Investigating the potential for bedrock aquifers in the APY Lands

Abstract

Water is a valuable commodity in the Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara (APY) Lands, which has traditionally been sourced from palaeovalley sands, calcrete, and alluvial and aeolian sediments as well as from the onlapping sediments of the Officer Basin. A recent commissioned study has attempted to recognise features within the outcrop, or shallowly buried bedrock areas around some of the main communities in the APY Lands that may have acted as aquifers. This work used a range of existing datasets, such as pre-existing geological data, aeromagnetics, orthoimages, digital elevation models, Landsat imagery, and earthquake data to find potential new targets. No new data was collected, nor was there any ground-truthing. The targets focus on areas that may have enhanced porosity and permeability. These include areas of fractured rock, recognisable on orthoimages, which could represent breccia zones or faults, and areas where several lineaments intersect. Also of interest are areas where breaks in outcrop coincided with aeromagnetic low lineaments, suggesting the presence of eroded faults covered by a veneer of Cenozoic sediments.

Full text

Report Book
2016/00021
Mark J. Pawley and Carmen B.E. Krapf
Investigating the potential
for bedrock aquifers in the
APY Lands

Investigating the potential for
bedrock aquifers in the
APY Lands
Mark J. Pawley and Carmen B.E. Krapf
Geological Survey of South Australia,
Resources and Energy Group, DSD
October 2016
Report Book 2016/00021

Resources and Energy
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Preferred way to cite this publication
Pawley M.J. and Krapf C.B.E. 2016. Investigating the potential for bedrock aquifers in the APY Lands,
Report Book 2016/00021. Department of State Development, South Australia, Adelaide.

Resources and Energy Group iii
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 1
DATASETS AND APPROACH ....................................................................................................... 2
GEOLOGY OF THE MUSGRAVE PROVINCE ............................................................................... 3
MUSGRAVE PROVINCE ........................................................................................................... 3
OFFICER BASIN ........................................................................................................................ 5
MESOZOIC, CENOZOIC AND PALAEOVALLEYS .................................................................... 6
AMATA AREA ................................................................................................................................ 8
STRUCTURES IN THE VICINITY OF AMATA ........................................................................... 8
POSSIBLE TARGETS IN THE AMATA AREA.......................................................................... 11
FREGON AREA ........................................................................................................................... 12
STRUCTURES IN THE VICINITY OF FREGON ...................................................................... 12
POSSIBLE TARGETS IN THE VICINITY OF FREGON ........................................................... 14
INDULKANA AREA ..................................................................................................................... 15
STRUCTURES IN THE VICINITY OF INDULKANA ................................................................. 15
POSSIBLE TARGETS IN THE VICINITY OF INDULKANA ...................................................... 18
MIMILI AREA ............................................................................................................................... 19
STRUCTURES IN THE VICINITY OF MIMILI ........................................................................... 19
POSSIBLE TARGETS IN THE VICINITY OF MIMILI ................................................................ 22
PUKATJA AREA .......................................................................................................................... 23
STRUCTURES IN THE VICINITY OF PUKATJA ...................................................................... 23
POSSIBLE TARGETS IN THE PUKATJA AREA ...................................................................... 26
YUNYARINYI AREA ..................................................................................................................... 27
STRUCTURES IN THE VICINITY OF YUNYARINYI ................................................................ 27
POSSIBLE TARGETS IN THE VICINITY OF YUNYARINYI ..................................................... 30
SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................... 31
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................. 32
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 33
FIGURES
Figure 1. Map of northwest South Australia showing the boundary of the APY Lands and the
main infrastructure. The base map is the digital elevation model. The small squares are
the map areas presented in this report. ......................................................................... 2
Figure 2. Geological map of the Musgrave Province showing the main geological units. The
small squares are the map areas presented in this report (see Fig. 1 for labels). .......... 4
Figure 3. Palaeodrainage map of the Musgrave Province, showing the main palaeochannel
systems mentioned in this report. Modified from Hou et al. (2012). The small squares
are the map areas presented in this report. ................................................................... 7

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Figure 4. Total magnetic intensity image of the study area showing the distribution of
earthquakes in the GA Earthquake Database. The small squares are the map areas
presented in this report. ................................................................................................ 7
Figure 5. Maps and datasets of the Amata area. a) shows the preexisting simplified outcrop
geology polygons and interpreted structural geology linework over the total magnetic
intensity (TMI). The yellow stars are the earthquakes from the GA Earthquake
Database. The polygons with thick black lines are the target areas. b) shows the target
areas over the digital terrane model (DTM), which has been stretched to the whole
dataset and has northwest hill-shading. c) shows the target areas over the topographic
map. ............................................................................................................................. 9
Figure 6. Maps and datasets of the Fregon area. a) shows the simplified interpreted bedrock
geology polygons and structural geology linework over the TMI. The polygons with
thick black lines are the target areas. b) shows the target areas over the topographic
map. The transparent yellow area is the distribution of the Lindsay Palaeochannel (Hou
et al., 2012). ................................................................................................................ 13
Figure 7. Maps and datasets of the Indulkana area. a) shows the preexisting simplified outcrop
geology polygons and interpreted structural geology linework over the TMI. The yellow
stars are the earthquakes from the GA Earthquake Database. The polygons with thick
black lines are the target areas. b) shows the target areas over the DTM, which has
been stretched to the map area and has northwest hill-shading. c) shows the target
areas over the topographic map. ................................................................................ 16
Figure 8. Maps and datasets of the Mimili area. a) shows the preexisting simplified outcrop
geology polygons and interpreted structural geology linework over the TMI. The
polygons with thick black lines are the target areas. b) shows the target areas over the
DTM, which has been stretched to the map area and has northwest hill-shading.
c) shows the target areas over the topographic map. .................................................. 20
Figure 9. Maps and datasets of the Pukatja area. a) shows the preexisting simplified outcrop
geology polygons and interpreted structural geology linework over the TMI. The yellow
stars are the earthquakes from the GA Earthquake Database. The polygons with thick
black lines are the target areas. b) shows the target areas over the DTM, stretched to
the whole dataset with northwest hill-shading. c) shows the target areas over the
topographic map. ........................................................................................................ 24
Figure 10. Maps and datasets of the Yunyarinyi area. a) shows the preexisting simplified outcrop
geology polygons and interpreted structural geology linework over the TMI. The yellow
stars are the earthquakes from the GA Earthquake Database. The polygons with thick
black lines are the target areas. b) shows the target areas over the DTM, stretched to
the whole dataset with northwest hill-shading. c) shows the target areas over the
topographic map. ........................................................................................................ 28

Resources and Energy Group 1
Investigating the potential for bedrock
aquifers in the APY Lands
Mark J. Pawley and Carmen B.E. Krapf
ABSTRACT
Water is a valuable commodity in the Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara (APY) Lands,
which has traditionally been sourced from palaeovalley sands, calcrete, and alluvial and
aeolian sediments as well as from the onlapping sediments of the Officer Basin. A recent
commissioned study has attempted to recognise features within the outcrop, or shallowly
buried bedrock areas around some of the main communities in the APY Lands that may
host groundwater aquifers. This work used a range of existing datasets, such as pre-
existing geological data, aeromagnetics, orthoimages, digital elevation models, Landsat
imagery, and earthquake data to find potential new targets. No new data was collected, nor
was there any ground-truthing. The targets focus on areas that may have enhanced
porosity and permeability. These include areas of fractured rock, recognisable on
orthoimages, which could represent breccia zones or faults, and areas where several
lineaments intersect. Also of interest are areas where breaks in outcrop coincided with
aeromagnetic low lineaments, suggesting the presence of eroded faults covered by a
veneer of Cenozoic sediments.
INTRODUCTION
This report book is the result of a request by the Department of Environment, Water and Natural
Resources (DEWNR) to provide information and geological support about potential alternative
water resources around the communities in the Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara (APY) Lands.
Traditionally, water is sourced from palaeovalley sands, calcrete, and alluvial and aeolian
sediments as well as from the onlapping sediments of the Officer Basin in the south eastern part of
the APY Lands. The Geological Survey of South Australia (GSSA) was asked to examine the
geology in the vicinity of the main communities — Amata, Fregon, Indulkana, Mimili, Pukatja,
Yunyarinyi — for bedrock structures that potentially can act as aquifers (Fig. 1). These include
faults and breccia zones, where the fractured rock is permeable allowing water to flow and
accumulate. As these types of aquifers have not been extensively exploited, they have potential to
offer a valuable additional water resource for the region.
This report book is a compilation of the information that was provided to DEWNR in January 2015.
It will start with a description of the approach used in this study, and a brief introduction to the
regional geology of the South Australian part of the Musgrave Province. This will be followed by
sections on each of the main communities outlining the geological events that occurred in these
areas, the main structures and geological features that can be observed, and a list of possible sites
where water could have flowed and accumulated. No fieldwork and ground-truthing has been
carried out as part of this investigation.

