The demonstrated rich chemical composition of leaves, flower buds and flowers of
medicinal lavender, as well as their antioxidant activity, indicate the possibility of
broader application of these raw materials in pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food indus-
try. Positive high correlation between the essential oil and phenolic acids contents and
the ability to reduce DPPH indicate that the volatile oil and phenolic compounds are
main co-authors of the antioxidant activity of medicinal lavender leaves and flowers.
The results of the foregoing studies also suggest that the antioxidant activity of lavender
(77.5–86.3%) is more correlated with the contents of essential oil and phenolic com-
pounds than antocyanins, flavonoids and tannins. Lavender flowers, regardless of the
phase of their development had greater concentrations of essential oil and linalool, as
well as linalyl acetate in the oil, as well as phenolic compounds and antocyanins, to-
gether with greater antioxidant potential compared to leaves, which were, in turn, richer
in flavonoids and tannins (only regarding fully developed flowers). Lavender oil has
rich chemical composition, which is quantitatively and qualitatively variable in the plant
development process. The predominant components in the oil distilled from leaves
were: epi-α-cadinol (17.8%), cryptone (10.4%), 1,8-cineole (7.3%) and caryophyllene
oxide (7.2%). The oil obtained from lavender flowers was, in turn, characterized by
high share of linalyl acetate (22.3–32.1%) and linalool (23.9–29.9%).
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SKŁAD CHEMICZNY I AKTYWNOŚĆ ANTYOKSYDACYJNA
CZĘŚCI NADZIEMNYCH LAWENDY (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.)
Abstract.
Badania biochemiczne obejmowały liście, pąki kwiatowe i kwiaty lawendy.
Wykazano pozytywną korelację pomiędzy zawartością olejku eterycznego i aktywnością
antyoksydacyjną (AA) (R = 0.9688), kwasów fenolowych i AA (R = 0.9303),wysoką oraz
negatywną korelację pomiędzy zawartością flawonoidów a AA (R = -0.9760). Wyniki
badań wskazują ponadto, że AA lawendy (77.5–86.3%) jest bardziej skorelowana
z zawartością olejku eterycznego i kwasów fenolowych, niż flawonoidów, antocyjanów
i garbników. Głównymi składnikami olejku otrzymanego z liści był
epi-α-kadinol
(17.8%), krypton (10.4%), 1,8-cyneol (7.3%) i tlenek kariofilenu (7.2%), natomiast
w olejku destylowanym z kwiatów dominował octan linalylu (22.3–32.1%) i linalol
(23.9–29.9%).
Słowa kluczowe:
kwasy fenolowe ogółem, aktywność redukcji rodnika DPPH składniki
olejku eterycznego
Accepted for print: 27.06.2016
For citation: Nurzyńska-Wierdak, R. Zawiślak, G. (2016). Chemical composition and antioxidant
activity of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.) aboveground parts. Acta Sci. Pol. Hortorum
Cultus, 15(5), 225–241.
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This study examined the effects of adding herbs, spices, and fruits into fermented Olympus Mountain tea (Sideritis scardica) kombucha using thyme honey as a sweetener. This study evaluated how these additions affected the tea’s physical, chemical, and functional characteristics. Two different enrichments were proposed: a “Golden Mountain tea and honey Kombucha” (KG) with fresh ginger, turmeric powder, and lemon zest and juice and a “Red Mountain tea and honey Kombucha” (KR) with dried hibiscus calyces, rose petals, and lavender blossoms. In KR, the levels of vitamin C increased from 33.2 ± 2.7 to 48.4 ± 4.5. Additionally, the levels of calcium increased from 31.0 ± 1.2 to 55.7 ± 1.2, while the levels of potassium practically doubled from 64.7 ± 0.6 to 115.7 ± 2.5. An increased potassium concentration was observed in KG, and ionic iron was found for the first time after both enrichments. The total phenolic and flavonoid contents, along with antioxidant capacity, as assessed by the ABTS and DPPH methods, were found to be substantially enhanced in KR. In KG, the total phenolic content increased, together with antioxidant activity, as assessed by ABTS. Enrichment with hibiscus calyces, rose petals, and lavender blossoms significantly increased inhibitory effects against α-amylase, α-glucosidase, acetylcholinesterase, and butyrylcholinesterase. On the other hand, enrichment with ginger, turmeric, and lemon zest and juice decreased inhibitory effects against α-glucosidase and increased those against α-amylase, acetylcholinesterase, and butyrylcholinesterase. KR had the strongest enzyme-inhibiting activity, with its α-glucosidase-inhibiting activity increased by approximately 18 times. Therefore, enrichment with selected herbs, spices, and fruits can transform fermented Olympus Mountain tea kombucha sweetened with honey into a novel beverage with enhanced functional properties.
