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Instagram Use, Loneliness, and Social Comparison Orientation: Interact and Browse on Social Media, But Don't Compare
Abstract
Ever since the emergence of social networking sites (SNSs), it has remained a question without a conclusive answer whether SNSs make people more or less lonely. To achieve a better understanding, researchers need to move beyond studying overall SNS usage. In addition, it is necessary to attend to personal attributes as potential moderators. Given that SNSs provide rich opportunities for social comparison, one highly relevant personality trait would be social comparison orientation (SCO), and yet this personal attribute has been understudied in social media research. Drawing on literature of psychosocial implications of social media use and SCO, this study explored associations between loneliness and various Instagram activities and the role of SCO in this context. A total of 208 undergraduate students attending a U.S. mid-southern university completed a self-report survey (Mage = 19.43, SD = 1.35; 78 percent female; 57 percent White). Findings showed that Instagram interaction and Instagram browsing were both related to lower loneliness, whereas Instagram broadcasting was associated with higher loneliness. SCO moderated the relationship between Instagram use and loneliness such that Instagram interaction was related to lower loneliness only for low SCO users. The results revealed implications for healthy SNS use and the importance of including personality traits and specific SNS use patterns to disentangle the role of SNS use in psychological well-being.
... While the direct examination of how different types of social media use influence the relationship between social comparison and loneliness is still developing, several studies provide valuable insights. For instance, Yang (2016) emphasizes the differential impacts of active and passive social media use, finding that passive use, such as scrolling through posts or stories, intensifies feelings of loneliness and promotes negative social comparisons. Similarly, Vogel et al. (2014) highlighted how social media platforms provide an environment conducive to social comparison, negatively impacting users' selfesteem and increasing loneliness. ...
... Both of these processes can influence emotional states, with upward comparisons potentially exacerbating loneliness, and downward comparisons offering a temporary boost in self-esteem (Festinger, 1954). Thus, while social media platforms can strengthen social connections, they also serve as suitable grounds for social comparison, often leading to feelings of inadequacy and loneliness (Yang, 2016). ...
... Our study examined how the relationship between social comparison and feelings of loneliness, welldocumented in previous research, changes according to different types of social media use. Engaging in active use of social media, such as posting, commenting, and interacting directly with others, enhances well-being (Yang, 2016). Conversely, passive use, such as scrolling through videos and consuming content without interaction, is associated with negative psychological outcomes (Verduyn et al., 2017). ...
While the link between social comparison and loneliness is well-documented, the influence of different social media behaviors on this relationship remains underexplored, particularly in non-Western contexts. This study examined how creating, sharing, consuming, and communicating on social media moderate the relationship between social comparison and loneliness. Data were collected from 525 individuals across 25 provinces in Türkiye and analyzed using moderation analyses. Results indicated that upward social comparison was positively related to loneliness. However, active behaviors, such as content creation and sharing, were found to weaken this link. Conversely, passive behaviors, such as scrolling and browsing, were observed to strengthen the association and correspond with higher levels of loneliness. These findings suggest that fostering active and meaningful social media engagement can reduce loneliness.
... According to various reports, India secured the top position with 230 million users on Instagram, surpassing the United States, which held the second position with 143 million users (World Population Review 2024). One interesting study by Yang (2016) uncovered distinct associations between different aspects of Instagram use and loneliness. Engaging in interactions on Instagram and browsing through content were linked to lower levels of loneliness while broadcasting content on Instagram was associated with higher loneliness. ...
... Engaging in interactions on Instagram and browsing through content were linked to lower levels of loneliness while broadcasting content on Instagram was associated with higher loneliness. Moreover, the impact of Instagram use on loneliness was influenced by Social Comparison tendencies; specifically, interaction on Instagram was associated with reduced loneliness only for individuals with lower Social Comparison tendencies (Yang 2016). Merely using Instagram does not necessarily signal loneliness (Mackson et al. 2019). ...
Loneliness, a complex and pervasive emotional state, has garnered increased attention in recent years due to its detrimental effects on mental and physical well-being. This chapter explores the multifaceted nature of loneliness, exploring its causes, manifestations, and consequences, particularly loneliness in women. Factors contributing to loneliness vary widely, encompassing individual characteristics, life circumstances, and societal norms. The advent of digital technology, while facilitating virtual connectivity, paradoxically exacerbates feelings of loneliness through shallow social interactions and heightened social comparison. In the Indian context, where traditional familial ties coexist with rapid urbanization and globalization, understanding the experience of loneliness becomes imperative for effective intervention and policy formulation.
