Content uploaded by M. B. Mednikova
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by M. B. Mednikova on Sep 06, 2017
Content may be subject to copyright.
Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at
http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=maae20
Download by: [Anna Mastykova] Date: 28 October 2016, At: 05:29
Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia
ISSN: 1061-1959 (Print) 1558-092X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/maae20
Female Elite Burial from the Upper Don Hunnic
Time Settlement of Mukhino 2: A Bioarcheological
Reconstruction
Mariia V. Dobrovol'skaia, Grigorii L. Zemtsov, Anna V. Mastykova & Mariia B.
Mednikova
To cite this article: Mariia V. Dobrovol'skaia, Grigorii L. Zemtsov, Anna V. Mastykova & Mariia B.
Mednikova (2015) Female Elite Burial from the Upper Don Hunnic Time Settlement of Mukhino
2: A Bioarcheological Reconstruction, Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia, 54:4, 26-48, DOI:
10.1080/10611959.2015.1114874
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10611959.2015.1114874
Published online: 25 Oct 2015.
Submit your article to this journal
View related articles
View Crossmark data
MARIIA V. DOBROVOL’SKAIA,GRIGORII L. ZEMTSOV,
ANNA V. MASTYKOVA,AND MARIIA B. MEDNIKOVA
Female Elite Burial from the Upper Don
Hunnic Time Settlement of Mukhino 2:
A Bioarcheological Reconstruction
The article examines female burial 1, discovered at the multiple-layered
settlement of Mukhino 2 (Zadonskii raion of Lipetsk oblast) on the left
bank of the Snova River not far from where it flows into the Don River.
Anthropological research of the skeletal remains has shown that they
belong to a woman twenty to twenty-nine years of age. Burial 1 from the
Mukhino 2 settlement is accompanied by grave goods typical of burials of
26
English translation q2015 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, from the Russian text
q2015 the authors. “Privilegirovannoe zhenskoe pogrebenie s poseleniia Mukhino
2 gunnskogo vremeni na Verkhnem Donu: bioarkheologicheskaia rekonstruktsiia,”
Rossiiskaia arkheologiia, 2015, no. 1, pp. 44 –58.
Mariia Vsevolodovna Dobrovol’skaia, doctor of historical sciences, is leading
research fellow of the Department of Theory and Methodology (Physical
Anthropology Group) at the Institute of Archaeology Russian Academy of
Sciences, Moscow (mk_pa@mail.ru). Grigorii Leonidovich Zemtsov, candidate of
sciences, is an assistant professor at the Cathedral of Domestic History, Lipetsk
State Pedagogical University (grizem@rambler.ru). Anna Vladimirovna
Mastykova is with the Institute of Archeology, Russian Academy of Sciences,
Moscow (amastykova@mail.ru). Mariia Borisovna Mednikova, doctor of historical
sciences, is leading research fellow of the Department of Theory and Methodology
(Physical Anthropology Group) at the Institute of Archeology, Russian Academy of
Sciences, Moscow (medma_pa@mail.ru).
Translated by Stephan Lang.
Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia, vol. 54, no. 4, 2015, pp. 26–48.
qTaylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1061-1959 (print)/ISSN 1558-092X (online)
DOI: 10.1080/10611959.2015.1114874
the “barbarian” nobility in the Hunnic period, indicating a high social
rank of the buried woman. Her attire is analogous to cultural traditions
of the sedentary population of the Late Antique centers of the northern
Black Sea region. Based on the grave goods, the Mukhino entombment
can be dated to the end of the D2 period through the beginning of the D2/
D3 in the “barbarian” European chronology, approximately the years
430–50. Morphological characterization of the postcranial skeleton
suggests her refinement. Comparison with previously examined
Sarmatian and Alanic female samples from the “elite rafts” of the
Klin-Iar complex helps to identify certain similar features. It has been
established from isotopic and elemental analysis data that animal
proteins did not predominate in the buried woman’s dietary structure,
while plants of the C4 photosynthesis type (millet?) comprised a
considerable portion, indicating a sedentary lifestyle. This assumption
finds additional corroboration in the results of paleobotanical research
on regional finds. Skeletal remains reveal a complex of features pointing
to a possible southern origin for the buried woman.
“Princely” finds from the Hunnic time in Eastern Europe in many ways
recall complexes from Central and Western Europe of the Untersieben-
brunn horizon. This is the D2 period of the “barbarian” European
chronology, using the common European chronology of Barbaricum
(see Godlowski 1970; Shchukin et al., 2006; Terjal 1988,1997,2007).
This corresponds to the years 380 –400 through 440–50 [current era].
To these we can add the affluent burial 1, discovered in 2002 at the
settlement of Mukhino 2 on the Upper Don in Lipetsk oblast.
1
(Mastykova and Zemtsov 2014; Zemtsov 2003,2004) (see Figure 1).
Current capabilities of bioarcheology allow for research to be
conducted at the individual level (Buzhilova et al., 1998). Methods of
bioarcheological reconstruction offer an opportunity to comprehen-
sively describe the morphological characteristics of an individual and to
reconstruct peculiarities of health, physical stresses, and more. Work
with fragments is a separate methodological task. Parallel use of many
methodologies allows for fragmentary data from different programs
to be corroborated. In this sense, entombment 1 at the Mukhino 2
settlement is of significant interest.
The archeological context of the find
The most interesting materials from the era of the Great Migration of
Peoples in the basin of the Upper Don were discovered on the territory
VOL. 54, NO. 4, 2015 27
of Ostraia Luka, near the town of Zadonsk, where the river makes a loop
(see Figure 1). These are the settlements of Zamiatino, Kapenka,
Ksizovo, and Mukhino.
