Management strategies in farrowing house to improve piglet pre-weaning survival and growth

Abstract

Post-partum and lactation are the most complex periods in the swine production chain. Newborn pigs are highly vulnerable due to relatively low body weight at birth and physiological immaturity. Most of the management strategies performed in farrowing houses are oriented to ensure a proper level of colostrum intake by the piglets. Colostrum is essential as an energy source and to provide passive immunity to piglets. Different farrowing supervising protocols have been comprehensively investigated to reduce early mortality as well as to assist newborn piglets in obtaining an optimal amount of colostrum and milk. However, little is known of the benefits of oral supplementation in newborn piglets. Cross-fostering is also widely performed in general swine commercial herds to deal with highly prolific sows and has a strong impact on piglet survival. In order to prepare piglets for weaning, creep feeding is provided after the first week of lactation. Although the number of animals that actually consume the creep feed is not clear, creep feed consumption might influence feed intake after weaning. Finally, the attitude and skills of a stockperson might play an important role in the piglet's ability to cope with stressors. Positive and gentle human contact with newborn piglets might positively influence the piglets' emotional response to human handling and thus their welfare. The objective of this review was to present the most relevant management strategies performed in farrowing houses (i.e. oral supplementation, farrowing supervision, cross-fostering, creep feeding, and human-animal interaction) and their effect on piglet pre-weaning mortality and growth.

Full text

Thai J Vet Med. 2016. 46(3): 347-354.
Management strategies in farrowing house to improve piglet
pre-weaning survival and growth
Ramon Muns Vila and Padet Tummaruk*
Abstract
Post-partum and lactation are the most complex periods in the swine production chain. Newborn pigs are
highly vulnerable due to relatively low body weight at birth and physiological immaturity. Most of the management
strategies performed in farrowing houses are oriented to ensure a proper level of colostrum intake by the piglets.
Colostrum is essential as an energy source and to provide passive immunity to piglets. Different farrowing supervising
protocols have been comprehensively investigated to reduce early mortality as well as to assist newborn piglets in
obtaining an optimal amount of colostrum and milk. However, little is known of the benefits of oral supplementation
in newborn piglets. Cross-fostering is also widely performed in general swine commercial herds to deal with highly
prolific sows and has a strong impact on piglet survival. In order to prepare piglets for weaning, creep feeding is
provided after the first week of lactation. Although the number of animals that actually consume the creep feed is not
clear, creep feed consumption might influence feed intake after weaning. Finally, the attitude and skills of a stockperson
might play an important role in the piglet’s ability to cope with stressors. Positive and gentle human contact with
newborn piglets might positively influence the piglets’ emotional response to human handling and thus their welfare.
The objective of this review was to present the most relevant management strategies performed in farrowing houses
(i.e. oral supplementation, farrowing supervision, cross-fostering, creep feeding, and human-animal interaction) and
their effect on piglet pre-weaning mortality and growth.
Keywords: colostrum, cross-fostering, lactation, mortality, oral supplementation, pig
Department of Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Reproduction, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok
10330, Thailand
*Correspondence: padet.t@chula.ac.th
Review Article