... Örneğin, Lee'nin (2014) çalışmasında sosyal medyada yapılan karşılaştırmaların sıklığı ve düzeyleri arttıkça bireylerin kaygı ve depresyon düzeylerinin de artış gösterdiği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Bir başka çalışmada sosyal karşılaştırma eğilimi düşük olan bireylerin yalnızlık düzeylerinin de düşük olduğu raporlanmıştır (Yang, 2016). Büyükmumcu ve Ceyhan'ın (2019) yaptıkları çalışmada ise kullanıcıların sosyal medyada yukarı yönlü karşılaştırma yaparken kendilerini daha çok başarılı, zengin, sosyal ve mutlu bir yaşama sahip kişilerle karşılaştırdıkları görülmüştür. ...
Teknolojinin insan hayatına daha çok dahil olmasıyla birlikte yaşlı nüfus içerisinde teknoloji kullanımında artış yaşandığı görülmektedir. Özellikle sosyal medya platformları aracılığıyla insanlar hem hızlıca bilgi sahibi olabilmekte hem de iletişim kurmak daha kolay hale gelmektedir. Aynı zamanda sosyal medyada bireyler başkalarının paylaşım ve içeriklerini izleyerek başka insanların nerede olduklarını ve ne yaptıklarını gözlemleme fırsatı yakalamaktadırlar. Bireylerin maruz kaldıkları bu bilgiler onların sosyal karşılaştırma yapmalarına sebep olmaktadır. Bu doğrultuda, şimdiki araştırmada yaşlılık dönemindeki bireylerin sosyal medya kullanım motivasyonlarını ve sosyal medyadaki sosyal karşılaştırma eğilimlerini incelemek amaçlanmıştır. Araştırma yaşları 60 ile 76 arasında değişen (Ort= 64,33) toplam 30 katılımcı (17’si kadın) ile yürütülmüştür. Veriler yarı yapılandırılmış görüşmelerle toplanmış, verilerin analizinde ise içerik analizi yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Veri analizleri sonucunda iki tema oluşturulmuştur: “sosyal medya kullanım motivasyonları” ve “sosyal karşılaştırmaya bağlı duygusal ve davranışsal çıktılar”. Sosyal medya kullanım motivasyonları temasının altında “ilişki, vakit geçirme, bilgi edinme, takip etme ve paylaşım yapma” kategorileri ortaya çıkmıştır. Katılımcıların sosyal medyadaki sosyal karşılaştırmaya bağlı duygusal ve davranışsal çıktıları ise yukarı ve aşağı yönlü sosyal karşılaştırma olmak üzere iki kategori altında incelenmiştir. Araştırmada elde edilen sonuçlar önceki bulgularla benzerlikleri ve farklılıkları üzerinden tartışılmıştır.
... Within the rubric of political activism, hashtag activism has been popular among social movements. Hashtag activism refers to the online movement where large numbers of postings appear under a common hashtag with a social or political claim (Yang, 2016). ...
... For example, Yang (2016) demonstrates that for those who are prone to comparing themselves with others, social media use is more likely to result in loneliness. According to Parsons et al. ...
The tourism literature suggests that viewing others' tourism experiences on social media promotes one's travel intention. However, by introducing and validating social media–induced travel anxiety (i.e., feelings of worry, unease, or nervousness about one's travel experiences induced by seeing others' tourism experience on social media), we tell a different story. Drawing on cognitive appraisal theory, using a qualitative thematic analysis and a quantitative survey, we reveal that exposure to idealized tourism presentations (such as selective self-presentation and modified travel photos) and information overload trigger social media–induced travel anxiety, which reduces travel intention. Moreover, social comparison sensitivity strengthens the indirect negative influence of exposure to idealized tourism presentations on travel intention, and the direct positive effect of the exposure on social media–induced travel anxiety. We contribute to understanding and managing social media–induced travel anxiety, via which social media platforms and destination marketers could improve users' experiences.