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Figure 1. Map of northwest South Australia showing the boundary of the APY Lands and
the main infrastructure. The base map is the digital elevation model. The small
squares are the map areas presented in this report.
DATASETS AND APPROACH
The approach was to examine any available existing datasets in order to recognise faults, breccia
zones and areas of fractured rock.
Several geological datasets were used, including previously mapped outcrop geology and
structural elements that was acquired by GSSA (e.g. Conor, 2004; Krieg, 1972; Major et al., 1967;
Sprigg et al., 1959), as well as previously interpreted structures (e.g. Aitken et al., 2009a; Major
and Conor, 1993). The outcrop geology was used to recognised geological contacts that could
have acted as rheological boundaries and focussed deformation, leading to localised deformation
and fracturing. The structural elements allowed areas of foliated, jointed and fractured rocks to be
recognised. This data has been digitally captured and is available in the South Australian
Resources Information Geoserver (SARIG: www.statedevelopment.sa.gov.au/sarig).
Spatial and spectral data, such as orthoimages (including Google Earth imagery), Digital Elevation
Models (e.g. 1 sec SRTM DEM), and Landsat imagery (e.g. TM5 and ETM7) were used. These
images allowed areas of irregularly textured outcrop, which could represent brecciated and
fractured rock, to be recognised.
Aeromagnetic images were used to highlight unexposed demagnetised linear features where fluid
flow and alteration has destroyed the magnetic minerals. This likely occurred during faulting and
fracturing of the rock. The aeromagnetic images, in conjunction with the orthoimages, made it

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possible to trace and correlate geographical features, such as linear valleys, with the extensions of
mapped faults and fractures.
Other datasets included the Geoscience Australia Earthquake Database
(http://www.ga.gov.au/earthquakes/searchQuake.do), which made it possible to recognise sites of
recent activity or reactivation of structures and link them, where possible, to the interpreted
structures.
The relevant data and interpretations of these datasets were then compiled in ArcGIS 10.3 into
maps centred around several of the main communities (Fig. 1), which are included in each section.
The maps show the main structures, such as mylonites, faults, and foliations, which were compiled
based on the previous geology and aeromagnetic images (see above). The maps also include the
simplified outcrop surface geology (as previously mapped) showing where there is outcrop, the
main rock types, and exposed contacts. The outcrop layer, rather than the interpreted solid
bedrock geology, was used as this allowed the relationship between the geology and geographical
features on the surface to be recognised. This was particularly important where the unexposed
structures could be traced along linear valleys. The 100K Geology layer in SARIG contains several
generations of mapping that were compiled at various scales. This has often resulted in
mismatches between adjoining map sheets, which have not been reconciled as part of this project.
In the case of areas with little to no outcrop, e.g. Fregon, a basic new interpretation of the bedrock
geology has been compiled.
Once the structures had been interpreted, a series of potential targets were recognised. These
often focus on the main areas of structural complexity. In particular, areas of intersecting or
anastomosing features have been selected as they would potentially have greater porosity and
permeability and larger volume. Therefore, they potentially form a greater reservoir, with the larger
areas of outcrop providing a greater catchment area. These targets are highlighted on the maps as
polygons, but it is important to note that no priority or ranking was applied to these targets.
GEOLOGY OF THE MUSGRAVE PROVINCE
The study areas includes rocks from three distinct geological provinces and several
palaeodrainage systems; the central and eastern part of the Proterozoic Musgrave Province, the
Officer Basin, the north-western margin of the Mesozoic Eromanga Basin. The palaeodrainage
systems include the Cainozoic Lindsay and Serpentine palaeodrainage systems and the north-
western part of the Hamilton Basin (Fig. 2).
MUSGRAVE PROVINCE
The middle to late Mesoproterozoic Musgrave Province covers an area of c. 120 000 km2,
straddling the South Australia, Northern Territory and Western Australia borders (Fig. 2). The
oldest exposed rocks belong to the Birksgate Complex, which comprise amphibolite to granulite
facies, felsic and minor mafic gneisses with igneous, volcanic, volcaniclastic and, less commonly,
sedimentary precursors (Edgoose et al., 2004; Major and Conor, 1993; Wade et al., 2006; Wade et
al., 2008). SHRIMP U-Pb geochronology on zircons from these rocks indicate that the protoliths
have ages between c. 1620 and 1550 Ma (Camacho and Fanning, 1995; Edgoose et al., 1993;
Edgoose et al., 2004; Scrimgeour and Close, 1999). The Musgrave Province can be divided along
the broadly east-trending Woodroffe Thrust into a northern Mulga Park Subdomain, which is
composed of amphibolite-facies rocks, and a southern Fregon Subdomain comprising granulite-
facies rocks. The difference in metamorphic grade is interpreted to represent the exposure of
different crustal levels that were juxtaposed during the Petermann Orogeny (Camacho, 1989;
Major and Conor, 1993).

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Figure 2. Geological map of the Musgrave Province showing the main geological units.
The small squares are the map areas presented in this report (see Fig. 1 for labels).
There is also evidence for older crust in the Musgrave Province. A population of c. 2800 Ma
zircons that were collected in a stream sediment sample from north of the Indulkana Range, has
been interpreted to represent Archaean basement to the Musgrave Province (Gum and Belousova,
2006). The Hf isotopic data that was collected from zircons in the western Musgrave Province,
suggests there was also a major period of crustal formation at c. 1900 Ma (Kirkland et al., 2013).
A metasedimentary cover sequence, with a maximum depositional age of c. 1.4 Ga, is interpreted
to unconformably overlie the protoliths of the Birksgate Complex in the eastern Musgrave Province
(Wade et al., 2008). The metasedimentary rocks are interlayered with felsic, mafic, and calc-
silicate gneisses, and have been interpreted as a metavolcanic sequence (Conor, 2004). The
extent is of this package is unknown.
The rocks of the Musgrave province were subsequently deformed and metamorphosed at
amphibolite to granulite facies during the province-wide c. 1220–1120 Ma Musgravian Orogeny
(Edgoose et al., 2004; Major and Conor, 1993; Smithies et al., 2010). Large volumes of
predominantly felsic magma, which have been grouped into the Pitjantjatjara Supersuite, intruded
during and immediately following the Musgravian Orogeny (Edgoose et al., 2004; Howard et al.,
2011; Smithies et al., 2011).
The tectonic setting of the Musgravian Orogeny is unclear. Based on the long-lived, widespread
nature of the event, and the high-temperature granites of the Pitjantjatjara Supersuite, it is
considered to have been associated with extension and/or upwelling within an intracontinental
setting (Smithies et al., 2010; Smithies et al., 2011). Alternatively, Aitken and Betts (2008)
proposed that the Grenville-aged (i.e. c. 1300–1100 Ma) deformation in the Musgrave Province
was the result of the clockwise rotation of the South Australian Craton, as it collided with the
combined West and North Australian Cratons.
The Musgravian Orogeny was followed by the c. 1085–1040 Ma Giles Event. The igneous rocks of
this event have been grouped into the Warakurna Supersuite, which includes the variably
deformed, mafic-ultramafic layered intrusions of the Giles Complex, bimodal volcanic rocks and
associated rift sediments of the Bentley Supergroup, the Tjauwata Group, the Alcurra Dolerite dyke
suite, and minor granitic intrusions and felsic dykes (Close et al., 2003; Edgoose et al., 2004; Evins
et al., 2010; Glikson et al., 1995; Glikson et al., 1996; Howard et al., 2011; Woodhouse and Gum,

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2003). The Giles Event has been interpreted to form part of the Warakurna Large Igneous
Province that affected much of central and western Australia (Wingate et al., 2004).
Following the Giles Event, the Musgrave Province was intruded by a number of dolerite suites.
These include the c. 1000 Ma Kullal Dyke Suite (Glikson et al., 1996; Howard et al., 2011), the
c. 825 Ma Amata Dolerite, a correlative of the Gairdner Dolerite that intrudes the Gawler Craton
(Glikson et al., 1996; Wingate et al., 1998; Zhao and McCulloch, 1993; Zhao et al., 1994).
Recently, an east-trending dolerite dyke from the eastern part of the province was found to have an
Sm-Nd crystallisation age of c. 760 Ma and an εNd isotopic composition that is more juvenile than
the c. 1085–1040 Ma Alcurra Dolerites (Dutch et al., 2013). The dolerite was interpreted to belong
to a new suite of dolerite dykes that are younger than the Amata/Gairdner Dolerite (Werner et al.,
2014), and which may be associated with rifting and the development of the Neoproterozoic
Adelaidean Basin (Preiss, 2000).
The 570–530 Ma Petermann Orogeny was a major intracratonic event that resulted in the
reactivation of several crustal scale, east-west trending shears, faults and thrusts and the
development of widespread mylonitic shear fabrics, and the final exhumation of the Musgrave
Province from beneath the Centralian Superbasin (Camacho et al., 1997; Camacho and
McDougall, 2000; Edgoose et al., 2004; Howard et al., 2011; Pawley et al., 2014; Raimondo et al.,
2009; Scrimgeour and Close, 1999). These structures, particularly the north-dipping Wintinna Hill
Seismic Subdomain to the south, and the south-dipping Woodroffe Thrust to the north, are
interpreted to have accommodated the exhumation of the Fregon Domain (Korsch and Kositcin,
2010), although the steeper Wintiginna Fault and Mann-Ferdinand-Marryat fault system were also
interpreted to have been important for exhumation (Aitken et al., 2009a; Aitken et al., 2009b).
Coeval with the Petermann Orogeny was the development of the Levenger and Moorliyanna
grabens, which are strike-slip basins that were infilled with clastic sediments derived from the
locally exposed Musgrave Province basement (Coats, 1962).
The c. 400–300 Ma Alice Springs Orogeny is a significant event which is best recorded in the
Arunta Province (Northern Territory), where it is associated with the uplift of the Arunta Block from
beneath the Centralian Superbasin and the deposition of early Devonian syn-orogenic sediments
into the Amadeus Basin (Edgoose et al., 2002; Haines et al., 2001; Hand and Sandiford, 1999).
This event has also been observed in the eastern Musgrave Province, with apatite fission track
dating indicating that the Ayers Range Granite underwent uplifting and cooling during the Alice
Springs Orogeny (Tingate, 1990). A recent low-T thermochronological study found that deformation
was more widespread during the Alice Springs Orogeny, with exhumation of an inverted graben
occurring along the Marryatt Fault and the Coglin lineament (Agostino, 2015).
OFFICER BASIN
Sediments of the intracratonic Officer Basin have been deposited during the Neoproterozoic to
Late Devonian and crop out in a linear belt south of the Musgrave Block, marking the northern limit
of the basin (Fig. 2). The two major depocentres in South Australia, the Birksgate Sub-basin and
Munyarai Trough, are separated by a structural rise, and contain 5–10 km of sediment
respectively. The succession contains shallow marine, aeolian, fluvial, lacustrine and glacial
deposits. The basin developed under compressional and extensional tectonic regimes punctuated
by deformational and erosional events.
Following a period of minor, short-lived rifting, thermal sag allowed deposition of predominantly
fluvial and marine siliciclastic and carbonate sediments and evaporates. This succession is
terminated by minor erosion at 780–760 Ma (Jackson and van de Graaff, 1981; Tingate and
McKirdy, 2003). The resultant erosional surface is overlain by fluvial and glacigene sediments
associated with the Sturtian and/or Marinoan glaciations.
Depositional patterns were changed abruptly by the Petermann Ranges Orogeny in the late
Neoproterozoic with significant north-south-directed shortening resulting in folding and thrusting.
Renewed extensive uplift along the northern margin of the basin resulted in deposition of

