Adolescent Girls and Body Image: Influence of Outdoor Adventure on Healthy Living

Abstract

Outdoor adventure may improve body image. However, minimal research exists on the effect outdoor adventure has on body image in adolescent girls, a demographic continually plagued by negative body image. In response, this exploratory study considered the influence of one outdoor adventure program in the San Francisco Bay Area. Through questionnaires and focus groups, 13 high school–aged GirlVentures, Inc. (GV), alumnae discussed body image in the context of “healthy living” and the effect their course had on personal body image. Results show key influences included instructors, other girls on course, and the natural environment. All participants perceived their program as positively influencing their body image during and directly following their course, and most (n = 9) perceived their program as still positively influencing their body image up to 3 years postcourse. Findings offer insight to GV and can provide new information for other outdoor adventure organizations to promote healthy development in adolescent girls.

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iii
Journal of
Outdoor Recreation,
Education, and Leadership
Volume 8 Issue 2
Editors’ Notes
Outdoor Programming: A Context for Decision Making, Character Development,
and Positive Body Image—Editors’ Notes
Andrew J. Bobilya and Raymond A. Po .............................................................................101
Regular Papers
Beyond Decision Making for Outdoor Leaders: Expanding the Safety Behavior
Research Agenda
Je S. Jackson .........................................................................................................................103
e Dialectical Utility of Heuristic Processing in Outdoor Adventure Education
Chris A. B. Zajchowski, Matthew T. J. Brownlee, and Nate N. Furman ............................119
Terrain Classication of Norwegian Slab Avalanche Accidents
Linda Hallandvik, Eivind Aadland, and Odd Lennart Vikene ...........................................136
Adolescent Girls and Body Image: Inuence of Outdoor Adventure
on Healthy Living
Susie K. Barr-Wilson and Nina S. Roberts ..........................................................................148
Seeking Virtue in the Wilderness: Expeditions as Traveling Monasteries
Paul Stonehouse ....................................................................................................................165
A Closer Look at the Camp Experience: Examining Relationships Between Life
Skills, Elements of Positive Youth Development, and Antecedents of Change
Among Camp Alumni
Barry A. Garst, Ryan J. Gagnon, and Anja Whittington ....................................................180
Research Notes
Predictors of Change in Body Image in Female Participants of an Outdoor
Education Program
Kate Hovey, Jody Foland, John T. Foley, Mike Knin, and JoEllen Bailey .........................200
Other Journals’ Table of Contents
Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education (JOEE) Table of Contents,
Volume 19(2) .......................................................................................................................209
Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning (JAEOL)
Table of Contents, Volume 16(2) .....................................................................................210
Journal of Experiential Education (JEE) Table of Contents, Volume 39(3) ................ 211
Miscellaneous
Instructions for Authors .....................................................................................................212

Adolescent Girls and Body Image: Influence of
Outdoor Adventure on Healthy Living
Susie K. Barr-Wilson
American Alpine Institute
Nina S. Roberts
San Francisco State University
Abstract
Outdoor adventure may improve body image. However, minimal research exists on the eect
outdoor adventure has on body image in adolescent girls, a demographic continually plagued by
negative body image. In response, this exploratory study considered the inuence of one outdoor
adventure program in the San Francisco Bay Area. rough questionnaires and focus groups,
13 high school–aged GirlVentures, Inc. (GV), alumnae discussed body image in the context of
“healthy living” and the eect their course had on personal body image. Results show key inu-
ences included instructors, other girls on course, and the natural environment. All participants
perceived their program as positively inuencing their body image during and directly following
their course, and most (n = 9) perceived their program as still positively inuencing their body
image up to 3 years postcourse. Findings oer insight to GV and can provide new information
for other outdoor adventure organizations to promote healthy development in adolescent girls.
KEYWORDS: adolescent girls; outdoor adventure; body image; health
148
Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership 2016, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 148–164
https://doi.org/10.18666/JOREL-2016-V8-I2-7693
Note and Acknowledgments: is article is based on the master’s thesis submitted by Susie K.
Barr-Wilson in May 2012, in partial fulllment of the requirements for the degree of master
of science in recreation, parks, and tourism at San Francisco State University. Special thanks to
GirlVentures, Inc., for their support.
Funding: is study was partially funded by California Parks and Recreation Society District 4
[Student Grant], Peet’s Coee and Tea, and a family contribution.

149ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND BODY IMAGE
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Continually bombarded with media and social pressures to achieve unrealistic beauty stan-
dards, adolescent girls in Western society are disproportionately aicted with negative body
image compared to adolescent boys (Girl Scouts Research Institute, 2006; Knauss, Paxton, &
Alsaker, 2008; Linder, Russell-Mayhew, Adair, & McLaren, 2012; Slater & Tiggeman, 2010).
Previous studies on girls’ outdoor adventure programs include improved body image among
ndings (Whittington, 2006; Whittington & Nixon Mack, 2010; Whittington, Nixon Mack,
Budbill, & McKenney, 2011). However, few studies found to date were designed to focus on the
eect of outdoor adventure on girls’ body image specically, and results include the need for
further research (Budbill, 2008; Edwards-Leeper, 2004; Parsons, 2010).
Using phenomenological inquiry, we explored the inuence of outdoor adventure on body
image in adolescent girls through the unique experiences of alumnae from GirlVentures, Inc.
(GV), a culturally diverse youth organization in San Francisco. Based on the Barr-Wilson (2012)
thesis, results reect the potential for GV’s programs to inuence body image and, more broadly,
to contribute to the growing body of knowledge of outdoor adventure programming, oering in-
sight for experiential educators to have a positive eect on the healthy development of adolescent
girls. Furthermore, our study situates body image in the context of health (i.e., exploring partici-
pants’ associations with healthy living), an area less explored in the experiential learning arena.
Previous studies have recommended conducting further research to understand the imme-
diate and long-term eects of outdoor adventure on body image in adolescent girls. Our study
examines such eects and focuses on the inuence of outdoor adventure programs on body
image in adolescent girls within the broader context of health promotion and development. We
aimed to expand our understanding of how adolescent girls believe their outdoor adventure ex-
periences contribute to knowledge and behaviors that promote healthy development and overall
well-being.
Review of Literature
ere is a rich history of girls’ involvement in outdoor recreation and adventure programs
in the United States (see McKenney, Budbill, & Roberts, 2008). Since the early 1990s, scholarly
and popular literature alike have raised public awareness of the crises facing the healthy devel-
opment of adolescent girls (e.g., American Association of University Women, 1991; Girl Scouts
Research Institute, 2006; Wiseman, 2002; Witmer, Bocarro, & Henderson, 2011). Although re-
cent studies have also elevated concerns about adolescent boys (e.g., Henderson & Bialeschki,
2008; Tyre et al., 2006), the concerns do not negate the diculties encountered by young girls.
e Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported, for example, that compared to
boys, high school girls experienced higher rates of bullying, depression, and attempted suicide
and were more likely to describe themselves as overweight and participate in unhealthy weight
loss methods (Eaton et al., 2012).
As a primary goal of our study, body image is positioned as one aspect of healthy living.
e Girl Scouts’ 2006 national study on healthy living found that adolescent girls described
health as a lack of illness or refraining from harmful activities (Girl Scouts Research Institute,
2006).Although participants identied healthy living to include proper nutrition, exercise, and
positive relationships, they viewed peer approval and appearing “normal” as the more important
components of a healthy lifestyle.Girls directly associated being healthy with outer appearances,
and 65% of respondents claimed they were “healthy enough for my age” (Girl Scouts Research
Institute, 2006, p. 8).
Body Image in Adolescent Girls
A seminal national study by the American Association of University Women (AAUW,
1991) found that upon entering adolescence, girls experienced decreased appreciation for their
bodies, in addition to becoming more self-conscious, self-critical, and anxious. e AAUW re-

150 BARR-WILSON AND ROBERTS
Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership
ported that both girls and boys experienced a decrease in self-esteem upon adolescence, but that
the decline was greater in girls, and physical appearance was of greater importance to adolescent
girls than to adolescent boys. Relatedly, Brown and Gilligan (1992) attested that as girls’ bod-
ies visually change, they begin to perceive themselves as “objects of beauty . . . [seen] through
the gaze of others” (p. 164). In its nationwide study with over 3,100 subjects (n = 2,060 girls,
461 boys, and 599 mothers), the Girl Scouts Research Institute (2006) discovered that over one
fourth of the adolescent girls studied were dissatised with their body weight and that the major-
ity of girls were not practicing healthy eating or physical activity habits.
Several studies have been conducted on the media’s negative eect on self-concept in girls
and women (e.g., Clay, Vignoles, & Dittmar, 2005; Girl Scouts Research Institute, 2010; Knauss
et al., 2008). For instance, in a recent Girl Scouts study on body image of over 1,000 girls (aged
13–17), 89% blamed the fashion industry for placing immense pressure on adolescent girls to be
thin and 31% admitted weight loss attempts by abstaining from eating or famishing their bodies
(Girl Scouts Research Institute, 2010).
Outdoor Adventure Programming for Adolescent Girls
In contrast to the occasional harmful messages of mainstream culture, outdoor adventure
programming can oer adolescent girls condence and courage (Whittington & Nixon Mack,
2010), physical competence and strength (Caulkins, White, & Russell, 2006), relational skills
(Sammet, 2010), and self-ecacy (Budbill, 2008). Adventure programs and girls’ involvement
has been explored for 2 decades (McKenney et al., 2008). Although results have indicated bene-
ts of all-girls outdoor adventure programs, few studies have focused on the inuence of outdoor
adventure programs on body image specically.
Benefits of outdoor adventure programs for adolescent girls. Ewert, Mitten, and
Overholt (2014) reported outdoor adventure programs oer creative opportunities for achieving
health benets associated with the natural environment. Relatedly, Russell and Farnum (2004)
found that being in nature and the sense of removal in a wilderness setting was rejuvenating,
upliing, and therapeutic for underserved adolescent girls. Away from their everyday lives and
immersed in a wilderness setting for an extended time, adolescent girls had an opportunity to
attain physical, social, emotional, and cognitive benets (Russell & Farnum, 2004).
All-female outdoor adventure programs can provide adolescent girls with increased ap-
preciation for nature and greater awareness of one’s surroundings (Caulkins et al., 2006) as well
as with the opportunity to challenge socially prescribed notions of beauty and appropriate femi-
ninity (Whittington, 2006). Whittington et al. (2011) studied the benets of three all-girls out-
door adventure programs (i.e., GV, Passages Northwest, Girls Move Mountains). Participants
identied the advantages of single-gender programs to include “feelings of safety and comfort,
increased connection to others, and freedom from stereotypes” (Whittington et al., 2011, p. 1).
Participants attributed their all-girls program to decreased concerns about appearances, on
course, and the ability to focus on the experience (Whittington et al., 2011).
Adolescent girls’ outdoor adventure programming and body image. ree studies
found to date have examined the potential for outdoor adventure programming to inuence
body image in adolescent girls. First, Edwards-Leeper (2004) examined the psychological ben-
ets of a 2-week wilderness canoe trip, including eect on body image. Results indicated par-
ticipants experienced increased body acceptance and appreciation for their bodies’ abilities, but
they oered mixed support for greater improvement in body image in relation to the comparison
group. Second, in Budbill’s (2008) evaluation of a mountain biking program, results showed pro-
motion of positive body image was moderate. at is, of 21 participants, 33% reported feeling
more condent about their bodies, compared to a higher percentage of participants supporting
other program objectives. Finally, Parsons (2010) conducted a small exploratory study on the
inuence of an outdoor adventure program on body image by interviewing two former girls,

151ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND BODY IMAGE
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22 years of age at the time research commenced. Results indicated an immediate benet of im-
proved body image, but long-term benets were inconclusive.
Women’s Outdoor Adventure Programming and Body Image
It is worth noting that although few studies have intentionally examined the eect of out-
door adventure on body image in girls, notable research exists on the inuence of outdoor ad-
venture on body image in women (e.g., Johnsson, Hoppe, Mitten, & D’Amore, 2013; McDermott,
2004; Mitten & Woodru, 2010). e experiences of girls and women are dierent (Culp, 1998),
yet related, and an increase in women’s outdoor adventure opportunities preceded the rise in
girls’ outdoor adventure programs oered in the 1990s (McKenney et al., 2008).
McDermott (2004) found that on a single-gender canoe trip women expressed an increased
sense of freedom and equality, strength and self-suciency, group collaboration, physical com-
petence, and appreciation of their bodies’ abilities in an adventure activity. Subsequently, Mitten
and Woodru (2010) explored the eect of short-term outdoor adventure experiences on body
image in women over the age of 40, reporting that 72% of the women believed participation in
outdoor adventure positively inuenced self-perceptions of their bodies’ eectiveness and at-
tractiveness. ese studies with women provided additional inspiration leading toward the goal
of examining the inuence of outdoor adventure on body image in adolescent girls.
Method
e purpose of this retrospective study was to explore the eects of GV’s outdoor adventure
programs on body image in adolescent girls. Two central questions guided this research: (1)
What inuence do GV programs have on body image in adolescent girls? (2) How do former GV
participants dene “healthy living” for themselves?
A phenomenological inquiry was employed, a “strategy in which the researcher identies
the essence of human experiences about a phenomenon as described by participants in a study”
(Creswell, 2009, p. 231). For present use, Girls Advisory Board members (i.e., GV alumnae par-
ticipating in a postcourse leadership development program) were asked to reect on their course
and assess how their outdoor adventure experiences inuenced their body image (i.e., the “phe-
nomenon”). is approach depicts less concern about the accuracy of details with more focus on
exploring the truth according to the participants’ experiences, considering their own words as
factual for them (van Manen, 1999).
Research Participants
Participants were recruited from GV, a nonprot organization in San Francisco that
“empower[s] adolescent girls to develop and express their strengths” through outdoor adventure
activities (GirlVentures, 2015a, para. 1). Serving girls in sixth to 12th grades, GV has provided
outdoor adventure programs for over 4,000 youth in the Bay Area since 1997 (GirlVentures,
2015a). Summer programs include 1- to 2-week expedition-style courses featuring backpack-
ing, rock climbing, and/or sea kayaking (GirlVentures, 2015d). School-year programs include
a weekly rock climbing program (GirlVentures, 2015c) and a monthly leadership development
and mentorship program for alumnae, the Girls Advisory Board (GirlVentures, 2015b).
All members of the 2011–2012 Girls Advisory Board (GAB), comprising 17 high school–
aged GV alumnae, were invited to participate. All GAB members are required to have completed
at least one multiday GV program prior to joining the GAB. Membership involves participating
in monthly meetings and an overnight retreat, planning and leading an activity with their peers,
promoting GV at an outreach event, and organizing an annual walking/hiking fund-raiser to
provide scholarships for new GV participants. Alumnae serve on the GAB for a minimum of 1
school year, beginning as early as ninth grade with the option of continued involvement through
12th grade (GirlVentures, 2015b).