Previous research has found that excessive social network site (SNS) use is associated with anxiety and depression, but the mechanisms underlying this association are not fully understood. Furthermore, it remains unclear whether these mechanisms vary across patterns of SNS use. This study examined the relationship between habitual Instagram use and emotional distress symptoms in adolescents and young adults, with social comparison orientation (SCO) as a mediator and Instagram use profiles as a moderator. A survey was conducted with a sample of 309 Instagram users aged 14–21 years. Mediation analyses were performed to assess whether SCO mediated the relationship between Instagram use and emotional distress symptoms. As hypothesized, SCO was found to mediate the association between habitual Instagram use and both depression and anxiety. Additionally, 4 distinct Instagram use profiles were identified, which significantly moderated these mediations. Specifically, the mediation effect was significant for familiar light users but not for heavy users (in relation to depression) and extreme users (in relation to anxiety). These findings suggest that an increased orientation toward social comparisons is an important mechanism by which habitual Instagram use exacerbates mental health problems in adolescents and young adults and that patterns of Instagram use influence this effect.
The HCI research community has traditionally considered digital wellbeing an end-user responsibility, designing tools for digital self-control that support them to self-regulate their usage of apps and websites. Yet, these attempts are often ineffective in the long term, as many tech companies still adopt “attention-capture” designs that compromise users’ sense of agency and self-control. Taking a complementary perspective, this paper presents a set of eight heuristics to create user interfaces that preserve and respect user attention by design . The heuristics stem from a systematic literature review and are grounded in the three fundamental psychological needs defined by the self-determination theory, i.e., autonomy, competence, and relatedness. In addition to being informed by theory and research, each heuristic is accompanied by practical strategies and real-world examples, offering designers actionable guidelines to value people’s attention in user interfaces.
Introduction
Social networking sites (SNSs) have evolved into a commonly used instrument for searching and obtaining social support. While previous research has explored and validated the correlation between seeking social support and the recipient’s physical or psychological well-being, few studies have illuminated the mechanisms through which this relationship manifests in SNSs usage. This study investigated how the tendency of college students to seek social support corresponds to their psychological resilience via different SNSs activities and interactions on Douyin (ie, TikTok’s counterpart in mainland China).
Methods
Drawing from social support literature and the activity-audience framework governing social media use, we conducted a survey-based analysis involving a random sample of 536 self-identified Chinese college undergraduates.
Results
The findings reveal that students seeking social support were inclined to engage in active SNSs usage (eg, status updating) and interact with familiar individuals, regardless of their distance to campus. As for the consequences on psychosocial well-being, active utilization of SNSs did exert a significantly positive impact on resilience levels. Communication with friends from the same campus was confirmed as a functioning mediator within this relationship.
Discussion
This study contributes to the literature on social support and adolescent health by underscoring that the effectiveness of social support on psychosocial well-being is contingent on specific types of SNSs activities and interactants. It provides valuable insights into the nuanced dynamics of social support seeking behaviors on SNSs.
Self-presentation, a central element of young people’s identity development, now extends from face-to-face contexts to social networking sites. Online self-presentation may change when youth transition to college, faced with the need to reclaim or redefine themselves in the new environment. Drawing on theories of self-presentation and self development, this study explores changes in youth’s online self-presentation during their transition to a residential college. It also examines associations between online self-presentation and students’ self-esteem and self-concept clarity. We surveyed 218 college freshmen (M
age = 18.07; 64 % female, 79 % White) at the beginning and again at the end of their first semester. Freshmen’s Facebook self-presentation became less restricted later in the semester. Broad, deep, positive, and authentic Facebook self-presentation was positively associated with perceived support from the audience, which contributed to higher self-esteem contemporaneously, though not longitudinally. Intentional Facebook self-presentation engaged students in self-reflection, which was related to lower self-concept clarity concurrently but higher self-esteem longitudinally. Findings clarified the paths from multifaceted online self-presentation to self development via interpersonal and intrapersonal processes during college transition.