Resources and Energy Group 6
widespread fluvial and marine siliciclastics and carbonates during the latest Proterozoic-Late
Cambrian. Cambrian sedimentation ceased with the onset of the Delamerian Orogeny, which was
accompanied by extensive basaltic volcanism in the central and western parts of the basin. At this
time also further thrusting occurred and reactivated Stage 2 structures (Tingate and McKirdy,
2003).
A period of extension during the Ordovician led to deposition of shallow marine to fluvio-deltaic
siliciclastics in the northeastern part of the basin. Uplift associated with the Alice Springs Orogeny
terminated sedimentation in the latest Ordovician or Silurian (Edgoose et al., 2002; Haines et al.,
2001; Hand and Sandiford, 1999). A suspected extensional event during the Late Devonian
provided accommodation space for the deposition of fluvial siliciclastics also in the northeastern
part of the basin (Jackson and van de Graaff, 1981).
During the Alice Springs Orogen basement of the Musgrave Block was thrust up over the Officer
Basin succession along a north-dipping fault plane oriented approximately east-west (Milton and
Parker, 1973). During this period the basin sediments were deformed into gentle, open folds, which
were subsequently uplifted forming amongst others the Indulkana Ranges.
Deposits of the Permian Arckaringa Basin occur along the southeast margin of the APY Lands and
have only been encountered in the subsurface.
MESOZOIC, CENOZOIC AND PALAEOVALLEYS
Following the Alice Springs Orogeny the Musgrave Province has undergone at least one phase of
intensive deep weathering and erosion prior to the deposition of clastic sediments of the Mesozoic
Eromanga Basin along its eastern margin (Fig. 2: Cotton et al., 2006; Krieg and Rogers, 1995).
Sediments of the Eromanga Basin, which is part of the Great Artesian Basin, occur on the
southeast margin of the APY Lands. They were deposited between ~150–100 Ma and include
important aquifers.
Intense chemical weathering of the Mesozoic sedimentary rocks as well as basement rocks
occurred at several periods during the late Cretaceous and Tertiary and resulted in deep
weathering profiles that can reach up to 90 m below the present day land surface. The typically
composite weathering profiles are characterised by kaolinisation and mottled or varicoloured,
pallid, ferruginous or siliceous zones. Multiple phases of post-Mesozoic, dominantly siliceous and
ferruginous induration, led to the formation of widespread silcrete and ferruginous duricrust.
During the Neogene, rivers, that had their headwaters in the ranges and drained southwards into
the Eucla Basin, incised up to 70 m into the underlying weathered rocks. The channels were
subsequently filled with clastic sediments during a warm and wet subtropical to tropical climate
forming the infill of the Lindsay and Serpentine palaeodrainage systems as well as the Hamilton
Basin (Fig. 3: Lewis et al., 2010; Magee, 2009; Rogers, 1995). The lacustrine Mangatitja
Formation, which crops out extensively throughout the Musgrave Province, is a remnant of this
event (Rogers, 1995). The clastic sediments are mostly composed of clay, sandy clay and minor
lenses of coarse sand and gravel and are commonly associated with near surface calcrete
deposits. Lewis et al. (2010) considered the palaeovalleys to be the best targets for groundwater
supply, however their internal lithological heterogeneity could affect groundwater flow and hence
make them a less prospective groundwater target. Also the groundwater salinity in the
palaeochannels is high with an average of 4500 mg/L (Varma, 2012).
In the Quaternary, the onset of aridity, with episodes of alluvial and aeolian activity, resulted in
today’s landscape with the formation of alluvial plains, sand plains and aeolian dunes and
dunefields. The modern sand dunes and sand spreads of the Great Victoria Desert mantle the
lowlands and the southern region of the APY Lands.

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Figure 3. Palaeodrainage map of the Musgrave Province, showing the main palaeochannel
systems mentioned in this report. Modified from Hou et al. (2012). The small
squares are the map areas presented in this report.
The Musgrave Province is still tectonically active with a number of significant earthquakes
occurring in the region in the past 40 years (Fig. 4). In 1986 a 6.0 magnitude earthquake produced
a 13 km long fault scarp with a maximum throw of 0.6 m along the Marryat Fault zone. More
recently, the community of Pukatja (Ernabella) recorded two magnitude 5.7 earthquakes in both
2012 and 2013 (http://www.ga.gov.au/earthquakes/searchQuake.do).
Figure 4. Total magnetic intensity image of the study area showing the distribution of
earthquakes in the GA Earthquake Database. The small squares are the map areas
presented in this report.

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AMATA AREA
The geology of the Amata area can be broken down into seven main stages of development.
c. 1620–1550 Ma: Formation of the protoliths to the Birksgate Complex. The protoliths included
felsic and minor mafic intrusive, volcanic, and volcaniclastic rocks, with less common sedimentary
rocks (Edgoose et al., 2004; Major and Conor, 1993; Wade et al., 2006; Wade et al., 2008).
c. 1220–1120 Ma: The Musgravian Orogeny resulted in granulite and amphibolite facies
metamorphism to produce the gneisses of the Birksgate Complex and the Olia Gneiss (Edgoose et
al., 2004; Major and Conor, 1993; Smithies et al., 2010). Thrusting during the Petermann Orogeny
resulted in the juxtaposition of the granulite facies Olia Gneiss to the north with the amphibolite
facies Birksgate Complex to the south of the Woodroffe Thrust (Major and Conor, 1993). Granites
of the Pitjantjatjara Supersuite intruded during, and immediately following, the Musgravian Orogeny
(Edgoose et al., 2004; Howard et al., 2011; Smithies et al., 2011).
c. 1085–1040 Ma: Intrusion of mafic magmas of the Giles Complex. The magmas formed large,
often layered bodies, and thin dykes that cross-cut all of the earlier phases (Close et al., 2003;
Edgoose et al., 2004; Evins et al., 2010; Glikson et al., 1995; Glikson et al., 1996; Howard et al.,
2011; Woodhouse and Gum, 2003).
c. 570–530 Ma: The Petermann Orogeny was a dextral transpressional event that resulted in the
exhumation of the core of the Musgrave Province along an east-trending flower structure. Uplift
was accommodated by thrusts near the margins of the province, i.e. the Woodroffe Thrust that can
be traced across the Amata area, and steeper structures closer to the core of the province, i.e. the
Mann Fault that occurs south of Amata (Camacho et al., 1997; Camacho and McDougall, 2000;
Edgoose et al., 2004; Howard et al., 2011; Pawley et al., 2014; Raimondo et al., 2009; Scrimgeour
and Close, 1999).
Ordovician: The Alice Springs Orogeny resulted in the reactivation of some of the Petermann-aged
structures. It was associated with fluid flow that caused localised epidote and silica alteration (e.g.
Conor, 2004).
Tertiary: Development of palaeochannels, such as the Neogene Lindsay Palaeochannel, which
formed a series of connected basins that are associated with wider drainages (Fig. 3: Hou et al.,
2012; Lewis et al., 2010; Magee, 2009; Rogers, 1995). The palaeochannels are relatively deep
(>20–25 metres below surface), and may contain groundwater-bearing fluvial sediments within
valley profiles that are not evident on the surface.
Quaternary: Alluvial/fluvial sediments were deposited within channels, and across broader
floodplain areas. There was also deposition of aeolian sediments. Earthquakes have been
recorded in the area, indicating neotectonic activity
(http://www.ga.gov.au/earthquakes/searchQuake.do).
STRUCTURES IN THE VICINITY OF AMATA
Based on a review of the existing geological and geophysical datasets, several observations can
be made about the faults and structures around Amata (Fig. 5):
• The broad, shallowly south-dipping Woodroffe Thrust outcrops near Amata. The thrust is
generally east- to east-southeast-striking, although north-striking mylonites have also been
mapped, most notably to the north and west of Amata;
• The east-southeast-striking Mann Fault outcrops about 16 km south of Amata;
• There are relatively narrow faults that form low aeromagnetic lineaments, which often
correspond with curviplanar valleys, and appear to truncate and deflect the gneissosity.
These narrow structures appear to occur in two main orientations;
o Those to the west of Amata (i.e. near Mount Morris) are north-northeast-striking and
are at a low angle to a north-trending segment of the Woodroffe Thrust,