The settlement of Mukhino 2 is dated to the end of the fourth century
through the beginning of the sixth; 2,100 square meters in all have been
exposed at the site. Archeobotanical research has shown that the cultural
layer is very highly saturated with remnants of grain crops. This can
have various explanations: the leading role of crop farming in the
economy of the settlement residents, their diet regimen, a deliberate
concentration in the settlement of large stocks of grain, and more.
Comparison of the paleobotanical spectrums of the settlements of
Ostraia Luka—Ksizovo, Zamiatino, and Mukhino 2—has shown that
these finds are very similar in the composition of agricultural crop
species. However, Mukhino 2 stands out by having a higher content of
millet (62 percent), the main agrocrop species here (Antipina and
Lebedeva 2007, pp. 314–16, 322, Figure 5).
Description of the burial
A detailed description of the circumstances of the burial’s discovery
is appropriate, to ascertain whether it had been disturbed. The
Figure 1. Geographic Location of Mukhino 2 Settlement on the Upper Don (indicated
with dot)
28 M.V. DOBROVOL’SKAIA ET AL.
entombment was discovered by chance. In 2001, an area about 2
meters long was noticed on the profile of an excavation wall, standing
out because of its lighter color due to an elevated content of particles
of native clay in the dark and light humus layers of the settlement.
The contours of a pit were not revealed on the basic floor surface of
the excavation. During a second clearing, two molded vessels were
found in this area (see Figure 2) in the soil, which did not differ from
the native clay. The vessels were situated along a north-to-south line
at a distance of 1 meter from one another. Registered next to one of
them were sparse inclusions of charcoal and a cluster of animal
vertebrae (see Figures 2, 1;3, 4, 5). Paleozoological analysis
conducted by E.V. Dobrovol’skaia showed that these were the bones
of a young lamb.
A core sample of a control layer was implemented after the vessels
were removed, but it did not reveal any finds. In 2002, a partial
sampling of the 2001 pit was carried out to get a more exact
orientation of the new excavation. A second control layer was
removed at the place where the vessels had been registered and a
clearing conducted at this level. This revealed vague contours of a
burial pit oriented along a north-to-south line. Thus both vessels
discovered in 2001 belonged to one burial complex: the molded
pitcher (vessel 2) lay beyond the confines of the northeastern corner of
the grave discovered lower down (see Figure 3, I), while the molded
pot (vessel 1) was situated above the femoral bones of the buried
person (see Figure 3, 4).
Figure 2. Burial 1 at the Mukhino 2 Settlement. The Moment of Discovery of the
Ceramic Vessels. 1—molded pot (vessel 1); 2—molded pitcher (vessel 2). Photo by
G.L. Zemtsov
VOL. 54, NO. 4, 2015 29
Figure 3. Burial 1 at the Mukhino 2 Settlement. Upper Layer of Burial Pit Infill. 1—
molded pitcher; 2—stone with relics of fossilized colonial coral; 3—pieces of chalk;
4—molded pot; 5, 6—animal bones
30 M.V. DOBROVOL’SKAIA ET AL.
Figure 4. General Plan of Burial 1 at the Mukhino 2 Settlement. 1—mirror; 2—
fragmented gold foil object with relief ornamentation; 3, 4, 8, 10, 28, 30– 33, 35–37,
46, 47, 49–53—beads [businy ]; 5fragment of smooth gold lining with folds traced
out with a die; 6—pendant-lunula; 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 16, 39, 43, 45—gold foil linings with
lamellate decoration; 12—wood with fragments of gold foil lining with lamellate
VOL. 54, NO. 4, 2015 31
The next level of registration of finds was 10–14 centimeters above
the level at which the skeleton was deposited. Discovered at this depth,
closer to the eastern wall of the pit, were five small pieces of chalk and a
small stone with relics of fossilized colonial coral (determination by
Candidate of Geological Mineral Sciences M.E. Generalov, RAS A.E.
Fersman Mineralogical Museum) (see Figure 3, 2, 3). Uncovered further
to the west of the contours of the burial pit that had been traced lower
down, at a distance of 35 centimeters from the molded pot discovered
earlier, were two vertebrae of a young lamb (see Figure 3, 6).
Burial by ritual inhumation was in a pit of irregular rectangular form.
The pit was infilled with native clay with sparse inclusions of humus and
charcoal. The quantity of carbonaceous inclusions increased with depth;
a layer of charcoal 1 –1.5 centimeters thick was registered at the bottom.
More clearly defined stripes of charcoal accumulations were noticed
in some places—perhaps the traces of half-beams. A poorly preserved
human skeleton and grave goods were discovered on the carbonaceous
stratum (see Figures 4 and 5).
The skeleton lay in anatomically correct order (see Figure 5). The
skull has not been preserved; however, eight upper and lower teeth have
been registered; six of them lay in the area of the chest in a cluster
together with beads, a mirror, a lunula, and numerous gold applique
´s-
plaques [bliashkami-applikatsiiami]; two teeth were found a bit to the
side: one not far from this cluster under the eastern wall of the grave,
the second in the area of the right hand.
Several bones were discovered in the center of the northern part of the
grave pit, at chest level—a fragment of a sternum (under a mirror) and a
fragment of the diaphysis of a destroyed tubular bone.
The proximal phalanx of the right thumb, a fragment of the upper
epiphysis of the thigh bone, and an unidentifiable fragment of a long
decoration; 14—fragment of metal onlay with two posts; 17, 22, 23—rivets with
remnants of wood; 18, 19, 26, 27, 38—fragments of clips and plates; 20—decorative
socket-onlay (?); 21—bracelet; 24—tweezers; 25—toiletry kit; 29—remnants of
wooden scabbard and iron knife inside it; 44—wood fragment; 34, 41, 42—small
fragments of plates; 40—post; 48—smooth gold plate of rectangular form with wood
fragment. 1,6, 14, 17 19, 21– 27, 34, 38, 40– 42—metal; 20—carnelian, metal; 2, 5, 7, 9,
11, 13, 15, 16. 39, 43, 45, 48—gold; 3, 4, 8, 10, 28, 30–33, 35, 37, 46, 51 –53—glass; 36,
47, 49, 50—amber. Legend: a—plaque of rounded form with embossing; b—plaque
of triangular form with embossing; c—plaque of zigzag-like form with embossing;
d—bead [proniz’ ]; e—plaque of triangular form without embossing; f—tooth,
a–e—gold
32 M.V. DOBROVOL’SKAIA ET AL.
tubular bone were registered by the western wall of the grave, in the area
of the right arm.