... The highest values in phenolic content were obtained from HA + R. leguminosarum and HA+ AsA + mixture PGPRs treatments followed by AsA which, were (6.90, 6.61 and 6.04 expressed as gallic acid equivalent μg GAE/mg ext.). The trend of these results agreed with those reported by (Wierdak and Zawiślak, 2016;Fawy et al., 2017 andHashem andHegab, (2018) on quinoa. ...
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... α-phellandrene, α-pinene, β-pinene, 4-carene, D-limolene, Eucalyptol, 3-carene, β-cis-terpineol, linalyl acetate, octen-1-ol acetate, borneol, α-terpinol, cyclohexanol, camphene, linalool, α-bourbonene, α-bisabolene, α-cedreno, caryophyllene, α-caryophyllene, naphthalene, cis-α-bisabolene, α-bisabolol, thujene, sabinene, myrcene, p-cymene, 1,8 -cineole, (Z)-and (E) ocimene, terpinene, camphor, terpinene-4-ol, lavandulol, lavandulylacetate, (Z) -and (E) farnesene, epi-αcadinol, cryptone, and caryophyllene oxide, (Z)-β-ocimene, (E)β-ocimene, hotrienol, hexyl butyrate, T-cadinol, epi-α-muurolol, precocene. High-quality oil used in perfumery generally contains high percentages of linalool and linalool acetate, while the oil's fragrance deteriorates with increasing camphor ratio, [32][33][34][35][36][37] Borneol, epi--muurolol, -bisabolol, precocene I, and eucalyptol. [32] Some of the important metabolites found in L. officinalis are mentioned in Figure 2. ...
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... Single-electron transfer via proton transfer, sequential proton loss electron transfer, and transition metal chelation are considered other mechanisms of the antioxidant activities of these compounds (Zeb, 2020). The positive correlation between TPC and DPPH inhibition found by Nurzyńska-Wierdak and Zawiślak (2016) indicates that phenolic compounds confer the antioxidant activity of lavender. The results of the current study support this relationship, with higher TPC corresponding to greater radical scavenging activity in the essential oil-loaded films. ...
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The study is dedicated to the analysis of the cultural and medicinal plant Lavandula angustifolia Mill. from the Lamiaceae Martinov family. The plant is widely used in the food and perfume-cosmetic industries, as well as in traditional medicine for treating various diseases including rheumatism and migraines. The research focuses on the analysis of phenolic compounds and terpenoids, which are the main pharmacologically active components of narrow-leaved lavender. Phenolic compounds include flavonoids, phenolic acids, and coumarins, while terpenoids such as linalool and linalyl acetate are responsible for the aromatic essential oil. The experiment involved studying the quantitative content of flavonoids, chromatographic analysis of secondary metabolites, and microscopic analysis of the structure of narrow-leaved lavender flowers. The obtained data expand the nomenclature of pharmacopoeial herbal raw materials. The quantitative content of flavonoids and the profile of major polyphenolic secondary components have been established. These results can serve as a basis for standardization and quality assessment of narrow-leaved lavender flowers, as well as for further phytochemical and pharmacological research.
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Flowers have played a significant role in society, focusing on their aesthetic value rather than their food potential. This study's goal was to look into flowering plants for everything from health benefits to other possible applications. This review presents detailed information on 119 species of flowers with agri-food and health relevance. Data were collected on their family, species, common name, commonly used plant part, bioremediation applications, main chemical compounds, medicinal and gastronomic uses, and concentration of bioactive compounds such as carotenoids and phenolic compounds. In this respect, 87% of the floral species studied contain some toxic compounds, sometimes making them inedible, but specific molecules from these species have been used in medicine. Seventy-six percent can be consumed in low doses by infusion. In addition, 97% of the species studied are reported to have medicinal uses (32% immune system), and 63% could be used in the bioremediation of contaminated environments. Significantly, more than 50% of the species were only analysed for total concentrations of carotenoids and phenolic compounds, indicating a significant gap in identifying specific molecules of these bioactive compounds. These potential sources of bioactive compounds could transform the health and nutraceutical industries, offering innovative approaches to combat oxidative stress and promote optimal well-being.