Resources and Energy Group 9
o Those to the east of Amata (i.e. near Weelo Soak) are east-southeast- to southeast-
striking and sub-parallel to an east-trending segment of the Woodroffe Thrust,
o Both of these orientations may represent splays off the larger mylonite zones;
• There appears to be some unexposed curviplanar faults to the southeast of Amata (i.e.
near Manyirkanga) that are defined by aeromagnetic lineaments that correspond to breaks
in the outcrop; and
• Some basement rocks adjacent to the faults have experienced epidote and silica alteration,
indicating fluid flow within the structures.
These structures are generally interpreted to have formed during the Petermann Orogeny, with the
spatially associated alteration possibly occurring during younger reactivation.
Significantly, the Amata area has experienced five earthquake events in the past 50 years that
were larger than magnitude 2.3, many of which resulted in surface ruptures
(http://www.ga.gov.au/earthquakes/searchQuake.do). This suggests that reactivation of the older
structures is still occurring, which may increase porosity and permeability along these features.
Figure 5. Maps and datasets of the Amata area. a) shows the preexisting simplified outcrop
geology polygons and interpreted structural geology linework over the total magnetic
intensity (TMI). The yellow stars are the earthquakes from the GA Earthquake
Database. The polygons with thick black lines are the target areas. b; next page)
shows the target areas over the digital terrane model (DTM), which has been stretched
to the whole dataset and has northwest hill-shading. c) shows the target areas over the
topographic map.

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Figure 5 b and c.

Resources and Energy Group 11
POSSIBLE TARGETS IN THE AMATA AREA
The geophysical datasets of the area were examined for zones of faulted, fractured and weathered
basement rocks that may represent aquifers. These are represented in the datasets by low
aeromagnetic lineaments, which are often parallel to linear to curvilinear valleys, and are
interpreted as faults. Networks of faults, rather than single isolated structures, were preferred since
the intersecting structures may have greater permeability and porosity. There are several areas
that meet the criteria, and would be worth a closer examination (Fig. 5). These are not listed in any
particular order and include:
A. One target area is located just to the west of Amata, extending in a south-southwest
direction for about 16 km. The southern part of this area contains a series of sub-parallel,
north-northeast-striking structures that are apparent as lows on the aeromagnetic images.
These structures are locally at a high angle to measured gneissosity, and follow linear
drainage systems. In the northern part, there appears to be a series of structures that wrap
along the contacts between the different phases in the bedrock, before linking up with the
Woodroffe Thrust;
B. About 10 km to the west of Amata is a north-northeast-striking drainage system that can be
traced for about 18 km, and comprises the southern Malungankanya and northern Aparina
Creek. Two springs have been recorded in the north-flowing Aparina Creek, including
Eennuinna Spring in the middle of the target, and Aparina Spring at the northern end of the
target near the border with the Northern Territory. This system overlies a low aeromagnetic
feature, and also contains several outcrops of mylonitic rocks;
C. About 15 km to the south-southeast of Amata, altered gneisses and gneissic granite are cut
by a series of southeast-striking features that correspond to low aeromagnetic lineaments
and drainage systems. These features appear to wrap into the Mann Fault to the south; and
D. About 15 km to the east-northeast of Amata, the foliation in the gneisses is southeast-
striking and broadly anastomosing, with numerous low-angle truncations representing
shearing. The shears correspond to low aeromagnetic lineaments and breaks in the
drainage systems. This area comprises a broad anastomosing drainage system with
documented soaks, e.g. Weelo Soak.
Although they are prominent features, it is unclear whether the Mann Fault that forms a broad east-
striking mylonite zone to the south of Amata, and the Woodroffe Thrust to the north would be
suitable aquifers. This is because recrystallisation and grainsize reduction during deformation may
have reduced porosity and permeability.
However, target B contains several outcrops described as mylonites, yet this zone contains several
springs suggesting that they may form suitable aquifers. It is interesting to note that target B is at a
high angle to the other mylonite zones, and this orientation may be the reason for the springs as it
could have been at a favourable orientation for reactivation during subsequent deformations.

Resources and Energy Group 12
FREGON AREA
The geology of the Fregon area can be broken down into eight main stages of development.
c. 1620–1550 Ma: Formation of the protoliths to the Birksgate Complex. The protoliths included
felsic and minor mafic intrusive, volcanic, and volcaniclastic rocks, with less common sedimentary
rocks (Edgoose et al., 2004; Major and Conor, 1993; Wade et al., 2006; Wade et al., 2008).
c. 1220–1120 Ma: The Musgravian Orogeny resulted in granulite and amphibolite facies
metamorphism to produce the gneisses of the Birksgate Complex (Edgoose et al., 2004; Major and
Conor, 1993; Smithies et al., 2010). Granites of the Pitjantjatjara Supersuite intruded during, and
immediately following, the Musgravian Orogeny (Edgoose et al., 2004; Howard et al., 2011;
Smithies et al., 2011).
c. 1085–1040 Ma: Intrusion of mafic magmas of the Giles Complex. The magmas formed large,
often layered bodies, and thin dykes that cross-cut all of the earlier phases (Close et al., 2003;
Edgoose et al., 2004; Evins et al., 2010; Glikson et al., 1995; Glikson et al., 1996; Howard et al.,
2011; Woodhouse and Gum, 2003).
c. 825–760 Ma: Intrusion of the Amata Dolerite, which is a correlative of the Gairdner Dolerite that
intrudes the Gawler Craton (Werner et al., 2014).
c. 570–530 Ma: The Petermann Orogeny was a dextral transpressional event that resulted in the
exhumation of the core of the Musgrave Province along an east-trending flower structure (Korsch
and Kositcin, 2010; Lambeck and Burgess, 1992). Uplift was accommodated by thrusts near the
margins of the province (e.g. the Everard Thrust), and steeper structures in the core of the
province (e.g. the Wintiginna and Poorara faults: Camacho et al., 1997; Camacho and McDougall,
2000; Edgoose et al., 2004; Howard et al., 2011; Pawley et al., 2014; Raimondo et al., 2009;
Scrimgeour and Close, 1999). Strike-slip movement resulted in basins, such as the Moorilyanna
Graben to the east (Coats, 1962).
Ordovician: The Alice Springs Orogeny resulted in reactivation of some Petermann-aged
structures. The orogeny was also associated with fluid flow that caused localised epidote and silica
alteration (e.g. Conor, 2004).
Tertiary: Development of palaeochannels, such as the Neogene Lindsay Palaeochannel, form a
series of connected basins that are associated with wider drainages (Fig. 3: Hou et al., 2012; Lewis
et al., 2010; Magee, 2009; Rogers, 1995). The Lindsay Palaeochannel covers a significant part of
the Fregon area. The palaeochannels are relatively deep (>20–25 metres below surface), and may
contain groundwater-bearing fluvial sediments within valley profiles that are not evident at the
surface.
Quaternary: Alluvial/fluvial sediments that form within channels with current bedload, and across
broader floodplain areas, and aeolian sediments. Earthquakes have been recorded just outside the
map area, indicating neotectonic activity (http://www.ga.gov.au/earthquakes/searchQuake.do).
STRUCTURES IN THE VICINITY OF FREGON
Based on a review of the existing geological and geophysical datasets, several observations can
be made about that the faults around Fregon (Fig. 6). Note that due to the sparse outcrop around
Fregon, the interpretation is primarily based on the geophysical datasets with all structures
unexposed:
• The area around Fregon is dominated by a series of unexposed, east-striking, laterally
extensive faults that can be traced as low aeromagnetic lineaments across the map area.
These faults appear to truncate the boundaries of granite plutons and locally dextrally
deflect the gneissosity (i.e. about 15 km south of Fregon). The faults can be subdivided into
two main sets;
o Between 5 and 19 km south of Fregon is a series of anastomosing, east-striking
faults that form a zone bounded by the Wintiginna Fault to the south. The bounding
faults of this zone also form the marginal structures of the western extent of the
Moorilyanna Graben, which is located to the east, indicating they were active during
the 600–530 Ma Petermann Orogeny. The core of this zone is characterised by a

Resources and Energy Group 13
lower magnetic response than the surrounding areas, suggesting it may have a
history of relatively pervasive fluid flow and alteration. Overall, this zone appears to
form a mylonite with widespread deformation; and
o Between 7 and 17 km north of Fregon is a series of curviplanar faults that are
generally parallel and form discrete structures (c.f. the zone to the south of Fregon).
This series of faults includes the Echo Fault, which along with the De Rose Fault,
forms the northern margin of the Moorilyanna Graben. The Echo Fault is interpreted
to be a long-lived structure with several stages of reactivation (Pawley et al., 2014).
An exception is an east-southeast-striking zone that extends from 8 km north to
29 km northeast of Fregon. This zone is characterised by lower magnetic response,
and may represent demagnetised or altered rocks where fluid flow has occurred
adjacent to major structures or Giles Complex intrusives.
These structures have generally been interpreted to have formed, or been reactivated during the
Petermann Orogeny.
Earthquakes have not been recorded in the vicinity of Fregon, however earthquakes with
magnitude between 3.1 and 3.5 have been recorded along the Poorara Fault, about 60 km to the
east and 30 km to the west of Fregon (Fig. 4; http://www.ga.gov.au/earthquakes/searchQuake.do).
Two earthquakes with magnitudes of 2.4 and 2.8 were recorded about 24 km to the northwest of
Fregon. This suggests that reactivation is still occurring, which may increase porosity and
permeability along these features.
Figure 6. Maps and datasets of the Fregon area. a) shows the simplified interpreted bedrock
geology polygons and structural geology linework over the TMI. The polygons with
thick black lines are the target areas. b; next page) shows the target areas over the
topographic map. The transparent yellow area is the distribution of the Lindsay
Palaeochannel (Hou et al., 2012).