Discovered in the area of the hips were small unidentifiable fragments
of tubular bones and a fragment of a vertebral arch. Here, a bit to the
east, in the area of the left arm, lay fragments of three left metacarpal
bones, carpal bones, and the distal epiphysis of the left radial bone.
The leg bones were best preserved. The right and left thigh bones
came closer together at the level of the knees; the shins lay parallel
[to one another] (see Figure 5).
Judging from the arrangement of the bones, the buried person lay in
an outstretched position and was oriented strictly along a north-to-south
line, with the head to the north.
Based on the location of the bone remnants at the eastern wall, the left
arm was situated lengthwise along the side of the body. Individual bones
next to the western wall bear witness to the location here of the other
arm, which was probably extended, like the left one (see Figures 4;5).
Grave goods
The majority of the finds were registered at the bottom of the grave (for
greater detail about the grave goods see Mastykova and Zemtsov 2014).
They were concentrated above all in the area of the chest and hands and
consisted of several clusters (see Figure 4).
Figure 5. Photo of Burial 1 at the Mukhino 2 Settlement (per Zemtsov 2004)
VOL. 54, NO. 4, 2015 33
Identified in the central part of the northern half of the burial pit, in
the area of the buried person’s chest, was the first cluster of finds. Also
discovered here, as already noted, were a fragment of the sternum and
six teeth. In this cluster lay a metal mirror, face side up; a tricorn metal
pendant-lunula; three glass beads, one with a “gold” metal lining-foil
and two blue-violet with overlaid speckled decoration; and a fragment of
smooth gold lining with folds traced out with a die (see Figures 4, 1, 3 –
6, 8;6,1, 18;7,1–3). Registered in this cluster were the majority of the
gold applique
´s-plaques of rounded, triangular, and zigzag forms with
stamped decoration and little holes for sewing them on (see Figures 4;6,
8–17). Also found, closer to the northern wall of the grave, were
individual gold plaques of rounded, triangular, and zigzag forms, and
gold beads in the form of three joined tubules (see Figures 4;6, 3).
Likewise in the area of the chest, between this cluster of finds and the
eastern wall of the grave, a fragmented gold foil object with relief
ornamentation was uncovered, likely a fragment of a lunula-onlay or the
tip of a belt mounting (see Figure 4, 2).
The second cluster of finds was registered at the western wall in the
central part of the grave (see Figure 4). Judging by the bones discovered
Figure 6. Accompanying Grave Goods from Burial 1 at the Mukhino 2 Settlement
(per Zemtsov 2012). 1—mirror with central loop, adorned with relief circles; 2—
bracelet with flattened ends; 3–5—beads [pronizi ] in the form of three joined
tubules; 6—toiletry kit consisting of two rods on a wire ring; 7—tweezers with
enlarged ends on a wire ring; 8–17—plaques of rounded, triangular, and zigzag-like
forms with stamped decoration; 18—tricorn pendant-lunula. 1,2, 6, 7, 18—metal;
3–5, 8–17—gold
34 M.V. DOBROVOL’SKAIA ET AL.
there, this had been the location of the right arm. Discovered among
the finds in this cluster were remnants of a wooden article approximately
4£5 centimeters (see Figure 4, 12). Here too were registered several
fragments of different sizes of gold foil lining with lamellar decoration
(see Figure 4, 9, 11, 13, 15, 16). Alongside them were metal rivets
preserved on small wooden fragments, an elongated metal plate of
rectangular form and fragments of small plates or clips of rectangular
forms (see Figure 4, 1 7, 18, 22, 23, 34). To the side, between the right
and left thigh bones, lay a fragment of a metal onlay with two posts (see
Figure 4, 14). It is possible that all these fragments were part of a
wooden article with metal components, for example a jewelry box faced
with a thin gold foil lining with lamellar decoration. Also found in this
cluster were another three fragments of zigzag sew-on gold foil plaques,
two gold beads [pronizi] in the form of three joined tubules, and a tooth
from the lower jaw (see Figures 4;6, 4, 5). An amber bead [busina]of
cylindrical form was uncovered under the buried person’s right thigh
bone, below the bottom of the grave pit (see Figures 4, 47;7, 4). A bit
further away, on the right side of the right tibia, on a small fragment
of wood lay a small smooth gold plate without decoration (24 £6
Figure 7. Beads from Burial 1 at the Mukhino 2 Settlement. 1 –3, 5 –11, 13 –17—glass;
4, 12, 18, 19—amber. Photo by S.V. Ol’khovskii
VOL. 54, NO. 4, 2015 35
millimeters), rectangular with little holes at opposite ends (see Figure 4,
48). It cannot be ruled out that this gold plate and the fragment of
unornamented gold lining with folds found in the first cluster on the
chest (see Figure 4, 5) were part of a “jewelry box.” Such a “dispersion”
of the objects may reflect the intensity of taphonomic processes.
The third cluster of finds was established at the eastern wall in the
central part of the grave, alongside the bones of the left carpus and the
thigh bone (see Figure 4). A metal bracelet lay on the bones of the carpus
of the buried person (see Figures 4, 21;6, 2). Slightly to the side of the
bracelet was one monochrome brown glass bead (see Figures 4, 10;7,
5). On the right side of the left thigh bone (practically between the left
and right thigh bones) lay a metal toiletry kit and metal tweezers on wire
rings with twisted ends (Figures 4, 24, 25;6, 6, 7;8). Discovered
alongside were five glass beads lying almost in a single line, in which
mosaic and speckled beads alternated (see Figures 4, 28, 30–33;7, 6–
10;8). On the left side, at an angle to the left thigh bone, were the
remnants of a rectangular wooden scabbard of 4 £15.7 centimeters,
inside which lay a 13.8 centimeter long iron knife (see Figures 4, 29;8).