152 BARR-WILSON AND ROBERTS
Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership
e GAB is a purposive sample of the 4,000 GV alumnae. All GV program graduates may
apply to join the GAB; however, membership generally involves the following criteria: (a) nomi-
nated by instructors for demonstrating leadership skills and dedication to the mission of the or-
ganization, (b) invited to apply by the GAB advisor (e.g., GV director of programs and outreach),
and (c) selected through an interview process with the GAB advisor and current GAB members.
Because the GAB is an integral part of the GV leadership development model, GAB members
reect the potential for all GV participants to realize the full benets of the organization by
remaining involved in GV beyond their outdoor adventure experience. erefore, our study
explored the potential for GV programs to inuence body image in adolescent girls through
the retrospective experiences of these GV alumnae who continued to develop their personal
strengths through ongoing adult mentorship and peer support. e 2011–2012 GAB was inten-
tionally selected because participants were still in adolescence, thereby supporting the goal of
understanding the inuence of outdoor adventure on body image during that stage of their lives.
irteen of the 17 GAB members agreed to participate. Regarding age, grade, and race of
the GV alumnae who participated, the majority were juniors in high school and predominantly
White, with some racial diversity (see Table 1). Participants were between 11 and 14 years old
when they attended their rst GV program and ranged from age 13–16 at the time research com-
menced. By nature of GAB membership requiring girls to be of high school age, and the majority
of GV programs geared toward girls aged 11 to 14, participants completed their last course up to
3 years prior to our study. Participants had varying levels of experience with GV, including GAB
membership duration and the number and types of courses attended.
Data Collection
Data were collected in fall 2011, rst through a written questionnaire developed based on
the literature as well as on an external review by three subject matter experts for purposes of face
validity. All 13 participants completed the questionnaire that included open- and closed-ended
questions. Items consisted of personal perception of the inuence of their former GV program
on their body image (e.g., what aspect and/or activity, how, why); understanding of health; and
how healthy living related to their own lives, body image, and experiences in a GV program. e
inuence of the GV program on participants’ body image was explored at the time of course as
well as at the time of study. e Girls Scouts Research Institute’s (2010) national body image sur-
vey and Budbill’s (2008) camp surveys inspired body image questions. e Girls Scouts Research
Institute’s (2006) national study on healthy living inspired questions related to healthy living.
Two examples of the open-ended questions were, “What specic activities did you partici-
pate in on your rst course that may have inuenced how you felt about your body, at that time?”
and “What is your denition of ‘health’?” Closed-ended questions consisted of scales, including
forced choice and “Check all that apply.” In one question, participants were asked to rate a series
of statements about their body on a Likert-type scale of never, sometimes, most of the time, and all
of the time, including the following sample items: “I like my body,” “My body is strong,” and “My
body is beautiful.” In another question, girls were asked how they would describe their lifestyle
in terms of their health with four items to choose from: “My lifestyle is” (a) not that healthy and
I wish it were healthier, (b) not that healthy but I’m not worried about it, (c) very healthy, and/or
(d) healthy enough for my age.
Second, aer completing the questionnaire, participants were divided into two focus
groups, each assigned by age cohort (i.e., ages 13–15 and 15–16), to further explore the inuence
of their GV course on body image and their opinions about healthy living. All participants previ-
ously completed at least one GV program, so a focus group allowed them to share their course
experiences in a format that inspired others’ responses and reective insights. One of the 13 girls
who completed the questionnaire was unable to participate in her focus group.

153ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND BODY IMAGE
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Tab le 1
Demographic Characteristics of Research Participants
Characteristic N%
Age
13
14
15
16
1
1
6
5
8
8
46
38
Grade
9
10
11
2
4
7
15
31
54
Racial and Ethnic Backgrounda
Asian
Chinese (1)
Filipino, Native American, Hawaiian (1)b
Mixed: Chinese, White (1)
White/Caucasian
2
1
10
15
8
77
GAB Experience
1st year member
2nd year member
3rd year member
4
5
4
31
38
31
Participation in GV Courses (#)
One course
Two courses
Three courses
Four courses
3
3
5
2
23
23
39
15
Years Since First Course
Less than 1 year
1 year
2 years
3 years
4 years
5 years
1
2
4
3
2
1
8
15
31
23
15
8
Years Since Last Course
Less than 1 year
2 years
3 years
8
4
1
62
31
8
Participation in GV Courses (Programs)c
Project Courage (7th–8th grade)
Transitions (9th grade)
On the Rise (10th–11th grade GV alumnae)
Girls Climb On (6th–9th grade)
9
10
5
6
69
77
38
46
Note. Research participants, n = 13. Greatest frequencies shown in bold. Percentages rounded to
the nearest whole number and therefore do not consistently total 100%. Percentages indicate the
proportion of participants that attended each program.
aParticipants who did not identify as White/Caucasian were considered students of color (n = 3,
23%). bParticipant identied as Asian. cParticipants checked all courses that applied, resulting in
a total (N) greater than 13.

154 BARR-WILSON AND ROBERTS
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Participants’ questionnaire responses informed their focus group responses. e lead re-
searcher modied the list of focus group questions and ordered the questions by importance,
by acquiring preliminary information about participants’ body image and experiences in GV
programs through the questionnaire. Situating body image in the context of healthy living, focus
group questions about healthy living on a GV course were prioritized and specied in focus
groups, such as “Was ‘healthy living’ part of your GV course?” and “Did healthy living on your
course include physical health?” Other sample focus group questions included (a) “Are girls
‘supposed’ to look a certain way, or is it okay for girls to look any way they want?” (b) “What
inuences your body image?” and (c) “Was there ever a time on course when you felt particu-
larly present, ‘in your body’? What were you doing? What was happening around you? Were you
conscious about the way you looked? Or did you lose consciousness about how you looked?”
Data Analysis
Open-ended questionnaire responses were rst compared among participants; we then
used HyperRESEARCH to analyze open-ended questionnaire items and focus group transcripts
together for similarities and dierences. Responses to closed-ended questionnaire items were
then manually entered into Survey Monkey to provide frequencies. Aer combining and incor-
porating codes in HyperRESEARCH and Microso Word, we used Microso Excel to analyze
emergent themes for the number of participants, quantify instances supporting each code, and
assess the presence of each theme in the two modes of data collection including three sources
(i.e., one questionnaire and two focus groups).
e organization of themes into primary and secondary categories was based on the num-
ber of participants (n = 13), number of instances, and presence in focus groups and the question-
naire. is organizational method has been used in previous studies. For example, Prince (2008)
used phenomenological inquiry and focus groups to examine the experience of group exercise in
12 female college students. emes were classied into “major” and “minor” categories, based on
the prevalence of responses and the presence of themes in the three focus groups and participant
worksheets (Prince, 2008).
Using member checking to increase validity, the lead researcher e-mailed emerging themes
to participants aer each focus group interview, requesting conrmation or clarication of
themes within 1 week. Aer data from all questionnaires and focus groups were compared and
coded into comprehensive themes, participants were invited to oer additional conrmation or
clarication of themes during a regular monthly GAB meeting, 3 months following the second
focus group. Nine of the 13 participants were present for the member check event, which includ-
ed a discussion about key themes, followed by a creative expression activity allowing participants
to paint their themes on a banner.
Role of the Researcher
e lead researcher was connected to GV, including mentoring with the GAB, and had
known some of the participants for over 1 year at the time this study commenced. is as-
sociation with the GAB assisted the researcher in creating a familiar, relaxed environment for
conducting focus group interviews and helping respondents to feel comfortable voicing honest
opinions. Additionally, the researcher had not previously instructed a summer course for GV, so
participants were able to speak more candidly about their experience than if interviewed by a
former instructor.
e researcher could have brought a bias believing in the potential for outdoor adventure
programming to have a positive eect on adolescent girls. Although known as a challenge among
qualitative studies, feminist theory widely recognizes that “research always reects the perspec-
tives, ideals, and biases of the researcher” (Way, 1998, p. 13). erefore, the researcher reected
upon these acknowledged biases and their possible eects throughout data collection and analy-

155ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND BODY IMAGE
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sis, ensuring all data collection and analytical procedures followed proper protocols as veried
by a subject matter expert. Additionally, Guba and Lincoln consider member checks (previously
mentioned) as the “single most important provision that can be made to bolster a study’s cred-
ibility” (as cited in Shenton, 2004, p. 64). is, along with overall ndings emerging from the
data and not the researcher’s personal tendencies or values, helped to establish trustworthiness.
Results
Results include a distinction between primary and secondary themes. Primary and second-
ary themes that emerged are discussed according to the two central research questions as previ-
ously noted: (1) What inuence do GV programs have on body image in adolescent girls? and (2)
How do former GV participants dene “healthy living” for themselves?
Our study intended to explore prior experiences of adolescent girls in their rst GV
course, but participants referenced multiple courses in the questionnaire and the focus groups.
Participants distinguished between individual programs to an extent, but the majority of com-
ments referenced their general “course” experience (i.e., participants discussed their over-
all experience from multiple GV courses, rather than referring to a specic GV program).
Consequently, open coding focused on the data to identify concepts and categories regarding
participants’ general experience in their GV programs, and development of primary and second-
ary themes included references to all prior courses.
Primary and Secondary Themes Distinction
rough the coding process, 17 primary themes and 10 secondary themes emerged.
Primary themes included content from nine to 13 participants, 15–86 instances, and presence in
both focus groups and the questionnaire. Secondary themes were operationalized as themes sup-
ported by ve to eight participants, seven to 20 instances, and themes found in both focus groups
but not necessarily the questionnaire. emes were combined further, and the 10 most relevant
themes (i.e., most directly related to both research questions) will be discussed. Table 2 presents
the 10 themes: ve related to the rst research question and ve to the second. emes are illus-
trated by sample participant comments, and all analyses include pseudonyms for condentiality.
Tab le 2
Ten Most Relevant emes Illustrated by Participant Comments
eme Sample response
Research Question 1: What inuence do GV programs have on body image in adolescents?
1. GV positively inuenced body
image at the time of course
My course inuenced my physical appearance in a posi-
tive way, because…we were told about how everyone
[was] beautiful.
2. GV positively inuenced body
image at the time of study
Today, I love my body…I think that my rst GV course
may [still] inuence how I feel about my body.
3. Instructors positively inu-
enced body image
[e instructors] pushed getting rid of our ideas that
our bodies should look like those that we see in the
media . . . [and that] it didn’t matter what size you were
as long as you were healthy.
4. Other girls on course posi-
tively inuenced body image
e girls on that course were so loving towards me all
the time and that’s what made me feel beautiful.
5. Nature positively inuenced
body image
Nature is beautiful and we are natural beings. erefore,
I am beautiful because I saw that nature was beautiful.

156 BARR-WILSON AND ROBERTS
Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership
Table 2 (cont.)
eme Sample response
Research Question 2: How do former GV participants dene “healthy living” for them?
6. Healthy living includes physi-
cal health
My denition of health is being in good shape.
7. Healthy living includes rela-
tionship with self
A healthy lifestyle [is] taking care of yourself…being
aware of the people around you, but not forgetting who
you are and not forgetting that you are important, as
well.
8. Healthy living includes rela-
tionships with others
A healthy relationship is when you…[know] what you
have to say about something will be accepted.
9. Healthy living includes emo-
tional health
Health is…how resilient and happy someone is.
10. Healthy living includes holistic
health
Health is your overall state of being.
Influence of GV programs on body image. Participants described their GV program as
positively inuencing their body image at the time of course and continuing to inuence their
body image positively at the time of study. Specically, positive inuences on body image in-
cluded instructors, other girls on course, and nature.
GV positively inuenced body image at the time of course. All 13 participants indicated
that their GV program positively inuenced their feelings about their physical appearance at
the time of course (i.e., during and immediately aer their course). Belina, for example, shared,
“When I was 12 and went on [course], I realized we are all the same. We all have noses and we all
have butts. For the rst time in my life, I was proud of the way I looked.”
GV positively influenced body image at the time of study. Most participants (n = 9)
credited their GV program as continuing to have a positive inuence on their body image at the
time of study. Supporting this theme, Belina described her appearance as “gorgeous . . . [curvy]
and powerful and it’s the perfect reection of what’s inside of me. My rst GV course still inu-
ences how I look at . . . my body in the mirror.” ree of these nine participants reported strug-
gling with negative perceptions about their appearance, but claried that their GV program still
positively aected their body image. Two participants conveyed that although their GV program
had positively inuenced their body image at the time of course, they did not have a positive
body image at the time of study and their GV program no longer inuenced their feelings about
their appearance. Figure 1 illustrates participants’ varying responses to how their GV course still
inuenced their body image at the time of study.

157ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND BODY IMAGE
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I feel good about my appearance, today, and my GV
course continues to positively inuence my body
image.
I feel good about my appearance, today, but I don’t
know if my GV course still inuences my body
image.
I feel good about my appearance, today. [Response
unclear about inuence of GV course on body
image.]
I struggle with my appearance, today, and my GV
course does not inuence my body image.
I struggle with my appearance, today, but my GV
course still positively inuences my body image.
46%
(n = 6)
8%
(n = 1) 8%
(n = 1)
15%
(n = 2)
23%
(n = 3)
Figure 1. Perceived inuence of GV course on body image at time of study. Results illustrate how
participants felt about their appearance at the time of study and the inuence their GV course
had on their body image at the time of study. Participants were asked about these ideas in both
the questionnaire and focus groups; however, some responses were clearer in one form of data
collection versus another. Subsequently, statements shown are not exact statements from the
questionnaire or focus groups, but rather integrated results from both forms of data collection.
Instructors positively influenced body image. e eect of instructors on body image
emerged as a prominent theme; 12 of the 13 participants referenced their instructors as facili-
tating healthy discussions about body image or creating an environment that promoted posi-
tive body image. Participants referred to their instructors as role models, described by Venus as
“muscular and strong, normal women…not [size double-zero] and [disproportionate] in boob-
body size . . . [ey] are among some of the most beautiful women I have met, and their utter
condence in their looks helped me to discover my own self-beauty.”
Other girls on course positively inuenced body image. Participants (n = 7) described
relationships with other girls in their GV program as positively inuencing their body image.
Participants commonly mentioned not judging or being judged for appearances because of their
shared experiences with other girls on course. Tulsi, for instance, stated:
[My course] helped me . . . [to not be] so self-conscious [about] what I looked like dur-
ing that moment in time, since everyone else on course [was] in the same conditions
as me, out in nature where no bathrooms were accessible with mirrors.
Nature positively influenced body image. Participant comments were oen dual-coded
for the inuence of other girls on course and the inuence of nature on body image:
e outdoor setting was good because the high mountains and hard hikes forced us
to stop worrying about how we looked. At that time we were all equals and there was
no pressure to attempt to make eorts at “looking good.” e outdoor setting allowed
us to make jokes about how bad we smelled . . . because we were all in the same boat.
(Skye)
e positive inuence of nature on body image was identied as a primary theme, with 12
of the 13 participants describing nature as positively inuencing their body image on course.

158 BARR-WILSON AND ROBERTS
Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership
GV Participants Defining “Healthy Living”
All 13 participants claimed that body image is part of healthy living. Twelve agreed that
most adolescent girls struggle with body image and that positive body image is very important to
living a healthy life. Venus shared, “I think if you’re living healthy . . . you would probably have a
positive body image because you’d be happy with who you were.” Participants further described
healthy living to include physical health, relationship with self, relationships with others, emo-
tional health, and holistic health.
Healthy living includes physical health. All participants dened healthy living as includ-
ing physical health. e majority of related comments involved diet and exercise. Participants
indicated that “eating a healthy, balanced diet” was either very important (n = 7) or somewhat im-
portant (n = 6) to healthy living and agreed that it was either very important (n = 9) or somewhat
important (n = 4) to “exercise . . . at least three times a week.”
Healthy living includes relationship with self. In dening healthy living, all participants
supported the emergent theme of the relationship with self, including self-esteem, autonomy,
and self-awareness. Referencing their course, participants discussed gaining knowledge about
feminine hygiene, nutrition, and self-care. Twelve of the 13 participants agreed with the state-
ment, “My rst GV course helped me feel more condent about what my body can do.”
Some participants (n = 5) explicitly described how their perceptions of others’ bodies
changed on course, which was categorized under relationship with self. Trillium explained, “I
remember looking at one of our . . . instructors . . . [who was] swimming or something . . . Maybe
[she] didn’t have the . . . perfectest [sic] body, but . . . she was a really cool . . . woman and it didn’t
matter . . . [I realized] everyone has a dierent body type.”
Healthy living includes relationships with others. All 13 participants considered rela-
tionships with others as part of healthy living. Ten participants conveyed “being accepted by
peers” was either very important (n = 2) or somewhat important (n = 8) to healthy living. On
course, participants described feeling accepted, comfortable, and supported, identifying a sense
of closeness, trust, and “safe space” with the other girls in their program: “I saw people scream-
ing and dancing and falling on the ground, because they were so proud of themselves, and I saw
people . . . melt . . . and it’s just so powerful . . . because you are so close, because [of] . . . the things
you’ve gone through together (Belina).
Healthy living includes emotional health. Most participants (n = 10) described healthy
living as encompassing emotional health, including the presence of positive emotions and ab-
sence of negative emotions. Skye, for example, claimed, “Emotional health is how one feels about
themselves and their world. Much of health is dened by people’s attitude and mindset to their
situation.” Referencing their course experience, participants (n = 7) described their GV program
as cultivating positive feelings and not being stressful.
Healthy living includes holistic health. Finally, holistic explanations of health emerged as
a theme. Participants (n = 11) described health as in body and in mind. Referencing physical and
relational aspects, health was described as a “balance between a nutritious, healthy diet [and] ex-
ercise, but also a balance between time alone and time spent with friends” (Belina). Highlighting
the importance of physical health and time in nature, Aranka dened health as “eating a bal-
anced, nutritious, regular diet, leading an active lifestyle that includes walking and running, and
spending lots of time [outdoors].”
Discussion
Our retrospective exploratory study examined the inuence of outdoor adventure on body
image as self-reported by adolescent girls. e potential for GV programs to have a positive ef-
fect on body image in course participants was investigated by conducting research with a small
cohort of GAB members. What might be the greatest opportunity for GV to have a positive

159ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND BODY IMAGE
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inuence on body image was explored by gathering descriptive data from alumnae in the orga-
nization’s youth leadership development program. is section oers highlights of key ndings
regarding body image and healthy living, implications for practice, limitations, and recommen-
dations for future research.
GV Programs and Body Image
All participants indicated their body image was positively aected during and immediately
aer their course, and most claimed that their body image was still positively aected by their
course at the time of study. e girls identied positive inuences on body image to include in-
structors, other girls on course, and nature. GV alumnae reporting that their course had imme-
diate positive eects on body image corroborates with previous research (see Edwards-Leeper,
2004; Parsons, 2010; Whittington & Nixon Mack, 2010). One possible reason fewer participants
stated their body image was still positively inuenced by their GV program up to 3 years post-
course is that the benets of their course may have decreased over time and the negative eects
of media and social pressures potentially increased as they aged.
Participants in our study recognized instructors as modeling positive body image through
their own self-condence and sense of comfort with their bodies. Another factor might have
been the strenuous nature of the outdoor adventure course, possibly inuencing participants
to make connections between their instructors’ physical strengths and abilities and their body
image. Participants’ perceptions of their instructors’ body image may have been inuenced by
observing what their instructors could physically do, for example. Respectively, Mitten and
Woodru (2010) and Johnsson et al. (2013) found that body image is linked to physical eec-
tiveness in previous research with women in outdoor programs. Although no previous studies
were found to date that specically explored the eect of outdoor adventure instructors on body
image, research exists on the inuence of instructors on participant experience. Rodriguez and
Roberts (2005), for instance, reported that in an adolescent outdoor education program with the
Student Conservation Association, the eectiveness of the course leader was more inuential on
participant experience than was the participant’s gender or ethnicity.
GV Participants and “Healthy Living”
In regard to how participants dened “healthy living” for themselves, GV alumnae included
physical health (i.e., primarily diet and exercise), relationship with self, relationships with others,
emotional health, and holistic health in their descriptions. ese denitions were consistent with
descriptions of health oered by adolescent girls in the Girl Scouts Research Institute’s (2006)
study. e nding of GV alumnae describing health as holistic (e.g., in body and in mind) is
also supported by Üstün and Jakob’s (2005) denition of health as stated in the Bulletin of the
World Health Organization as “a complete state of physical, mental and social well-being, and not
merely the absence of disease or inrmity” (para. 3).
A distinction between our study and the Girl Scouts’ research involves the concept of “nor-
mal.” As long as girls in the Girl Scouts Research Institute’s (2006) study perceived themselves as
“normal,” they believed they had healthy lifestyles, regardless of factors such as diet and exercise
(p. 22). GV alumnae did not specically discuss health in terms of being “normal.” However, like
the participants in the Girl Scouts Research Institute’s (2006) study, over half the participants in
our study agreed with the statement, “My lifestyle is healthy enough for my age.” is suggests
a sense of normalcy as well as that healthy lifestyle decisions may not be of immediate concern.
Additionally, relationship with self is a primary theme in our study, and GV alumnae described
having a healthy relationship with self on course. Important to note is that no other studies in-
dicated participants gained appreciation for dierent body types while on an outdoor adventure
course. is nding, categorized under relationship with self, is a unique contribution to the
body of knowledge on this subject.