Resources and Energy Group 14
Figure 6 b.
POSSIBLE TARGETS IN THE VICINITY OF FREGON
The geophysical and geological datasets of the area were examined, looking for zones of faulted,
fractured and weathered basement rocks that may represent aquifers. These were represented on
the datasets by low aeromagnetic lineaments. Networks of faults, rather than single isolated
structures, were preferred since the intersecting structures may have greater permeability and
porosity. There are several areas that meet the criteria, and would be worth closer examination
(Fig. 6). These include:
E. One possible target area is the laterally extensive zone of east-striking, anastomosing faults
located south of Fregon. The demagnetisation in this area suggests fluid flow and alteration
in this zone, with the anastomosing, intersecting structures providing pathways for fluid
flow. The presence of earthquakes along strike of these structures suggests ongoing
tectonic activity. Unfortunately, there is no outcrop in this area, which would help to narrow
the target area; and
F. Another possible target is the fault-bounded demagnetised area northeast of Fregon, which
appears to have focussed fluid flow in the past. However, the lack of outcrop also makes it
difficult to precisely define targets in this area.

Resources and Energy Group 15
INDULKANA AREA
The geology of the Indulkana area can be broken down into nine main stages of development.
c. 1620–1550 Ma: Formation of the protoliths to the Birksgate Complex. The protoliths included
felsic and minor mafic intrusive, volcanic, and volcaniclastic rocks, with less common sedimentary
rocks (Edgoose et al., 2004; Major and Conor, 1993; Wade et al., 2006; Wade et al., 2008).
c. 1220–1120 Ma: The Musgravian Orogeny resulted in granulite and amphibolite facies
metamorphism to produce the gneisses of the Birksgate Complex (Edgoose et al., 2004; Major and
Conor, 1993; Smithies et al., 2010). Granites of the Pitjantjatjara Supersuite intruded during, and
immediately following, the Musgravian Orogeny (Edgoose et al., 2004; Howard et al., 2011;
Smithies et al., 2011).
c. 1085–1040 Ma: Intrusion of mafic magmas of the Giles Complex. The magmas formed large,
often layered bodies, and thin dykes that cross-cut all of the earlier phases (Close et al., 2003;
Edgoose et al., 2004; Evins et al., 2010; Glikson et al., 1995; Glikson et al., 1996; Howard et al.,
2011; Woodhouse and Gum, 2003).
c. 825–760 Ma: Intrusion of the Amata Dolerite, which is a correlative of the Gairdner Dolerite that
intrudes the Gawler Craton (Werner et al., 2014).
Neoproterozoic to late Palaeozoic: Deposition of the sedimentary rocks of the intracratonic Officer
Basin, which occur at the base of the Indulkana Range.
c. 570–530 Ma: The Petermann Orogeny was a dextral transpressional event that resulted in the
exhumation of the core of the Musgrave Province along an east-trending flower structure (Korsch
and Kositcin, 2010; Lambeck and Burgess, 1992). Uplift was accommodated by thrusts near the
margins of the province (e.g. the Everard Thrust), and steeper structures in the core of the
province (e.g. the Wintiginna Fault: Camacho et al., 1997; Camacho and McDougall, 2000;
Edgoose et al., 2004; Howard et al., 2011; Pawley et al., 2014; Raimondo et al., 2009; Scrimgeour
and Close, 1999). Strike-slip movement along some of these structures (e.g. the Wintiginna Fault)
resulted in basins, such as the Moorilyanna Graben (Coats, 1962).
Ordovician: Continued deposition in the Officer Basin resulted in the sedimentary rocks that form
the Indulkana Range. This phase of deposition was terminated during the Alice Springs Orogeny
(Edgoose et al., 2002; Haines et al., 2001; Hand and Sandiford, 1999), which resulted in the
reactivation of some of the Petermann-aged structures. The orogeny was also associated with fluid
flow that caused localised epidote and silica alteration (e.g. Conor, 2004).
Tertiary: Development of palaeochannels, such as the Neogene Lindsay Palaeochannel, which
form a series of connected basins that are associated with wider drainages (Fig. 3: Hou et al.,
2012; Lewis et al., 2010; Magee, 2009; Rogers, 1995). The palaeochannels are relatively deep
(>20–25 metres below surface), and may contain groundwater-bearing fluvial sediments within
valley profiles that are not evident at the surface.
Quaternary: Alluvial/fluvial sediments that form within channels with current bedload, and across
broader floodplain areas, and aeolian sediments. Earthquakes have been recorded in the area,
indicating neotectonic activity (http://www.ga.gov.au/earthquakes/searchQuake.do).
STRUCTURES IN THE VICINITY OF INDULKANA
Based on a review of the existing geological and geophysical datasets, several observations can
be made about that the faults around Indulkana (Fig. 7):
• There is the unexposed, east-striking, curvilinear, north-dipping Everard Thrust to the south
of Indulkana, which is concealed by the Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks of the Indulkana
Range;

Resources and Energy Group 16
• The east-striking Wintiginna Fault is located about 11 km north of Indulkana where it forms
the southern margin of the Moorilyanna Graben;
• There are a series of northwest-striking low aeromagnetic lineaments, about 12–25 km to
the west-northwest of Indulkana (in the vicinity of Allan Well), which may represent faults as
they are at a moderate angle to the gneissic trends. These lineaments also correspond to
breaks in the outcrop and narrow valleys;
• NE-striking faults have been mapped to the west and southwest of the Indulkana Range (in
the area around Chambers Bluff), where they are sub-parallel to the Everard Thrust. It is
possible that these faults continue across the Indulkana Range, as prominent valleys in the
range are parallel to aeromagnetic low lineaments; and
• There are several east-trending, often anastomosing, low aeromagnetic lineaments
underneath Indulkana community that extend to the northeast and east for about 15 km.
These lineaments can be traced through gaps in the outcrop, and may represent faults as
they are at a moderate angle to the gneissic trends.
These structures have generally been interpreted to have formed, or been reactivated during the
Petermann Orogeny.
On the 6th January 2015, an earthquake with a magnitude of 3.4 was recorded to have a
hypocentre about 25 km northwest of Indulkana (near Allan Well and the Wintiginna Fault) at about
4km depth (http://www.ga.gov.au/earthquakes/searchQuake.do). This suggests that reactivation is
still occurring along these features, which may increase porosity and permeability.
Figure 7. Maps and datasets of the Indulkana area. a) shows the preexisting simplified outcrop
geology polygons and interpreted structural geology linework over the TMI. The yellow
stars are the earthquakes from the GA Earthquake Database. The polygons with thick
black lines are the target areas. b; next page) shows the target areas over the DTM,
which has been stretched to the map area and has northwest hill-shading. c) shows the
target areas over the topographic map.

Resources and Energy Group 17
Figure 7 b and c.

Resources and Energy Group 18
POSSIBLE TARGETS IN THE VICINITY OF INDULKANA
The geophysical datasets of the area were examined, looking for zones of faulted, fractured and
weathered basement rocks that may represent aquifers. These were represented on the datasets
by low aeromagnetic lineaments, which are often parallel to straight to curviplanar valleys, and are
interpreted as faults. Networks of faults, rather than single isolated structures, were preferred since
the intersecting structures may have greater permeability and porosity. There are several areas
that meet the criteria, and would be worth a closer examination (Fig. 7). These include:
G. One target area is located around the Indulkana community, and extends to the east and
northeast for about 15 km. This zone contains east-striking low aeromagnetic lineaments
that correspond to gaps in the outcrop, as well as a series of discontinuous northwest-
striking magnetic lows. This area already contains several wells.
H. One possible target starts about 10 km to the west of Indulkana, and extends to the
northwest for about 15 km. This zone is characterised by northwest-striking features to the
south, and east-northeast-striking features at the northern end of the zone. These features
correspond to low aeromagnetic lineaments and poorly developed linear drainage systems.
There is a well, i.e. Allan Well, in the northern part of this target.
I. Another target comprises a series of northeast-striking structures near Chambers Bluff,
which start about 7 km to the west of the Indulkana community, and continues to the
southwest for almost 20 km. This system corresponds to low aeromagnetic features, and
parallel topographic lows and drainage channels. There is a documented spring near the
northern end of this target, i.e. Indulkana Spring, which is located on top of the range, and a
well, i.e. Jimmy Well, to the southwest.