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The production technology of Lavandula angustifolia (true English Lavender) from rooting of stem cuttings, standardizing the distance for plantation in field, yield of essential oil and economics of cultivation has been discussed. 92% rooting can be achieved in the semi hardwood cuttings of L. angustifolia if treated with 2000ppm IBA in the month of October. Maximum herbage yield (fresh flower) on harvesting after two years can be to the tune of 11,420kg ha-1 when planted at a spacing of 50cm X 50cm. Maximum yield of essential oil 117 kg ha-1 has been obtained from 50cm X 50cm spacing and thus showing a recovery rate of 1.02%. Actual benefits are obtained after 2nd year of plantation and production may continue up to 12-15 years. Economic analysis has shown the net results will be Rs 4.0 lakhs ha-1 year-1. Comparing the quality profile of essential oil cultivated in Kashmir with that of cultivated in Europe it has become evident that Kashmir lavender oil (linalool > 44%) is of international standards.
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In light of increasing apprehensions surrounding the environmental impact of non-biodegradable plastics, there has been a surge in the exploration of biodegradable films as a viable and sustainable alternative. This research has focused on developing Tara gum (TG)-based films incorporated with Lavender essential oil (LEO) at different concentrations (5–20% w/w) to improve the properties of the films. According to the results, GC-MS analysis confirmed the presence of linalool and linalyl acetate as the major compounds in LEO. Among the composite films, the sample containing 5% (w/w) LEO exhibited the highest homogeneity, as evidenced by SEM micrographs, and the CLSM image demonstrated the absence of any clustering or coalescence of LEO within this film. FTIR spectra demonstrated intermolecular interactions between TG and LEO, as evidenced by a new peak at 1458 cm⁻¹ in the LEO-loaded films. The addition of LEO resulted in a significant decrease in the water content (WC) and water solubility (WS) of the films. Furthermore, LEO incorporation improved the contact angle (CA) of the films up to 1.5 times. The TG-LEO films exhibited good transparency, higher elongation at break (EB), and lower Young’s modulus (YM). Additionally, LEO positively affected the antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of the films. Overall, the results authenticated the hypothesis of this study and indicated that TG-LEO films have great potential as biodegradable films with promising functionalities for food packaging applications.
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The research was carried out during the 2009 and 2010 growing period with the aim of determining agricultural and technological characteristics of lavender cultivars. When the agricultural characteristics of the lavender and lavandin cultivars were examined, in both years the highest fresh stem flower yield was obtained from Dutch (5467 and 8204 kg ha(-1), respectively) and the highest dry stemless flower yield from Super A (1083 and 1463 kg ha(-1)., respectively) cultivars. The highest essential oil content in both fresh stem flowers (the first year 2.00 %, the second year 1.90 %) and dry stemless flowers (the first year 9.62 %, the second year 8.87 %) was determined from Silver. Linalool, linalyl acetate and camphor were determined as the main components of essential oil in the lavender cultivar. The highest linalool content in fresh stem flowers was determined to be from Dutch (43.3 %) in the first year and from Vera (43.9 %) in the second year. The highest linalyl acetate content from Super A (42.5 and 19.8 %, respectively) and camphor content from Super A (19.8 %) in the first year and Dutch (10.0 %) in the second year were determined. The highest linalool content in dry stemless flowers from Dutch (46.5 and 47.0 %, respectively), linalyl acetate content from Super A (32.8 and 29.5 %, respectively) in both years and camphor content from Silver (12.6 %) in the first year and Dutch (10.9 A) in the second year were obtained.