Registered on the scabbard were fragments of gold foil lining with
lamellar decoration (see Figures 4, 39, 43;8), similar to the gold linings
Figure 8. Moment of Clearing of Sector of Entombment Third Cluster of Finds from
Burial 1 at the Mukhino 2 Settlement (per Zemtsov 2004)
36 M.V. DOBROVOL’SKAIA ET AL.
from the “jewelry box” found on the right side. Here too, in this cluster,
were found a small metal post similar to the posts discovered on the right
side, and several small metal fragments—probably small plates and
clips of rectangular forms (see Figure 4,19, 26, 27, 38, 40–42). On the
central part of the scabbard were three beads lying compactly next to
each other; two glass (one with speckled decoration and one a brown
monochrome) and one very large amber with a disc-like conical form
(see Figures 4, 35–37;7, 11–13;8). Closer to the eastern wall lay a
decorative socket with a rounded carnelian trimmed with metal (see
Figure 4, 20).
The fourth cluster of finds was registered in the southern part of the
grave pit, at the feet of the buried person. Here were eight gold foil
applique
´s of triangular form without decoration and with little holes for
sewing them on; all of them, with the exception of one plaque, lay
together (see Figure 4).
Several beads were uncovered in redeposited condition. A glass bead
with speckled decoration was found to the south of the third cluster (see
Figures 4, 46;7, 14). Five beads—two amber discs and three glass (two
with speckled decoration and one millefiori)— were found 0.3 meters to
the east of the grave pit in a molehill (see Figures 4, 49 – 53;7, 15 – 19).
Origin of the attire
Clearly affluent grave goods are represented in the burial under
consideration (see Figures 6;7): a large number of gold foil onlays-
plaques of rounded, triangular, and zigzag forms; gold beads; an iron
knife in a wooden scabbard covered with gold foil lining with lamellar
decoration; a metal tricorn lunula, a mirror, a toiletry kit with tweezers, a
bracelet with flattened ends in the form of little snake heads; a large
number of glass beads—including speckled ones—plus amber beads,
and more (see Mastykova and Zemtsov 2014).
The Mukhino entombment contains practically the same objects as
female graves of the mentioned Untersiebenbrunn horizon. Only the
paired two-plated fibulas that mark the eastern Germanic tradition and
are characteristic of such complexes are not represented here. This
circumstance most likely points to a North Pontic origin for the
Mukhino garb, where parallels to it are known in the Hunnic time—
attire without two-plated fibulas, but with gold onlays-plaques and beads
[pronizkami]. Examples include: Kerch’, tomb 11.1899 g./inhumation 1;
crypt 340.1903 g./inhumation 1; crypt 165.1904 g./inhumation 4; crypt
VOL. 54, NO. 4, 2015 37
176.1904 g./inhumation 1; and Tanais, burial 10.1981 g., containing a
“crossbow” fibula with a foot tied under it (for bibliography see
Mastykova 2014).
Female attire with gold applique
´s of different forms is typical of Hunnic
“barbarian” aristocracy, from the end of the fourth century through the
middle of the fifth. Examples extend to the territory of the Western Roman
Empire, as well as the European Barbaricum. The prototype for the
prestigious attire with gold applique
´s of the Hunnic barbarian nobility was
the garb of the sedentary Hellenized population of the Late Antique centers
of the Northern Black Sea Region (for more detail see Mastykova 2014).
Apparently the Mukhino attire with gold plaques has Northern Black Sea
Region roots. Such an assumption seems likely since the position of the
gold applique
´s in the Mukhino entombment is analogous to their placement
in the Pontic garb (Arsen’eva et al., 2001, pp. 9, 35) (see Figure 4). It is
possible that a buried person in the Mukhino entombment was covered with
a coverlet embroidered with gold applique
´s, as for example in the well-
known burial with the Golden Mask on Glinishche, in Kerch’ (Butiagin
2009;Sarov2003, pp. 39–48). But it cannot be ruled out that only the
clothing accessories were adorned with applique
´s, as in other burials:
Kerch’, crypt 165.1904 g., inhumation 4 (Shkorpil 1907,p.48),
Hochfelden in Alsace (Hatt 1965, p. 250), Thuburbo-Majus in Tunisia
(Eger 2001, pp. 349–76), and others.
Dating the burial
Analysis of the grave goods allows the given entombment to be dated to
the Hunnic time. Based on the presence in this entombment of glass
“speckled” beads, A.M. Oblomskii has specified the second third of the
fifth century through the beginning of the sixth (Oblomskii 2007, p. 79).
This date corresponds with the time of the greatest proliferation of the
given type of beads—the D2/D3, D3, and D3/E periods—that is,
approximately from the years 430–40 through 500–10 (Mastykova
2004, p. 85; 2009, pp. 112–15; Mastykova and Plokhov 2010, p. 344).
The presence in the Mukhino burial of speckled beads (see Figure 7, 2,
3, 7, 9, 11, 14, 15, 17), unknown earlier for the Untersiebenbrunn
horizon (period D2), indicates their appearance by the second quarter of
the fifth century, although this type of beads emerges in a mass way in
antiquities of the Smolin horizon (period D2/D3).
The gold applique
´s(Figure 6, 8–17) discovered in the Mukhino
burial are characteristic of the Untersiebenbrunn horizon and are
38 M.V. DOBROVOL’SKAIA ET AL.
practically unknown in the post-Hunnic time, after the middle of the
fifth century. Among authenticated finds it is possible to name only the
Danubian burial in Bakodpuszta, most likely from the concluding phase
of the “princely” Smolin horizon—period D2/D3, that is, 430 – 40
through 470–80 (Kishsh [Kiss], 1995, Table 5).