Resources and Energy Group 19
MIMILI AREA
The geology of the Mimili area can be broken down into nine main stages of development.
c. 1620–1550 Ma: Formation of the protoliths to the Birksgate Complex. The protoliths included
felsic and minor mafic intrusive, volcanic, and volcaniclastic rocks, with less common sedimentary
rocks (Edgoose et al., 2004; Major and Conor, 1993; Wade et al., 2006; Wade et al., 2008).
c. 1220–1120 Ma: The Musgravian Orogeny resulted in granulite and amphibolite facies
metamorphism to produce the gneisses of the Birksgate Complex (Edgoose et al., 2004; Major and
Conor, 1993; Smithies et al., 2010). Granites of the Pitjantjatjara Supersuite intruded during, and
immediately following, the Musgravian Orogeny (Edgoose et al., 2004; Howard et al., 2011;
Smithies et al., 2011).
c. 1085–1040 Ma: Intrusion of mafic magmas of the Giles Complex. The magmas formed large,
often layered bodies, and thin dykes that cross-cut all of the earlier phases (Close et al., 2003;
Edgoose et al., 2004; Evins et al., 2010; Glikson et al., 1995; Glikson et al., 1996; Howard et al.,
2011; Woodhouse and Gum, 2003).
c. 825–760 Ma: Intrusion of the Amata Dolerite, which is a correlative of the Gairdner Dolerite that
intrudes the Gawler Craton (Werner et al., 2014).
Neoproterozoic to late Palaeozoic: Deposition of the sedimentary rocks of the intracratonic Officer
Basin, which occur in the footwall of the Everard Thrust near the Blue Hills.
c. 570–530 Ma: The Petermann Orogeny was a dextral transpressional event that resulted in the
exhumation of the core of the Musgrave Province along an east-trending flower structure (Korsch
and Kositcin, 2010; Lambeck and Burgess, 1992). Uplift was accommodated by thrusts near the
margins of the province (e.g. the Everard Thrust), and steeper structures in the core of the
province (e.g. the Wintiginna and Poorara faults: Camacho et al., 1997; Camacho and McDougall,
2000; Edgoose et al., 2004; Howard et al., 2011; Pawley et al., 2014; Raimondo et al., 2009;
Scrimgeour and Close, 1999). Strike-slip movement resulted in basins, such as the Moorilyanna
Graben to the east (Coats, 1962), which occurs undercover on the northeast corner of the map.
Ordovician: Deposition continued in the Officer Basin, resulting in the sedimentary rocks of the
Blue Hills. This phase of deposition terminated during the Alice Springs Orogeny (Edgoose et al.,
2002; Haines et al., 2001; Hand and Sandiford, 1999). The Ordovician Alice Springs Orogeny
resulted in reactivation of some Petermann-aged structures. The orogeny was also associated with
fluid flow that caused localised epidote and silica alteration (e.g. Conor, 2004).
Tertiary: Development of palaeochannels, such as the Neogene Lindsay Palaeochannel, which
forms a series of connected basins that are associated with wider drainages (Fig. 3: Hou et al.,
2012; Lewis et al., 2010; Magee, 2009; Rogers, 1995). The palaeochannels are relatively deep
(>20–25 metres below surface), and may contain groundwater-bearing fluvial sediments within
valley profiles that are not evident at the surface.
Quaternary: Deposition of alluvial/fluvial sediments within channels with current bedload, and
across broader floodplain areas, and aeolian sediments. Earthquakes have been recorded outside
the map area, indicating neotectonic activity (http://www.ga.gov.au/earthquakes/searchQuake.do).
STRUCTURES IN THE VICINITY OF MIMILI
Based on a review of the existing geological and geophysical datasets, several observations can
be made about the faults around Mimili (Fig. 8):
• There is the unexposed, north-dipping Everard Thrust to the south of Mimili. The thrust is
northeast-striking in this area, and there are several parallel structures in the Proterozoic
Rocks to the north of the thrust;
• The east-striking Wintiginna Fault that is located about 13.5 km north of Mimili where it
forms the southern margin of the Moorilyanna Graben;
• There are a series of east-striking, laterally extensive, anastamosing faults that form a zone
up to 13 km wide, between about 3 km north of Mimili and about 10 km south of the
community. The faults, which are variably exposed and can be traced as low aeromagnetic

Resources and Energy Group 20
lineaments, locally deflect the gneissosity, dextrally offset the boundary of a pluton, and
correspond to breaks in the outcrop and drainage systems;
• There are a series of northwest-trending, low aeromagnetic lineaments in the Everard
Ranges that extend from about 16 km south of Mimili to about 18 km southwest of the
community. These lineaments can be traced through gaps in the outcrop and drainage
systems, and may represent faults as they are at a high angle to the gneissic trends. These
features are sub-parallel to the margin of the Illbillie Adamellite, suggesting there may be a
rheological contrast in this area. A set of dolerite dykes are also parallel to this trend; and
• There are a series of unexposed, northwest-striking, low aeromagnetic lineaments between
the east-trending faults at Mimili and the Wintiginna Fault to the north. The northwest-
striking structures which may be step overs linking the east-striking structures.
These structures have generally been interpreted to have formed, or been reactivated during the
Petermann Orogeny.
No earthquakes have been recorded in the near vicinity of Mimili, however an earthquake with a
magnitude of 3.2 was recorded to have a hypocenter about 23 km to the north-northwest of Mimili
(near the Poorara Fault) and about 9 km deep
(http://www.ga.gov.au/earthquakes/searchQuake.do). This suggests that reactivation is still
occurring, which may increase porosity and permeability along these features.
Figure 8. Maps and datasets of the Mimili area. a) shows the preexisting simplified outcrop
geology polygons and interpreted structural geology linework over the TMI. The
polygons with thick black lines are the target areas. b; next page) shows the target
areas over the DTM, which has been stretched to the map area and has northwest hill-
shading. c) shows the target areas over the topographic map.

Resources and Energy Group 21
Figure 8 b and c.

Resources and Energy Group 22
POSSIBLE TARGETS IN THE VICINITY OF MIMILI
The geophysical datasets of the area were examined, looking for zones of faulted, fractured and
weathered basement rocks that may represent aquifers. These were represented on the datasets
by low aeromagnetic lineaments, which are often parallel to straight to curviplanar valleys, and are
interpreted as faults. Networks of faults, rather than single isolated structures, were preferred since
the intersecting structures may have greater permeability and porosity. There are several areas
that meet the criteria, and would be worth a closer examination (Fig. 8). These include:
J. One possible target area is the laterally extensive zone of east-striking, anastomosing faults
that underlie Mimili. This zone is unexposed to the east of Mimili. In the vicinity of Mimili,
and to the west, there are drainage systems and gaps in the outcrop that are parallel to the
low aeromagnetic lineaments. There are several wells and bores in this target, which are
mostly along the drainage systems on the plains. In contrast, several “native wells” have
been documented in the hills around Mimili (e.g. Intinginna Native Well) and these features
would warrant a closer look.
K. Another possible target is the area about 15 km to the southwest of Mimili in the Everard
Ranges, where a series of northwest-striking structures are aligned parallel to a pluton
margin, suggesting there may be a local rheological control on their orientation.
Furthermore, these features intersect with the east-striking faults to form a local
fault/fracture network. The low aeromagnetic lineaments in this area correspond to gaps in
the outcrop and associated drainage systems. Several wells have been documented in this
area, including Middle Well and Gap Well.

Resources and Energy Group 23
PUKATJA AREA
The geology of the Pukatja area can be broken down into seven main stages of development.
c. 1620–1550 Ma: Formation of the protoliths to the Birksgate Complex. The protoliths included
felsic and minor mafic intrusive, volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks, with less common sedimentary
rocks (Edgoose et al., 2004; Major and Conor, 1993; Wade et al., 2006; Wade et al., 2008).
c. 1220–1120 Ma: The Musgravian Orogeny resulted in granulite and amphibolite facies
metamorphism producing gneisses of the Birksgate Complex (Edgoose et al., 2004; Major and
Conor, 1993; Smithies et al., 2010). Granites of the Pitjantjatjara Supersuite, such as the Ernabella
Adamellite, intruded during, and immediately following, the Musgravian Orogeny (Edgoose et al.,
2004; Howard et al., 2011; Smithies et al., 2011).
c. 1085–1040 Ma: Intrusion of mafic magmas of the Giles Complex. The magmas formed large,
often layered bodies, and thin dykes that cross-cut rocks of all of the earlier phases (Close et al.,
2003; Edgoose et al., 2004; Evins et al., 2010; Glikson et al., 1995; Glikson et al., 1996; Howard et
al., 2011; Woodhouse and Gum, 2003).
c. 570–530 Ma: The Petermann Orogeny was a dextral transpressional event that resulted in the
exhumation of the core of the Musgrave Province along an east-trending flower structure (Korsch
and Kositcin, 2010; Lambeck and Burgess, 1992). Uplift was accommodated by thrusts near the
margins of the province, and steeper structures in the core (Camacho et al., 1997; Camacho and
McDougall, 2000; Edgoose et al., 2004; Howard et al., 2011; Pawley et al., 2014; Raimondo et al.,
2009; Scrimgeour and Close, 1999). These structures are typically represented in the map area by
broad mylonite zones, such as the Woodroffe Thrust and the Ferdinand Fault.
Ordovician: The Alice Springs Orogeny resulted in the reactivation of some of the Petermann-aged
structures. It was also associated with fluid flow that caused localised epidote and silica alteration
(e.g. Conor, 2004).
Tertiary: Development of palaeochannels, such as the Neogene Lindsay Palaeochannel to the
west of Ernabella, form a series of connected basins that are associated with wider drainages
(Fig. 3: Hou et al., 2012; Lewis et al., 2010; Magee, 2009; Rogers, 1995). The palaeochannels are
relatively deep (>20–25 metres below surface), and may contain groundwater-bearing fluvial
sediments within valley profiles that are not evident at the surface.
Quaternary: Alluvial/fluvial sediments were deposited within channels with current bedload, and
also across broader floodplain areas. Numerous earthquakes, with magnitudes ranging from 2.8 to
5.7 have been recorded in the area, indicating neotectonic activity
(http://www.ga.gov.au/earthquakes/searchQuake.do).
STRUCTURES IN THE VICINITY OF PUKATJA
Based on a review of the existing geological and geophysical datasets, several observations can
be made about that the faults around Pukatja (Fig. 9):
• There are broad northeast-striking mylonite zones, such as the upright Ferdinand Fault that
is about 5 km south of Pukatja, and the northwest-dipping Woodroffe Thrust located about
20 km to the northwest of the community;
• There are a series of relatively narrow faults along the northern side of the Ferdinand Fault
that form low aeromagnetic lineaments, often correspond with curviplanar valleys, and
appear to truncate and deflect the gneissosity. These structures are generally east-
northeast- to north-striking (although they vary), and may represent splays off the larger
mylonite zone. They are best developed in the vicinity of Turkey Bore in the southwestern
part of the map area;
• About 15 km to the west-southwest of Pukatja, just to the southeast of Mount Spec, there
are a series of anastomosing faults that appear to form breccia zones along northeast-
striking valleys;
• The area around Itjinpiri, about 9 km north of Pukatja, contains a series of intersecting
faults with variable orientations that range from east-, northeast, north-northeast- to north-