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The essential oils obtained from Anethum graveolens, Foeniculum vulgare collected at fully-mature and flowering stages, Mentha piperita, Mentha spicata, Lavandula officinalis, Ocimum basilicum (green- and purpleleaf varieties), Origanum onites, O. vulgare, O. munitiflorum, O. majorana, Rosmarinus officinalis, Salvia officinalis, and Satureja cuneifolia, as well as the widely encountered components in essential oils (γ-terpinene, 4-allylanisole, (-)-carvone, dihydrocarvone, D-limonene, (-)-phencone, cuminyl alcohol, cuminyl aldehyde, cuminol, trans-anethole, camphene, isoborneol, (-)-borneol, L-bornyl acetate, 2-decanol, 2-heptanol, methylheptane, farnesol, nerol, isopulegol, citral, citronellal, citronellol, geraniol, geranyl ester, linalool, linalyl oxide, linalyl ester, α-pinene, β-pinene, piperitone, (-)-menthol, isomenthone, carvacrol, thymol, vanillin, and eugenol), were screened for their antiviral activity against Herpes simplex type-1 (HSV-1) and parainfluenza type-3 (PI-3). Cytotoxicity was expressed as cytopathogenic effect. Most of the oils and compounds displayed strong antiviral effects against HSV-1, ranging between 0.8 and 0.025 μg mL -1. However, the samples tested were less effective against PI-3, with results ranging between 1.6 and 0.2 μg mL -1. The essential oil of A. graveolens was the most active. Most of the tested oils and compounds exhibited good antibacterial and antifungal effects.
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The purpose of this study was to determine the chemical composition and antimicrobial properties of essential oils (EOs) isolated from lavender (L. angustifolia Miller) and lavandin (Lavandula x intermedia) harvested in 2011 in western Romania. The essential oils, isolated by steam distillation from inflorescences arrived at full flowering stage, were analyzed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The essential oil of L. angustifolia Miller analyzed contained as main components caryophyllene (24.1%), beta-phellandrene (16%) and eucalyptol (15.6%), while the essential oil of Lavandula x intermedia contains camphor (32.7%) and eucalyptol (26.9%). The antimicrobial activity was evaluated by the Kirby-Bauer method. Antimicrobial tests showed antimicrobial activity against Shigella flexneri, Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli and Salmonella typhimurium, while Streptococcus pyogenes is not sensitive to the action of the two essential oils. The study revealed that essential oils isolated and analyzed from lavender (L. angustifolia Miller) and lavandin (Lavandula x intermedia) display significant bactericidal effects against microorganisms such as Shigella flexneri, Staphylococcus aureus and E. coli even in the absence of active principles like linalool and linalyl acetate, considered responsible for the antibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oils obtained from different species of Lavandula. The results suggest once again that the antimicrobial activity of EOs is a resultant of the antibacterial properties of the major and minor components in their chemical composition.
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Adams, R. P. 2007. Identification of essential oil components by gas chromatography/ mass spectrometry, 4th Edition. Allured Publ., Carol Stream, IL Is out of print, but you can obtain a free pdf of it at www.juniperus.org
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The essential oil of Lavandula angustifolia Mill. growing spontaneously in Iraq was investigated by GC and GC/MS for the first time. The oil was extracted from the flowers by hydro-distillation. Thirty-four components amounting to 98.91 % of the oil were identified. The major component being linalool (24.63 %). The other significant constituents were camphor (13.58 %), linalyl acetate (8.89 %), (Z)-β-ocimene (7.59 %), 1,8-cineole (7.14 %), borneol (6.41 %), (E)-β-ocimene (4.76 %), hotrienol (4.42 %), hexyl butyrate (2.96 %), α-bisabolol (1.13 %) and caryophyllene oxide (1.02 %). The strong antioxidant activity of L. angustifolia oil was also examined using the stable 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl-hydrate (DPPH) free radical scavenging method. Antioxidant activity of the oil was expressed as percentage of DPPH radical inhibition and IC50 values (μg/ml). Values of percentage inhibition ranged from 3.28 to 88.91% for 7.81 μg/ml and 1000 μg/ml, respectively with an IC50 value of 216 μg/ml for oil. The results suggest the use of lavender oil as effective natural antioxidants.
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The chemical composition of essential oils and essential oil yield obtained from Rosemarinus officinalis (family Lamiaceae) and Lavandula angustifolia (family Lamiaceae) were determined in two harvesting times. Their essential oil was determined by hydro-distillation, and analysed by GC/MS. The results showed that harvesting time had significant effects on the oil content and compositions in both plants. The maximum essential oil percentage was obtained in full flowering stage in rosemary. Also and in lavender maximum linalool percentage (19.2%) was obtained in full flowering, and minimum linalool percentage (0.2%) was shown in the other time. Also the concentration of β – pinene (2.1%), δ-3-carene (1.5%), β – phellandrene (6.6%), Camphor(10.6%), Cryptone (0.8%), α- terpineol (2.3%) and Linalool acetate (1.2%) were higher than befor flowering stage. Therefore the harvesting time have a great importance in the production of essential oil and influenced on the quantity and quality of essential oil. As consequence, the best harvesting time in both medicinal plants was obtained in full flowering stage.