The combination of speckled beads and gold applique
´s in the
Mukhino burial allows this burial to be dated to the end of the
Untersiebenbrunn horizon (period D2: 380–400 through 440–50) or to
the beginning of the Smolin horizon that follows it in time (period D2/
D3: 430–40 through 470–80)—that is, approximately to 430–50.
The burial rite
Burial 1 in the Mukhino 2 settlement is difficult to compare with other
entombments from this time on the territory of the Upper Don River
Region since it stands out in the level of affluence of the grave goods—
there is no doubt that the buried individual belonged to a privileged
group. Therefore the ritual suggested by the given entombment may not
coincide with ordinary burials on the territory under consideration.
As noted, the skeleton in the Mukhino entombment was poorly
preserved. However, the bones that were present lay in anatomically
correct order. The location of the objects discovered in the grave
corresponded to what was expected: beads, lunula, and pendant in the
area of the chest, bracelet on a wrist, and so on.
A.M. Oblomskii’s conjecture that the Mukhino burial was subjected
to ritual destruction with the dismemberment of the skeleton appears
improbable. In his opinion, “the overwhelming majority of the items”
were moved in the process. Subsequently the grave pit was backfilled
anew, while “two molded vessels were placed above the bottom and the
level where the bones had been deposited” (Oblomskii 2007, pp. 77, 78).
We would like to propose a more considered interpretation of the
burial rite. An examination of the anthropological material does not give
grounds for such conclusions. The human remains represent all sections
of the postcranial skeleton and skull. The finding of teeth from the upper
and lower jaws points to the initial presence of a skull in the burial. The
circumstance that the teeth of the upper and lower jaws were discovered
together in the area of the chest allows a conclusion to be made about the
buried person’s pose. The displacement of the teeth of the upper and
lower jaws into the area of the ribcage is often caused by an elevated
position of the buried person’s head. Absence of cranial bones and of
VOL. 54, NO. 4, 2015 39
the facial skeleton may indicate high activity of bacteria, which had
destroyed the bone tissue. As is known, saturation with organic
compounds contributes to stimulating microorganisms. It cannot be
ruled out that the head reposed on a high headrest (a pillow?) with an
organic filler.
The term “dismemberment of the body” does not seem appropriate
in the given situation. When skeletal remains are expertly examined,
a set of concrete diagnostic features is used for describing posthumous
manipulations with the body (Pearson 1999). These are absent in the
given situation. The presence of displaced items—the beads in the
molehill, the isolated tooth in the area of the right hand, and the gold
pierced bead [pronizi] to the north of the head—reflects the intensity of
taphonomic processes associated with the activity of small burrowing
mammals. A thesis about the plundering of the grave likewise cannot be
confirmed since undisturbed attire is evident, including gold objects.
Determination of gender and age
Found in burial 1 were the remains of a woman twenty to twenty-nine
years of age. This is indicated by very small longitudinal and latitudinal
dimensions of the postcranial skeleton, the small thickness of the walls
of the tubular bones; the low attrition of the enamel on the crowns of the
teeth, and the absence of traces of recent attachment of the epiphyses,
as well as postdefinitive age-related changes.
Morphological characterization
Morphological measurements of the postcranial skeleton were taken
(see Table 1).
Unfortunately the posthumous destruction of the epiphyses of the
long tubular bones deprives us of the opportunity to determine their
longitudinal dimensions, and consequently to reconstruct the length of
this woman’s body. However, the perimeters and diameters of the thigh
bone diaphysis indicates extreme diminutiveness. Noteworthy is the
acute flatness of the diaphysis of the thigh on the medial-lateral plane.
It cannot be ruled out that this was formed under the effect of specific
physical loads, such as horseback riding. However, the impossibility of
observing the entire complex of features that leave their mark on the
skeletons of riders prompts more cautious assessments. The trait may be
40 M.V. DOBROVOL’SKAIA ET AL.
a congenital abnormality. Exterior bone relief, including the pilaster and
linea aspera of the thigh, is poorly defined.
The refinement of the skeleton from the Mukhino burial finds
analogues among some other female entombments from that era, when
similar constitutional variants apparently had wide currency. Compari-
son with previously examined female samples from the “elite rafts” of
the Klin-Iar complex helps to identify differences in form along with
similarity of common skeletal dimensions. For example, the
circumference in the middle of the thigh bone diaphysis of the Mukhino
skeleton is close to the average parameters for Alan women and less
close to those for Sarmatian women.
Reconstruction of the state of health
The extremely fragmentary preservation of the remains has not allowed
markers of physiological stress to be assessed in full measure. But it can
be asserted with confidence that enamel hypoplasia is absent—this
feature testifies to stresses endured by an adult in childhood. On this
basis it can be assumed that the childhood of this woman was
Table 1
Measurement Characterization of Postcranial Remains of Female Skeleton
from Burial 1 at the Mukhino 2 Settlement
Part of skeleton number size
Measurement
in mm
Proximal phalanx of radius
1 of right hand
Length of proximal phalanx 42
Right thigh bone 6. Sagittal diameter of middle
of diaphysis 25
7a. Latitudinal diameter of middle
of diaphysis 20
9. Upper transverse diameter 32.5
10. Upper sagittal diameter 26.5
10:9 Platymeric index 81.54
6:7a Pilastric index 125
8. Circumference of middle
of diaphysis 77
Left radius bone 5. Width of lower epiphysis of
radius bone 21
VOL. 54, NO. 4, 2015 41
sufficiently untroubled and was not accompanied by short-term
stoppages of growth.