Resources and Energy Group 24
northwest-striking. These faults are often within the Ernabella Adamellite. The structures
often correspond to gaps in the outcrops and linear valleys;
• About 18 km to the northeast of Pukatja is a thin, northwest-striking aeromagnetic low that
can be traced from the Ferdinand Fault to the northwest across the Woodroffe Thrust for
about 35 km. This feature appears to be dextrally offset by the Woodroffe Thrust. This
feature is interpreted as a fault that offsets the Ernabella Adamellite, possibly with a
northeast-side-up sense of movement. This fault corresponds to a break in outcrop and a
topographic low along the northwestern end of the feature. This fault underlies Womikata
and will be referred to as the Womikata Fault in this report;
• There a series of southeast-striking, curvilinear low magnetic features on the southeastern
side of the Ferdinand Fault, about 12 km to the east-southeast of Pukatja. These features
correspond to narrow valleys and discontinuous gaps in the outcrop. and
• Some basement rocks adjacent to the faults have experienced epidote and silica alteration,
indicating fluid flow (Conor, 2004).
These structures have generally been interpreted to have formed during the Petermann Orogeny,
with the spatially associated alteration occurring during younger reactivation.
Significantly, Pukatja has experienced nine earthquake events in the past 30 years, with two of
magnitude 5.7 (Fig. 9a; http://www.ga.gov.au/earthquakes/searchQuake.do). This suggests that
reactivation of the older structures is still occurring, which may increase porosity and permeability
along these features.
Figure 9. Maps and datasets of the Pukatja area. a) shows the preexisting simplified outcrop
geology polygons and interpreted structural geology linework over the TMI. The yellow
stars are the earthquakes from the GA Earthquake Database. The polygons with thick
black lines are the target areas. b; next page) shows the target areas over the DTM,
stretched to the whole dataset with northwest hill-shading. c) shows the target areas
over the topographic map.

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Figure 9 b and c.

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POSSIBLE TARGETS IN THE PUKATJA AREA
The geophysical datasets of the area were examined, looking for zones of faulted, fractured and
weathered basement rocks that may represent aquifers. These were represented on the datasets
by low aeromagnetic lineaments, which are often parallel to curviplanar valleys, which are
interpreted as faults. Networks of faults, rather than single isolated structures, were preferred since
the intersecting structures may have greater permeability and porosity. There are several areas
that meet the criteria, and would be worth a closer examination (Fig. 9). These include:
L. One target that extends from the western edge of the Ernabella Adamellite (about 5 km to
the west of Pukatja) to the southwest for about 25 km. This area contains a series of sub-
parallel, east-northeast-striking structures that locally truncate the gneissosity at a high
angle, locally wrap along the contacts between the different phases in the bedrock, and
follow linear drainage systems. There are several wells and bores in this target, as well as
one soak near the southwestern corner (i.e. Warrabillinna Soakage);
M. Some of the structures in the target described above can be traced into, and across the
Ernabella Adamellite, about 4-5 km to the north of the community. These structures
correspond to gaps in the outcrop and narrow linear valleys. One well, i.e. Youngs Well,
occurs in this area, and two earthquakes have been recorded in this area, with magnitudes
of 2.8 and 3.6 (http://www.ga.gov.au/earthquakes/searchQuake.do);
N. Three faults, represented by magnetically low lineaments at a moderate angle to the
penetrative foliation, intersect in an area about 4.5 km to the northwest of Itjinpiri (about
12 km to the north-northwest of Pukatja). This target corresponds to an extensive area of
outcrop, but the faults coincide with narrow valleys that often have an irregular texture on
the orthoimages, suggesting that the rock has been broken up and brecciated. Two faults
have been documented in this area, with magnitudes of 3.0 and 3.3
(http://www.ga.gov.au/earthquakes/searchQuake.do);
O. There is a northwest-striking feature about 17 km to the northeast of Pukatja that forms a
prominent low aeromagnetic lineament that can be traced along strike for about 30 km. This
feature, called the Womikata Fault, corresponds to a linear gap in the outcrop, and a broad
valley. An earthquake with a magnitude of 3.8 has been recorded just to the northeast of
the fault, and an earthquake with a magnitude of 5.7 is near the northwestern end. A well,
i.e. Donalds Well, is located near the southeastern end of the target. This target occurs in
an area that overlaps with the Yunyarinyi map (see Fig. 10), and would also be a target for
that area; and
P. To the southeast of the Ferdinand Fault is a series of southeast-striking faults that locally
correspond to breaks in the outcrop and narrow valleys. Several bores are located on the
plains near the southeastern margin of this target, and one well (i.e. Gilpins Well) is located
in the northeast corner. This target occurs in an area that also overlaps with the Yunyarinyi
map (see Fig. 10), and would also be a target for that area.
Although they form prominent features, it is unclear whether the Ferdinand Fault that forms a broad
east-northeast-striking mylonite zone to the south of Pukatja, and the Woodroffe Thrust to the north
would be suitable aquifers. This is because recrystallisation and grainsize reduction during
deformation may have reduced porosity and permeability. However, bores have been established
along these structures, suggesting that they may also form suitable targets.

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YUNYARINYI AREA
The geology of the Yunyarinyi area can be broken down into eight main stages of development.
c. 1620–1550 Ma: Formation of the protoliths to the Birksgate Complex. The protoliths included
felsic and minor mafic intrusive, volcanic, and volcaniclastic rocks, with less common sedimentary
rocks (Edgoose et al., 2004; Major and Conor, 1993; Wade et al., 2006; Wade et al., 2008).
c. 1220–1120 Ma: The Musgravian Orogeny resulted in granulite and amphibolite facies
metamorphism to produce the gneisses of the Birksgate Complex (Edgoose et al., 2004; Major and
Conor, 1993; Smithies et al., 2010). Granites of the Pitjantjatjara Supersuite, such as the Ernabella
Adamellite to the northwest of Yunyarinyi, intruded during, and immediately following, the
Musgravian Orogeny (Edgoose et al., 2004; Howard et al., 2011; Smithies et al., 2011).
c. 1085–1040 Ma: Intrusion of mafic magmas of the Giles Complex. The magmas formed large,
often layered bodies, and thin dykes that cross-cut all of the earlier phases (Close et al., 2003;
Edgoose et al., 2004; Evins et al., 2010; Glikson et al., 1995; Glikson et al., 1996; Howard et al.,
2011; Woodhouse and Gum, 2003).
c. 825–760 Ma: Intrusion of the Amata Dolerite, which is a correlative of the Gairdner Dolerite that
intrudes the Gawler Craton (Werner et al., 2014).
c. 570–530 Ma: The Petermann Orogeny was a dextral transpressional event that resulted in the
exhumation of the core of the Musgrave Province along an east-trending flower structure (Korsch
and Kositcin, 2010; Lambeck and Burgess, 1992). Uplift was accommodated by thrusts near the
margins of the province, and steeper structures in the core (Camacho et al., 1997; Camacho and
McDougall, 2000; Edgoose et al., 2004; Howard et al., 2011; Pawley et al., 2014; Raimondo et al.,
2009; Scrimgeour and Close, 1999). These structures are represented in the map area by broad
mylonite zones, such as the Ferdinand Fault.
Ordovician: The Alice Springs Orogeny resulted in the reactivation of some of the Petermann-aged
structures. It was associated with fluid flow that caused localised epidote and silica alteration (e.g.
Conor, 2004).
Tertiary: Development of palaeochannels, such as the Neogene Lindsay Palaeochannel to the
west of Yunyarinyi, which form a series of connected basins that are associated with wider
drainages (Fig. 3: Hou et al., 2012; Lewis et al., 2010; Magee, 2009; Rogers, 1995). The
palaeochannels are relatively deep (>20–25 metres below surface), and may contain groundwater-
bearing fluvial sediments within valley profiles that are not evident at the surface.
Quaternary: Alluvial/fluvial sediments were deposited within channels with current bedload, and
also across broader floodplain areas. Several earthquakes, with magnitudes ranging from 3.0 to
6.0 have been recorded in the area, indicating neotectonic activity
(http://www.ga.gov.au/earthquakes/searchQuake.do).
STRUCTURES IN THE VICINITY OF YUNYARINYI
Based on a review of the existing geological and geophysical datasets, several observations can
be made about the faults around Yunyarinyi (Fig. 10):
• The Ferdinand Fault is a broad east-northeast-striking mylonite zone located about 12 km
to the northwest of Yunyarinyi. In outcrop, the Ferdinand Fault often forms a prominent
ridge that suggests it is relatively competent, and may not be permeable and porous;
• A series of east-southeast-striking, curvilinear structures splay off the southeastern side of
the Ferdinand Fault. These structures are defined by aeromagnetic lows, and correspond to
gaps in the outcrop and the drainage systems. These features overlap with the Pukatja
map area (see Fig. 9);
• The Marryat Fault, located about 20 km to the north-northeast of Yunyarinyi, is a curvilinear
structure that splays off the Ferdinand Fault and continues eastwards for over 170 km to
the edge of the province;
• There is extensive outcrop to the northeast of Yunyarinyi where a series of shears and
faults are exposed (e.g. the Herringbone Fault; Conor, 2004). In this area, the gneisses are
cut by abundant, broadly northeast-striking shears that form topographic highs up to 30 m-