348 Muns R. and Tummaruk P. / Thai J Vet Med. 2016. 46(3): 347-354.
Introduction
With the use of highly prolific sows in
commercial herds, high piglet pre-weaning mortality
(PWM) remains an unsolved problem in pig
production. Recent reports have shown average piglet
PWM rates of 12.9%, 9.4%, and 12.2% in the European
Union, the Philippines and Thailand, respectively
(Bureau of Agricultural Statistical of Philippines, 2012;
Interpig, 2014; Nuntapaitoon and Tummaruk, 2013).
On the other hand, the mortality rate recorded during
the rearing and finishing phases reached 3.3 and 2.8%,
respectively (Interpig, 2014). Moreover, piglet PWM is
one of the major reproductive components affecting
herd productivity in the swine industry. It has been
demonstrated that a 1% reduction in piglet mortality
increased the sow annual output by €7.1 in a highly
productive country such as the Netherlands (Chris et
al., 2012). Therefore, the mortality of piglets in the
suckling period is a major welfare and an economic
problem in the swine industry which still needs to be
addressed.
Neonatal piglets are very vulnerable at birth.
They are characterised by a high surface to body mass
ratio, limited reserves and poor immunity status.
Among the different causes of early death, low
colostrum intake is probably the most influential
(Muns et al., 2016b). Colostrum intake is crucial for
piglet growth since it provides piglets with the energy
and passive immunity necessary at a very early stage
(Quesnel et al., 2012). Moreover, piglets have to
compete with littermates for a teat to suckle. Among
other factors, alterations of piglet body weight (BW) at
birth associated with an increased litter size might lead
to high PWM. The use of highly prolific sows resulted
in increased crowding in the uterine horns during
gestation (Rutherford et al., 2013). Intra-uterine
crowding may result in some piglets experiencing
intra-uterine growth restriction or reduced BW at birth,
therefore increasing litter birth weight variation (Yuan
et al., 2015). Within-litter variation in birth weight
strongly affects PWM, especially during the first 72
hours of life (Alonso-Spilsbury et al., 2007). In addition,
a high ambient temperature around farrowing
negatively affects the sow’s welfare and performance,
with a negative impact on piglet weaning weight
(Muns et al., 2016a). Many management routines are
performed in a farrowing house during the first two
days post-partum to enhance piglet survival. In
countries with a tropical climate such as Thailand such
practices are of great importance for herd performance.
In practice, during the peri-partum period,
management is focused on helping piglets to minimise
heat loss and maximise colostrum intake.
Colostrum: Colostrum is secreted by the mammary
gland starting shortly before parturition and for a time
interval of approximately 12-24 hours in most sows
(Quesnel et al., 2012). Piglets obtain colostrum freely
for 0-24 hours after farrowing. After 24-48 hours post-
partum, the physiologic cyclical pattern of suckling
and milk ejection is established (De Passillé and
Rushen, 1989). Colostrum is a source of highly
digestible nutrients and various forms of bioactive
compounds such as immunoglobulins, hydrolytic
enzymes, hormones, and growth factors (Rooke and
Bland, 2002; Wu et al., 2010). Additionally, colostrum
is the first and only food available for piglets after
birth. Colostrum is crucial in providing energy for
thermoregulation and body growth (Devillers et al.,
2011; Herpin et al., 2005; Le Dividich et al., 2005). In
addition, passive immunity supply in pigs mainly
occurs from immunoglobulin G (IgG) in colostrum,
providing newborn animals with passive humoral
immune protection. Newborn piglet absorption of IgG
happens before gut closure (Quesnel et al., 2012),
which takes place at approximately 24 hours of age
(Rooke and Bland, 2002). Therefore, the first 12-24
hours after birth are crucial for the piglet’s colostrum
intake.
However, colostrum yield is limited.
Colostrum yield was shown to be independent of litter
size, but moderately influenced by piglet BW and BW
variability at birth (Devillers et al., 2007). Moreover,
colostrum yield and IgG concentrations were shown to
be highly variable among sows, even within sows from
the same unit (Devillers et al., 2011; Quesnel, 2011). In
addition, it was observed that the amount of colostrum
ingestion during the first 24 hours after birth was
highly variable among littermates. In one study, the
average colostrum intake varied from 250-300 grams,
but ranged from zero to 700 grams (Quesnel et al.,
2012). Newborn piglets directly compete with their
littermates for access to a mammary gland, preferably
the anterior and middle glands. The posterior
mammary glands may produce fewer beneficial
proteins than the anterior glands (Wu et al., 2010).
Additionally, piglets from the same litter indirectly
compete for milk intake during lactation, and piglets
that are better at draining, massaging and stimulating
the teat will favour local blood flow together with
hormonal and nutrient investment, thus increasing the
teat’s milk production (Algers, 1993). Therefore,
management of the litter is important to ensure that all
piglets have proper colostrum intake.
Farrowing supervision: Most of the management
routines studied in literature consist of practices
performed around farrowing, including farrowing
supervision, and are oriented to cope with two main
challenges: piglet thermoregulation capacity and piglet
colostrum intake. Drying piglets at birth has proven
useful in commercial herds. Christison et al. (1997)
observed that survival was improved when piglets
were dried or placed under a heating lamp
immediately after birth. Vasdal et al. (2011) compared
different protocols around farrowing in loose housed
sows and found that drying newborn piglets and
placing them at the udder were the winning
management combination with greatest reduction in
piglet mortality. Practices to ensure colostrum intake
by piglets have also been studied. Andersen et al.
(2007) compared records of an entire year from 39
farms in Norway. They observed that placing the
piglets at the udder and assisting them to find a teat
reduced mortality, but shutting the piglets inside the
creep area while feeding the sow did not improve
survival. Improved survival during the first day of life,
reduction in the number of stillbirths at farrowing and
increased weaning weights were obtained with more