The dental condition can probably be considered satisfactory on the
whole. Damage from caries, about 1.5 millimeters in diameter, was
noted only on one of the seven described tooth crowns (the first lower
molar). A microdent in the enamel on the second lower molar testifies to
hard objects being chewed.
As noted above, some dimensions of the woman from this burial
are so diminutive that they fall outside the range of morphological
variability of the Early Iron Age Eurasian steppe population
(Mednikova 1995). However, there are no grounds to attribute this
diminutiveness to the sum of childhood stresses. On the whole, an
absence of pathological features on this female skeleton from burial 1 of
the Mukhino 2 settlement can be asserted.
Reconstruction of peculiarities of diet
A quantitative analysis of some chemical elements—indicators of diet—
was done to recreate base characteristics of the daily diet using copper,
zinc, and strontium. This selection of elements has been tested on
numerous materials (Dobrovol’skaia 2005). Concentrations were
determined by the atomic absorption method at the Laboratory of
Geology and Geochemistry of the Landscape at the Geography faculty
of Moscow Pedagogical State University. Determinations were made by
Candidates of Biological Sciences L.V. Aleshchukin and E.E. Kulikova.
Two samples were selected as objects: the crown of a premolar and the
pisiform [postulnar] bone of the left hand. The bad state of preservation
of the skeletal fragments did not permit the use of traditional samples for
such an analysis (a compact set of bone tissue from the long tubular
bones). The results are presented in Table 2.
A priori it was expected that results indicating significant
contamination would be obtained. As follows from the data cited,
concentrations of copper and zinc in the two objects differ cardinally.
We noted that the woman’s wrist was adorned with a metal object.
Although copper-containing chemical compounds were not noticeable
on the surface of the pisiform bone, the extremely high concentrations
of copper and zinc reveal posthumous contamination. The high
concentration does not come as a surprise, although the anomalously
high content of zinc in the bone requires separate discussion. When
archeologists have relevant evidence of a tradition of using bronzes with
42 M.V. DOBROVOL’SKAIA ET AL.
significant additions of zinc, they can assume that an accumulation of
zinc can be explained specifically by this. Another possibility is the use
of zinc whitening agents. However, the circumstance that the pisiform
bone is a part of the hand significantly reduces the probability of the
second assumption. In any case, data on concentrations of zinc and
copper in the pisiform bone cannot be used for a reconstruction of intra
vitam characteristics.
The concentration of zinc—a marker of the use of animal food—in
the tooth tissues is moderate; there are therefore no grounds to assume
that animal proteins predominated in this woman’s everyday diet. In the
given case, the moderately high concentration of copper does not
contain information about specific dietary structure.
Data on concentrations of strontium are widely used for reconstruc-
tion of the type of diet and the climate-and-landscape living conditions.
Unconditionally, although the fragmentary nature of the data obtained
significantly reduces their reliability, we conjecture that the high
concentrations of strontium provide evidence that woman lived the
greater part of her life in an arid environment, possibly the southern
steppes. There is a large probability that the woman resided in more
southerly drought-afflicted areas not long before death.
The isotopic analysis that was conducted of the collagen in the bone
tissue of the woman’s skeletal fragments and in the bone of the young
lamb from the entombment permits hypotheses relative to the buried
woman’s dietary structure and habitat. To show the reproducibility of
the results, each sample of isolated collagen was used for a repeat
analysis. The delta values for carbon from the animal bone sample (21.1
per mille) differs greatly from the analogous index determined for the
human sample (17.6 per mille). This divergence can have several
causes. First, the high delta values in the sample from the woman may be
associated with active use of plants of the C4 photosynthesis type
Table 2
Concentrations of Chemical Elements in Samples of Skeletal Tissues of the
Individual from Burial 1 from the Mukhino 2 Settlement (in ppm)
Sample Cu Zn Sr
Tooth 10.8 63.9 119.9
Pisiform bone 14315.8 2153.7 125.0
VOL. 54, NO. 4, 2015 43
(millet) in the diet. Second, higher carbon delta indices for plant and
animal tissues are formed in arid conditions. The relatively low delta
values for nitrogen (10.5 per mille) point to a moderate proportion of
protein food in this woman’s diet. On the whole, the values obtained find
direct analogues with the isotopic indices obtained for individuals from
the elite Sarmatian and Alan entombments of the North Caucasus (Klin-
Iar) (Higham et al., 2010, p. 653). The indices for isotope and element
composition thus support the hypothesis of a southern origin for the
individual to a significant degree. However, these same results do not
rule out the possibility that the composition of the bone tissue was
determined by local economic patterns.
E.S. Bogomolov conducted analytical research at the A.P. Karpinskii
All-Russian Scientific-Research Geological Institute, St. Petersburg, on
the correlation of the strontium isotopes Sr 87/86 in the tooth enamel of
the buried woman and in the bone tissue of the animal accompanying
this burial (see Table 3).
The correlation of isotopes in the tooth enamel comprises
0.709642 ^12, and 0.709737 ^10 in the animal’s bone tissue. The
slight differences expressed in the isotopic characteristics of the animal
and the human may be the result of modest differences in the territory of
their habitation. The main question to resolve using data about isotopic
composition is whether this woman was a native of the Upper Don or
a recent migrant from other regions. Data obtained earlier about the
correlations of strontium isotopes in the bone tissue of humans and
animals from the Upper Don region (Dobrovol’skaia and Reshetova
2014) give grounds to assume that the expected value is 0.71000 –
0.71100. Values of 0.70960–0.70970 have been noted for individuals
from more southerly regions (Afanas’ev et al., 2014). Thus there are
weighty new grounds to consider that at least the childhood of the young
Table 3
Results of Isotopic Analysis of Bone Tissue Collagen from Burial 1 at the
Mukhino 2 Settlement
Sample d13C, ‰ d15N, ‰
Human 217.67/217.46 10.51/10.46
Juvenile small ruminant subject 221.15/221.14 8.05/7.96
44 M.V. DOBROVOL’SKAIA ET AL.
woman buried at the Mukhino 2 settlement was spent outside the Upper
Don region and that she was probably a native of the south.