The rapid adoption of social networking sites (SNSs) raises important questions about the social implications of such usage. Drawing on unique longitudinal data, surveying a representative sample of Norwegian online users (N=2,000, age 15-75 years) in 3 annual waves (2008, 2009, and 2010), this study found a significantly higher score among SNS users in comparison to nonusers in 3 out of 4 social capital dimensions: face-to-face interactions, number of acquaintances, and bridging capital. However, SNS-users, and in particular males, reported more loneliness than nonusers. Furthermore, cluster analyses identified 5 distinct types of SNS users: Sporadics, Lurkers, Socializers, Debaters, and Advanced. Results indicate that Socializers report higher levels of social capital compared to other user types.
People vary in their tendencies to compare themselves to others, an individual difference variable called social comparison orientation (SCO). Social networking sites provide information about others that can be used for social comparison. The goal of the present set of studies was to explore the relationship between SCO, Facebook use, and negative psychological outcomes. Studies 1a and 1b used correlational approaches and showed that participants high (vs. low) in SCO exhibited heavier Facebook use. Study 2 used an experimental approach and revealed that participants high in SCO had poorer self-perceptions, lower self-esteem, and more negative affect balance than their low-SCO counterparts after engaging in brief social comparisons on Facebook. SCO did not have as strong or consistent effects for participants engaging in control tasks. Results are discussed in the context of extant literature and the impact of social media use on well-being.
Social networking sites (SNSs), such as Facebook, provide abundant social comparison opportunities. Given the widespread use of SNSs, the purpose of the present set of studies was to examine the impact of chronic and temporary exposure to social media-based social comparison information on self-esteem. Using a correlational approach, Study 1 examined whether frequent Facebook use is associated with lower trait self-esteem. Indeed, the results showed that participants who used Facebook most often had poorer trait self-esteem, and this was mediated by greater exposure to upward social comparisons on social media. Using an experimental approach, Study 2 examined the impact of temporary exposure to social media profiles on state self-esteem and relative self-evaluations. The results revealed that participants’ state self-esteem and relative self-evaluations were lower when the target person’s profile contained upward comparison information (e.g., a high activity social network, healthy habits) than when the target person’s profile contained downward comparison information (e.g., a low activity social network, unhealthy habits). Results are discussed in terms of extant research and their implications for the role of social media in well-being.
Communication technologies are widely used to manage interpersonal relationships, but little is known about which media are most useful at different stages of relationship development, and how the pattern of usage may be influenced by contextual factors or users’ gender. Drawing on theories of relationship development, this study examined usage patterns among 34 college students participating in six geographically stratified focus group interviews. Analyses revealed a sequence of media use tied to stages of relationship development − from Facebook in early stages to instant messaging and then cell phones as a relationship progressed. Judgments about the efficacy and appropriateness of using a medium were based on how well its salient features matched prominent goals or addressed major concerns of a relationship at the given stage. International students added two technologies to the sequence to accommodate time differentials and distance from communication partners. Males were less explicit about the sequence, except when referring to cross-sex relationships.
The connection between online communication and psychological well-being depends on whom you are communicating with.
Facebook allows users to seek support from close others and acquaintances. This study examined features of support-seeking Facebook status updates and factors related to perceived supportiveness of responses. College students using Facebook to seek support (N = 149) provided copies of their support-seeking status updates and descriptions of the most supportive comment received on the status. Participants responded to survey items including offline social support, Facebook intensity, and number of ''likes'' the status received. Participants sought support using positive, negative, mixed, vague comments, or quotations not explicitly statuses. Participants identified emotional, informational, or tangible support from close others (68.03%) rather than acquaintances (31.97%). Perceived supportiveness of responses was positively associated with offline social support but was not associated with Facebook intensity or number of ''likes.''
In the context of the social network service environment, we explore how discrete emotions—envy and shame, in particular—may mediate the effects of social comparison on behavior intention and psychological responses. Based on the survey responses of 446 university students, the results suggest that social comparison to media figures correlates with a range of emotional responses as well as with behavioral intention and psychological responses. Envy maintained a significantly greater association with switch intention as a behavioral intention compared to shame. Conversely, shame was significantly related to burnout as a psychological response. Further, mediational analyses were consistent with the argument that envy and shame mediate the social comparison–outcome variables relationship. This research helps to illuminate the driving mechanism for the emotional effect that social comparison on social network service could elicit from a user. This predicts the nature of the behavioral and psychological outcome associated with the comparison and has implications for an enhanced understanding of the way in which the unique social network service communication environment may stimulate this process.