Muns R. and Tummaruk P. / Thai J Vet Med. 2016. 46(3): 347-354. 349
complex protocols that included drying the newborn
piglets, oral administration of 12 ml of bovine
colostrum and oxygen administration through an oral
mask (White et al., 1996). Good supervision when
farrowing also improved pre-weaning survival
(Holyoake et al., 1995). On the other hand, split nursing
(i.e. removing the larger piglets in a litter for a set
period of time, allowing the smaller piglets free access
to the udder) is another practice performed on
commercial farms to enhance colostrum intake in low
birth BW piglets. Yet, this practice has little impact on
litter performance. Donovan and Dritz (2000) found no
effect on IgG plasma concentration or mortality rate
when performing 2-hour split nursing of the heaviest
50% of the piglets in the litter. Donovan and Dritz
(2000) only observed a decrease in the variation of
piglet average daily gain in litters with more than nine
pigs. Thorup (2006) did not obtain a drop in low birth
BW piglet mortality through split nursing either.
Dewey et al. (2008) observed an increase in pre-
weaning growth and survival when combining oral
administration of 12-20 ml of colostrum with split
nursing in a ‘maximal care treatment’. More recently,
Muns et al. (2014) found that supplementing low birth
BW piglets after birth with 15 ml of the sow’s colostrum
improved piglet IgG levels on day four compared to a
control group. However, it only tended to improve
growth and survival of small piglets at weaning in non-
homogenised litters at the time of cross-fostering, but
not in homogenised litters. In another study, Muns et
al. (2015a) only observed improvement in BW at 24
hours of life in low birth BW piglets born from
primiparous sows after being supplemented with 15
ml of the sow’s colostrum. But such effect was not
maintained at weaning. In the same study, they found
no effect of colostrum supplementation on low birth
BW piglets born from multiparous sows, suggesting
that piglets born from primiparous sows might have a
higher need for colostrum intake than piglets born
from multiparous sows. More recently, Viehmann et al.
(2015) observed that daily supplementation of piglets
with bovine colostrum during the first three days after
birth extended life in low birth BW piglets but did not
influence pre-weaning survival. Similarly, Declerck et
al. (2016) observed that providing direct energy
(commercial energy booster) through oral
supplementation to small neonatal piglets (< 1 kg of
birth BW) reduced their mortality without improving
colostrum intake.
Cross-fostering: Cross-fostering is an important and
common management practice performed on
commercial farms. Cross-fostering has become
indispensable to deal with highly prolific sows
delivering large litters at farrowing. There are many
reasons to perform cross-fostering (Baxter et al., 2013)
including to foster surplus piglets when a sow has
more piglets than functional teats, to foster small
piglets to create litters with similar birth weights or to
create litters with low weight variation, death of a sow
at farrowing, and when a sow attacks its own offspring.
Concurrently, cross-fostering can be performed at a
minimum extent (transferring as few piglets as
possible), in order to adjust litters by the number of
piglets according to the number of functional teats. On
the contrary, cross-fostering can be performed at a
greater extent (transferring a high number of piglets
and involving most of the litters in the batch), adjusting
litters by BW of the piglets, transferring animals based
on parity of the dams (piglets from gilts transferred to
middle-aged sows), etc.
Cross-fostering should be performed after
piglets ingest colostrum from their biological dams,
but before teat order is established in the litter (Heim
et al., 2012). As previously stated, colostrum decreases
after 12 hours post-partum. After the initial phase of
continuous colostrum ejection, cyclical milk let-down
instauration progressively occurs. Thereafter, within
the first week after birth, a stable teat order among
littermates is established (De Passillé and Rushen,
1989). Consequently, technical recommendations and
routine farm procedures aim to perform cross-
fostering between 12 and 24 hours after farrowing.
Moreover, during the first day after farrowing, sows
accept alien offspring without disrupting their litter
suckling patterns, without impairing piglet or sow
welfare and without becoming aggressive towards the
adopted piglets (Robert and Martineau, 2001).
In literature, cross-fostering has been widely
studied, with diverse results. Heim et al. (2012)
observed that survival and growth were not impaired
in fostered piglets. They also observed that litters
composed exclusively of adopted piglets had no
impairment of behaviour, survival or growth. Bierhals
et al. (2011) found that piglets nursed by primiparous
sows had lower BW at day 21 of lactation than piglets
nursed by parity 5 sows. Akdag et al. (2009) and
Milligan et al. (2002) associated increased birth weight
variation with low survival rate, whereas other studies
did not (Bierhals et al., 2011; Milligan et al., 2001). Deen
and Bilkei (2004) found that mortality of low birth BW
piglets increased when they were cross-fostered with
high birth BW piglets. They also stated that low birth
BW piglets had a higher chance of survival in small
litters irrespective of the birth BW of their littermates.
On the contrary, Muns et al. (2014) found that
standardisation of litters at cross-fostering (adjusting
litters by BW of the piglets) did not prevent them from
having the same BW variability at weaning compared
to non-standardised litters. They also found that non-
standardised litters did not impair the growth or
survival of small piglets compared to small piglets in
standardised litters. On the other hand, Robert and
Martineau (2001) observed that repeated cross-
fostering through lactation reduced the weight gain of
both adopted and resident piglets and increased the
sow’s aggression towards alien piglets.
It is a common practice on different farms to
synchronise and induce farrowing, especially in
multiparous sows, in order to concentrate and optimise
tasks. With synchronised farrowing, cross-fostering
becomes easier to perform. Nonetheless, the
advantages and disadvantages of farrowing induction
are outside the scope of this review and have recently
been documented (Kirkden et al., 2013). Finally, cross-
fostering might lead to transfer of pathogens from one
litter to another; moreover, it can be critical for the
success of immune transfer (humoral immunity and
cell-mediated immunity) from a biological dam to
newborn piglets if performed too early. However,