Noted in describing the tooth system was the spatulate shape
[lopatoobraznost’] of the incisors and a similar form for the upper
cuspid. As often noted by odontologists, spatulate incisors are
encountered much more frequently in Mongoloid populations.
However, caution is needed in using this observation in an individual
reconstruction.
It is worth noting that this era is marked by the appearance of people
of Mongoloid appearance in the Black Sea region and the Lower Don
River region starting in the second century CE (Batieva 2011, p. 93).
For example, the appearance of people with Mongoloid features was
established in groups of the Black Sea region population in the fifth
century (Mednikova and Balueva 2009), which could reflect the
direction of migrations of the population in that era. Thus, the woman
from the Late Roman time (third through fifth centuries) burial 236 at
Shirokaia Balka displays a very high and broad face with a relatively
low nose, broad and high orbits, small naso-malar angle, and broad
forehead (Mednikova and Balueva 2009, p. 124, Figure 14).
A combination of large facial skeleton dimensions with less pronounced
horizontal facial cambering make one think of Mongoloid admixture,
fully consistent with the given historical segment of time. These
particularities contrast sharply with the anthropological appearance of
the preceding population.
In sum, burial 1 from the Mukhino 2 settlement was accompanied by
affluent grave goods, typical for burials of the “barbarian” nobility in the
Hunnic time. It is evidence of the high social rank of the buried woman.
Her attire gravitates most of all toward the cultural tradition of the
sedentary population of the Late Antique centers of the Northern Black
Sea region. Based on the combination of grave goods, the Mukhino
entombment can be dated to the last phase of the Hunnic period (the
430s–50s).
The data of an anthropological expert examination showed that this
woman’s childhood was relatively untroubled. Thanks to isotope and
element analyses, it was established that animal proteins did not
predominate in her dietary structure. Plants of the C4 photosynthesis
type (millet) comprised a considerable portion of the diet, and this can
be interpreted as a marker of a sedentary lifestyle. This conclusion finds
additional corroboration in the results of paleobotanical research of the
sites of this region (Antipina and Lebedeva 2007, p. 322).
VOL. 54, NO. 4, 2015 45
High concentration of strontium in the bone samples indicates that
most likely this woman was a migrant from more southerly regions and
had lived the greater part of her life in conditions of arid landscapes.
To corroborate a probably southern origin,
87
Sr/
86
Sr isotope correlation
data were enlisted to check our hypothesis. Observation and conjecture
about the origin and social class of the buried woman that were based
exclusively on archeological material thus have been corroborated
through the results of bioarcheological research.
Note
1. A full publication of the materials of this burial is being prepared by the
authors.
References
Afanas’ev, G.E., Dobrovol’skaia, M.V., Korobov, D.S. and Reshetova, I.K.
“O kul’turnoi, antropologicheskoi i geneticheskoi spetsifike donskikh alan.” E.I.
Krupnov i razvitie arkheologii Severnogo Kavkaza: XXVIII Krupnovskie
chteniia: Materialy konferentsii. Moscow: IA RAN, 2014, pp. 312 –15.
Antipina, E.E., and Lebedeva E.Iu. “Struktura sel’skogo khoziaistva u naseleniia
Ostroi Luki Dona v seredine I tys. n.e. (arkheobiologicheskaia rekonstruktsiyia).”
Verkhnedonskoi arkheologicheskii sbornik, issue 3. St. Petersburg: Lipetsk, 2007,
pp. 313–29.
Arsen’ieva, T.M., Bezuglov, S.I., and Tolochko, I.V. Nekropol’ Tanaisa: Raskopki
1981–1995 gg. Moscow: Paleograf, 2001.
Batieva, E.E. Naselenie Nizhnego Dona v IX v do n.e. (IV v n.e.
(paleoantropologicheskoe issledovanie) Rostov-on-Don: IuNTs [Iuzhnyi nauch-
nyi tsentr] RAN, 2011.
Butiagin, A.M. Taina zolotoi maski: katalog vystavki. St. Petersburg: Izd-vo Gos.
Ermitazha, 2009.
Buzhilova, A.P., Kozlovskaia, M.V., Lebedinskaia, G.V., and Mednikova, M.B.,
comp. Istoricheskaia ekologiia cheloveka, 1998. Metodika biologicheskikh
issledovanii. Moscow: IA RAN, 1998.
Dobrovol’skaia, M.V. Chelovek i ego pishcha. Moscow: Nauchnyi mir, 2005.
Dobrovol’skaia, M.V., and Reshetova, I.K. “Pitanie nositelei traditsii saltovo-
maiatskoi kul’tury v Dono-Donetskom mezhdurech’e po dannym izotopnogo
analiza.” Rossiiskaia arkheologiia, 2014, no. 2, pp. 39–47.
Eger, C. “Vandalische Grabfunde aus Karthago.” Germania, 2001, vol. 79, no. 1,
pp. 347–90.
Godlowski, K. The Chronology of the Late Roman and Early Migration Periods in
Central Europe. Krakow: Nakładem Uniwersytetu Jagiellon
´skiego, 1970.
Hatt, J.-J. “Une tombe barbare du Ve sie
`cle a
`Hochfelden (Bas-Rhin).” Gallia,
1965, vol. 23.
Higham, T., Warren, R.; Belinskij, A., Harke, H., and Wood, R. “Radiocarbon
Dating, Stable Isotope Analysis and Diet-Derived Offsets in 14C Ages from the
46 M.V. DOBROVOL’SKAIA ET AL.
Klin-Yar Site, Russian North Caucasus.” Radiocarbon, 2010, vol. 52, no. 2 –3,
pp. 653–70.