160 BARR-WILSON AND ROBERTS
Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership
Implications for Practice
Exploring the inuence of outdoor adventure programs on body image in adolescent girls
can provide valuable program, leadership training, and evaluation suggestions for GV. Primary
and secondary themes and subsequent recommendations have the potential to oer insight
for other outdoor recreation professionals, particularly girls’ outdoor adventure practitioners.
Implications briey discussed are twofold: (a) body image and healthy living in participants and
(b) inuence of instructors on body image.
Body image and healthy living. All participants claimed their GV program positively
inuenced their body image during and directly following their course, and most claimed their
body image was still positively inuenced at the time of study. Two participants recalled a spe-
cic activity on course that involved looking at pictures of women in popular magazines and dis-
cussing prescribed beauty norms. GV might consider ensuring sta trainings include eective
techniques for promoting positive body image on course and adding an item about body image
to one of the postcourse surveys, such as “How do you think your course may have inuenced
how you feel about your appearance?” Also, GV participants considered proper nutrition to be
an important aspect of three key factors: relating to their personal health, as a vital part of their
course experience, and having a positive eect on their body image. GV might consider adopting
an increased programmatic focus on healthy eating and training instructors to present dietetic
guidelines for girls.
Influence of instructors on body image. e inuence of instructors on body image sur-
faced as one of the strongest primary themes. To further assess this eect, GV could add an
open-ended question to future participant evaluations, such as “How do you think your instruc-
tors may have inuenced how you feel about your appearance?” It may also be worthwhile for
GV to consider adopting Edwards-Leeper’s (2004) recommendation to have instructors com-
plete a brief written evaluation, aer the course, examining how they promoted positive body
image as well as healthy eating; this could include structured activities and living by example
(e.g., modeling).
Limitations
Our study included a purposeful sample of adolescent girls, conducted with the 2011–2012
GAB. e phenomenon of how an outdoor adventure experience may inuence body image was
not explored in all GV alumnae or in girls from other outdoor adventure programs. Additionally,
a small sample of GAB members limited the number of voices heard. Although the intention
is for the GAB to represent GV alumnae, the racial diversity of the 2011–2012 GAB (i.e., 36%
girls of color) did not reect the diversity of all GV alumnae (i.e., 59% girls of color). GAB
composition is determined by GV (i.e., girls are selected by the GAB advisor and returning
GAB members), so equal representation of participants in our study (e.g., race, ethnicity, age,
sexual orientation) was a limitation. Our ndings do not explore experiences of adolescent girls
regarding racial and ethnic dierences, as only three GAB members who chose to participate
were students of color.
Recommendations for Future Research
e long-term eects of outdoor adventure programs on body image in adolescent girls
are ripe for exploration. Subsequently, all GV summer program participants could be assessed
through pre- and postcourse surveys. A longitudinal study could assess body image before par-
ticipants’ rst course, immediately aer their rst course, and periodically over the next 3 to 5
years. Our study focused on qualitative assessment, but a longitudinal study could quantitatively
examine participants’ body image and the inuence their outdoor course had on their body
image, as related literature on this subject is particularly lacking in quantitative research. Such
a study could also examine potential challenges to maintaining a positive body image aer the

161ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND BODY IMAGE
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course (e.g., increased exposure to negative media messages as participants age).
Analyses of this data did not include consideration for racial and ethnic diversity, because
only three of the 13 participants were girls of color. It is also important to acknowledge that
three of the four GAB members who chose not to participate were girls of color. is limita-
tion of minimal participation by girls of color begs the need for future research on body image
to include the perspectives of racially diverse participants. All girls of color should be invited
to participate in the same focus group to maintain homogeneity, and a woman of color should
cofacilitate to increase involvement.
Future research could also explore postcourse the inuence of continued involvement in an
outdoor adventure organization on body image and, in the case of our study, the inuence of a
youth leadership development program on girls within that organization. Additionally, further
research is needed on the body image benets achieved through girls’ outdoor adventure courses
in comparison to those gained in other summer programs for adolescent girls. erefore, future
research might compare body image in adolescent girls between four populations: (a) outdoor
adventure participants (e.g., girls on a GV course), (b) participants in other summer programs
(e.g., girls in a summer day camp), (c) outdoor adventure alumnae in a leadership development
program within their organization (e.g., GAB members), and (d) alumnae from other summer
programs on a leadership team within their organization (e.g., summer day camp planning
team). Such study would allow comparison between the eect of outdoor adventure programs
on body image and the inuence of continued involvement in an organization’s leadership de-
velopment program on body image. e same study could also further explore the inuence of
other girls on body image in relation to the natural environment, comparing responses from an
outdoor adventure program to those from a summer program not based in nature.
GV alumnae claimed their instructors were positive role models; hence, the inuence of
instructors’ body image on course participants could be further explored, along with the inu-
ence of instructors’ physique and race on participants’ body image. e inuence of outdoor
adventure instructors on body image, such as those at GV, could be compared to the inuence of
women leaders in other all-girls programs.
Future studies could also include an analysis of the body image curriculum presented to
instructors at sta training, application of curriculum on course, and instructor perceptions of
participant outcomes. Finally, further research could explore the concept of intentionality in
promoting positive body image on course. at is, is it enough for instructors to act as role mod-
els, or is it necessary for instructors to facilitate specic activities and discussions about body
image with adolescent girls?
Conclusions
Our exploratory study oers insight into the inuence GV courses have on body image in
adolescent girls. We examined the greatest potential for GV programs to have a positive eect
on body image by conducting research with a small group of GAB members, highly motivated
GV alumnae. Using phenomenological inquiry in this study, we focused on the participants’ own
words to li out their unique experience as adolescent girls.
e rst of two central research questions was, what inuence do GV programs have on body
image in adolescent girls? rough questionnaire and focus group inquiries, participants indicat-
ed their body image was positively aected during and immediately aer their course, and most
claimed that their body image was still positively aected by their course at the time of study.
Positive inuences included instructors, other girls on course, and nature. e second central
research question was, how do former GV participants dene “healthy living” for themselves? GV
alumnae indicated that healthy living involved positive body image, physical health, relationship
with self, relationships with others, emotional health, and holistic health.

162 BARR-WILSON AND ROBERTS
Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership
Program, leadership training, and evaluation recommendations have been suggested to GV
and may be of interest to other outdoor adventure programs as a whole. One of the strongest
themes of particular interest is the inuence of instructors on participants’ body image and, more
broadly, healthy living. Based on these current ndings, it is recommended that instructors are
trained to (a) facilitate intentional course activities to promote positive body image and healthy
living (e.g., eating healthy foods) and (b) consider their inuence as a role model and how their
projected body image, as an instructor, has the potential to inuence the body image of their
participants.
Outdoor adventure oers the opportunity to challenge traditional beauty norms, and in-
structors can assist in breaking down barriers related to positive body image by serving as role
models and facilitating activities and discussions that promote healthy living. Participation
among adolescent girls can contribute to healthier communities with self-condent young wom-
en, providing positive directions for a brighter future.
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