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Objectives: The objectives of this research were to study antioxidant activity of leaves extract from four varieties of mangoes using two methods of antioxidant testing which were DPPH (2.2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) and ABTS (2.2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)) and correlation of total phenolic, flavonoid and carotenoid content in various extracts of four varieties mangoes with DPPH and ABTS scavenging acivities. Methods: Extraction was performed by reflux using gradient polarity solvent. The extracts were vaporated using rotavapor. Chromatogram pattern on each extracts were observed by thin layer chromatography (TLC). Then, antioxidant activity of each extracts using DPPH and ABTS assays, IC50 of DPPH and ABTS scavenging activities and determination of total phenolic, flavonoid and carotenoid content and its correlation with DPPH and ABTS scavenging capacities. Results: GD2 (ethyl acetate extract of gedong mangoe leaves) had the highest DPPH scavenging capacity (98.70 %.), while AR3 (ethanolic extract of arumanis mangoe leaves) was the highest ABTS capacity (70.55 %). AR2 (ethyl acetate extract of arumanis mangoe leaves) contained the highest total flavonoid (37.57 g QE/100 g), GD2 had highest phenolic content (30.73 g GAE/100 g), while the highest carotenoid 16.28 g BET/100 g was given by GL1 (n-hexane extract of golek mangoe leaves). Conclusions: There were positively high correlation between total phenolic content in four varieties mangoes leaves with their antioxidant activity using ABTS and DPPH assays. ABTS scavenging activities in various leaves extracts of four varieties mangoes had positively high correlation with their DPPH scavenging activities.
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Ginkgo biloba preparations from leaves are widely used for the treatment of mild cognitive dysfunctions. This work compared thirteen commercial dietary supplements with fresh G. biloba leaves. Anticholinesterase activities and the levels of total phenolics were studied using corresponding spectrophotometric methods. Antioxidant activities were tested using ABTS and DPPH free radicals. Phenolic acids and quercetin contents were determined using HPLC-DAD. G. biloba preparations more effectively inhibited the activity of butyrylcholinesterase than acetylcholinesterase with significant (p < 0.05) differences between preparations. Selected preparations had both the highest content of total phenolics and the antioxidant activity (with ABTS and/or DPPH) whereas in the case of other samples, adverse results were obtained. Significant (p < 0.05) differences in the quercetin content were seen between individual preparations. Gallic, protocatechuic, syringic, 4-OH-benzoic, chlorogenic, caffeic, sinapic, ferulic, 4-OH-cinnamic and o-coumaric acids were detected in studied samples. The preliminary characterization of acetyl- and butyrylcholinesterase inhibitors from G. biloba with Sep-Pak C18 and polyvinylpolypyrrolidone revealed that these compounds are phenolics, although nonphenolics exhibiting the inhibitory activity were present in the leaves. The study aiming the purification of cholinesterase inhibitors from G. biloba is in progress.
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Nutritional and nutraceutical quality of sprouts is strongly affected by growth conditions. This study focused on determining the influence of breeding density on seedling growth, phenolics content and some antioxidant capacity of ready-to-eat lentil sprouts. Content of condensed tannins (ranging from 1.77 to 3.16 mg g-1 DM) and flavonoids (ranging from 15.13 to 25.08 mg g-1 DM) increased with the increasing density of breeding. The contents of the p-hydroxybenzoic and ferulic acids, and (+) catechin decreased with the increasing density of breeding in 3-days-old seedlings. Additionally, the level of quercetin was elevated at a higher degree in sprouts cultivated at density of 1.22 seeds per cm2 and average 10.42 and 5.91 μg g-1 DM for 3-and 4-days-old sprouts, respectively. Metal chelating ability was the highest for sprouts obtained at the lowest density: 92% and 86% for 3-and 4-days-old sprouts, respectively. Fresh mass yield and lipids preventing abilities were negatively affected by density of breeding. It can be concluded that density of breeding plays an important role in design of chemical composition and bioactivity of lentil sprouts.