Kishsh [Kiss], A. “Opyt issledovaniia arkheologicheskikh pamiatnikov alan v
Zapadnoi Evrope i Severnoi Afrike.” In V.Kh. Tmenov, ed., Alany: istoriia i
kul’tura. Vladikavkaz: SOIGI [Severo-Osetinskii institut gumanitarnykh
issledovanii], 1995, pp. 79 –100.
Mastykova, A.V. “Glava 7. Stekliannye busy kompleksa poselenii u s. Zamiatino.”
In A.M. Oblomskii, comp., Ostraia Luka Dona v drevnosti. Zamiatinskii
arkheologicheskii kompleks gunnskogo vremeni. (Ranneslavyansky mir, issue 6).
Moscow: IA RAN, 2004, pp. 84 –88.
———. Zhenskii kostium Tsentral’nogo i Zapadnogo Predkavkaz’ia v kontse IV
(seredine VI v. n.e. Moscow: IA RAN, 2009.
———. “‘Kniazheskii’ kostium s zolotymi applikatsiiami v epokhu Velikogo
pereseleniia narodov.” KSIA [BCIA], 2014, issue 232, pp. 136 –50, color insert,
Figures XIII–XVII.
Mastykova, A.V., and Plokhov, A.V. “Datirovka i proiskhozhdenie stekliannykh
bus iz mogil’nika u o. S”ezzhee.” In A.E. Musin and N.V. Khvoshchinskaia, eds.,
Dialog kul’tur i narodov srednevekovoi Evropy. K 60-letiiu so dnia rozhd. E.N.
Nosova. St. Petersburg: Dmitrii Bulanin, 2010, pp. 337–57.
Mastykova, A.V., and Zemtsov, G.L. “‘Knyazheskoe’ zhenskoe pogrebenie na
poselenii Mukhino 2 gunnskogo vremeni na Verkhnem Donu.” KSIA [BCIA],
2014, issue 234, pp. 200–22, color insert, Figures XV – XVII.
Mednikova, M.B. Drevnie skotovody Iuzhnoi Sibiri: paleoekologicheskaia
rekonstruktsiia po dannym antropologii. Moscow: IA RAN, RGNF, 1995.
Mednikova, M.B., and Balueva T.S. “Novye dannye k kraniologii naseleniia
poluostrova Abrau.” In A.A. Malyshev, ed., Abrau Antiqua. Rezul’taty
kompleksnykh issledovanii drevnostei poluostrova Abrau. Moscow: IA RAN,
2009, pp. 108–48.
Oblomskii, A.M. “Glava 2. Lesostepnoe Podon’ie.” In I.O. Gavritukhin and A.
M. Oblomskii, ed., Vostochnaia Evropa v seredine I tysiacheletiia n.e.
(Ranneslavianskii mir, issue 9). Moscow: IA RAN, 2007, pp. 73 –132.
Pearson, M.P. Archaeology of Death and Burial. [Stroud UK:] Sutton Publishing
Ltd., 1999.
Sarov, O. “Die Gra
¨ber des sarmatischen Hochadels von Bospor.” In C. von Carnap-
Bornheim, ed., Kontakt-Kooperation-Konflikt. Germanen und Sarmaten zwischen
dem 1. und dem 4. Jahrhundert nach Christus, Neumu
¨nster: Wachholz, 2003,
pp. 35–64.
Shchukin, M., Kazanski, M., and Sharov, O. Des Goths aux Huns. Le Nord de la
mer Noire au Bas-Empire el a l’e
´poque des Grandes Migrations. (BAR Int. Ser.;
1535). Oxford: John and Erica Hedges Ltd., 2006.
Shkorpil, V.V. “Otchet o rabote v Kerchi v 1904 g.” IAK [Izvestiia Imperatorskoi
arkheologicheskoi komissii], 1907, issue 25, pp. 1 –66.
Tejral, J. “Zur Chronologie der fru
¨hen Vo
¨lkerwanderungszeit im mittleren
Donauraum.” Archaeologia Austriaca, 1988, vol. 72, pp. 223–304.
———. “Neue Aspekte der fru
¨hvo
¨lkerwanderungszeitlichen Chronologie im
Mitteldonauraum.” In J. Tejral, H. Friesinger, and M. Kazanski, ed., Neue
Beitra
¨ge zur Erforschung der Spa
¨tantike im mittleren Donauraum, Brno:
Archeologicky
´U
´stav Akademie ve
ˇdC
ˇeske
´Republiky Brno, 1997, pp. 321 –92.
VOL. 54, NO. 4, 2015 47
———. “Das Hunnenreich und die Identita
¨tsfragen der barbarischen ‘gentes’ im
Mitteldonauraum aus der Sicht der Archa
¨ologie.” In J. Terjal, ed., Barbaren im
Wandel. Beitra
¨ge zur Kultur- und Identita
¨tsumbildung in der Vo
¨lkerwander-
ungszeit. Brno: Archeologicky
´U
´stav Akademie ve
ˇdC
ˇeske
´Republiky Brno,
2007, pp. 55–119.
Zemtsov, G.L. “Migratsionnye potoki III –V vv. n.e. i Verkhnedonskoi region
(na primere poseleniia Mukhino 2).” Kontaktnye zony Evrazii na rubezhe
epoch[: materialy arkheol. konf.], Samara: SOIKM [Samarskii oblastnoi istoriko-
krayevedcheskii muzei im. P.V. Alabina], 2003, pp. 108 –16.
———. “Otchet o provedenii arkheologicheskikh rabot v Zadonskom r-ne
Lipetskoi obl. ekspeditsiei Lipetskogo gosudarstvennogo pedagogicheskogo
universiteta v 2002 g.” Arkhiv IA RAN, 2004, R-1, no. 28007 (unpublished).
———. Lipetskii krai v III–V vekakh. Tula: Grif i K., 2012.
48 M.V. DOBROVOL’SKAIA ET AL.