Resources and Energy Group 28
wide, that appear as dark features on the orthophotos. There are few geological
observations from this area, and it is unclear whether these represent mylonites (texturally
similar to the Ferdinand Fault), structures that have been intruded by mafic magmas, or
something else. However, the observation that features form topographic highs suggests
they are composed of relatively competent material. These features form magnetically low
lineaments on the aeromagnetic images; and
• About 5 km east of Yunyarinyi is a northeast-striking fault that was recognised by Conor
(Conor, 2004), and described as “late” as it appears to overprint all of the other structures
including the prominent layering and mafic dykes with a component of sinstral movement.
This fault can be traced to the northeast for about 15 km, corresponding to a weak
magnetic low, breaks in the outcrop, as well as in the drainage pattern. This structure has
herein been called the Yunyarinyi Fault.
The Yunyarinyi area has experienced several earthquake events in the past 32 years, ranging from
magnitude 3.0 to 6.0 (http://www.ga.gov.au/earthquakes/searchQuake.do). These events occurred
within about 3 km of the Yunyarinyi Fault. However, there appears to be some discrepancies about
the location of the magnitude 6.0 event, with the GA Earthquake Database placing it about 6.5 km
to the east of the community, whereas published reports place the epicenter about 40 km to the
east-northeast of Yunyarinyi, near Gosse Bore (Machette et al., 1993). The study by Machette et
al. (1993) also found evidence for prehistoric reactivation of the faults in this area. A magnitude 4.1
event occurred near the Marryat Fault, about 20 km to the northeast of Yunyarinyi and just outside
the map area. Overall, there appears to have been recent reactivation of the older structures in this
area, particularly in the vicinity of the Yunyarinyi Fault, which may increase porosity and
permeability along these features.
Figure 10. Maps and datasets of the Yunyarinyi area. a) shows the preexisting simplified
outcrop geology polygons and interpreted structural geology linework over the TMI.
The yellow stars are the earthquakes from the GA Earthquake Database. The polygons
with thick black lines are the target areas. b; next page) shows the target areas over
the DTM, stretched to the whole dataset with northwest hill-shading. c) shows the
target areas over the topographic map.

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Figure 10 b and c.

Resources and Energy Group 30
POSSIBLE TARGETS IN THE VICINITY OF YUNYARINYI
The geophysical datasets of the area were examined, looking for zones of faulted, fractured and
weathered basement rocks that may represent aquifers. These were represented on the datasets
by low aeromagnetic lineaments, which are often parallel to curviplanar valleys, which were
interpreted as faults. Networks of faults, rather than single isolated structures, were preferred since
the intersecting structures may have greater permeability and porosity. There are several areas
that meet the criteria, and would be worth a closer examination (Fig. 10). These include:
M. This target is part of an east-northeast-striking structure near Figtree Gully that can be
traced onto the Pukatja map area (Fig. 9), where it crosses the Ernabella Adamellite, about
4–5 km to the north of the community. This structure corresponds to a gap in the outcrop
and narrow linear valleys. Two earthquakes have been recorded in this area, with
magnitudes of 2.8 and 3.6 (http://www.ga.gov.au/earthquakes/searchQuake.do);
O. This target includes the Womikata Fault in the northeastern part of the Pukatja map. This is
a northwest-striking feature about 17 km to the northwest of Yunyarinyi that forms a
prominent low aeromagnetic lineament that can be traced along strike for about 30 km. This
feature corresponds to a linear gap in the outcrop, and a broad valley. An earthquake with a
magnitude of 3.8 has been recorded just to the northeast of the fault. A well, i.e. Donalds
Well, is located near the southeastern end of the target;
P. Another target in this area is located about 15 km to the west of Yunyarinyi and includes the
southeast-striking faults that occur to the southeast of the Ferdinand Fault. This target also
occurs on the Pukatja map area (see Fig. 9). These faults locally correspond to breaks in
the outcrop and narrow valleys. Several bores are located near the southeast margin of this
target, near the edge of the outcrop, and one well (i.e. Gilpins Well) is located in the
northeast corner; and
Q. The Yunyarinyi Fault is another target. Of particular interest is the broad, northeast-striking
drainage area that overlies the aeromagnetic low, extending from about 5 km to the east of
the community to the northeast for about 8 km. Three earthquakes, with magnitudes
ranging from 3.0 to 6.0 have been recognised near this structure
(http://www.ga.gov.au/earthquakes/searchQuake.do). Two wells are located within 2.5 km
of the fault (i.e. No. 10 Well and Nalylta Well No. 4).

Resources and Energy Group 31
SUMMARY
Seventeen possible target areas worth a closer examination have been identified in this report. The
targets are not listed in any particular order of priority.
Amata (Fig. 5):
A. A series of sub-parallel, north-northeast-striking structures that are apparent as lows on the
aeromagnetic images, located just to the west of Amata, extending in a south-southwest
direction for about 16 km;
B. About 10 km west of Amata a north-northeast-striking drainage system, which overlies a
low aeromagnetic feature and also contains several outcrops of mylonitic rocks, can be
traced for about 18 km, and comprises the southern Malungankanya and northern Aparina
Creek;
C. About 15 km to the south-southeast of Amata, altered gneisses and gneissic granite are cut
by a series of southeast-striking features that correspond to low aeromagnetic lineaments
and drainage systems;
D. About 15 km to the east-northeast of Amata shears in gneisses correspond to low
aeromagnetic lineaments and breaks in the drainage systems.
Fregon (Fig. 6):
E. A laterally extensive demagnetised zone of east-striking, anastomosing faults located south
of Fregon;
F. A fault-bounded demagnetised area northeast of Fregon.
Indulkana (Fig. 7):
G. East-striking low aeromagnetic lineaments around the Indulkana community extending to
the east and northeast for about 15 km;
H. Low aeromagnetic lineaments and poorly developed linear drainage systems about 10 km
to the west of Indulkana, extending to the northwest for about 15 km;
I. A series of NE-striking structures corresponding to low aeromagnetic features near
Chambers Bluff, which start about 7 km to the west of the Indulkana community continuing
to the southwest for almost 20 km.
Mimili (Fig. 8):
J. A laterally extensive zone of E-striking, anastomosing faults that underlie Mimili;
K. A series of NW-striking structures are aligned parallel to a pluton margin about 15 km to the
SW of Mimili in the Everard Ranges.
Pukatja (Fig. 9):
L. A series of sub-parallel, east-northeast-striking structures that extend from the western
edge of the Ernabella Adamellite (about 5 km to the west of Pukatja) to the southwest for
about 25 km;
N. Three faults, represented by magnetically low lineaments, intersect in an area about 4.5 km
to the northwest of Itjinpiri (about 12 km to the north-northwest of Pukatja).
Pukatja and Yunyarinyi (Figs 9 and 10):
M. Some of the structures in target (L) can be traced into, and across the Ernabella Adamellite,
about 4-5 km to the north of the community. These structures appear to continue onto the
Yunyarinyi map area;
O. The Womikata Fault, a northwest-striking feature about 17 km to the northeast of Pukatja
forming a prominent low aeromagnetic lineament that can be traced along strike for about
30 km;
P. A series of southeast-striking faults to the southeast of the Ferdinand Fault.
Yunyarinyi (Fig. 10):
Q. Part of the Yunyarinyi Fault where a broad, northeast-striking drainage area overlies an
aeromagnetic low, extending from about 5 km to the east of Yunyarinyi to the northeast for
about 8 km.

Resources and Energy Group 32
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We’d like to thank Michael Gogoll (DEWNR) for setting up the project and ongoing discussion of
the geology of the Musgrave Province. Michael Gogoll is also thanked for his review of the
manuscript. Mario Werner, Rian Dutch and Wolfgang Preiss (GSSA) are thanked for many in-
house discussions on the geology of the Musgrave Province and the Officer Basin.

Resources and Energy Group 33
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