348 Muns R. and Tummaruk P. / Thai J Vet Med. 2016. 46(3): 347-354.
long-term impact of cross-fostering on piglet health
and immunity has not been well examined (Bandrick
et al., 2011).
Creep feeding: Once producers have focused on
enhancing the early survival of newborn piglets by
ensuring optimal colostrum intake, and once cross-
fostering has been performed, all efforts are oriented to
maximise piglet BW at the end of lactation and to
prepare the animals for weaning (transition from milk
consumption during the suckling period to a solid feed
diet after weaning). For that purpose, after the first
week or ten days of lactation, piglets are frequently
given a highly palatable and highly digestible diet
(creep feeding). The creep feed intake of piglets is
usually not very high and it is inversely related to the
sow’s milk production. Consequently, creep feed
offered during the lactation period does not have a
high impact on sow performance or piglet growth at
weaning (Bruininx et al., 2004; Sulabo et al., 2010a). It
was observed that only a low proportion of piglets
consumed feed during lactation (Sulabo et al., 2010b). It
was also observed that creep feed intake was variable
between and within litters (Bruininx et al., 2002;
Wattanakul et al., 2005). Nevertheless, piglets that
consume creep feed during lactation improved post-
weaning performance through a shortened onset of
feed consumption (Bruininx et al., 2002) and an
increased feed intake and BW gain during the first days
after weaning (Bruininx et al., 2004; Sulabo et al., 2010a;
van den Brand et al., 2014). Early introduction of creep
feeding influences the proportion of piglets eating
creep feed. Sulabo et al. (2010b) observed a lower feed
intake and lower number of eaters in litters offered
creep feed for two days, and a lower feed intake in
litters offered creep feed for six days, when compared
to litters offered creep feed for 13 days. In addition,
lactation length seems to influence creep feed intake.
Callesen et al. (2007b) observed an increase in creep
feed consumption of between 137 and 266% in piglets
weaned at 33 days of age compared to piglets weaned
at 27 days of age. Subsequently, they found that creep
feed might benefit post-weaning growth of piglets after
longer lactation. A number of researchers have studied
strategies to improve creep feed consumption and the
proportion of piglets eating creep feed. van den Brand
et al. (2014) observed that piglets younger than 18 days
of age preferred pellets with a large diameter (10-12
mm vs. 2 mm diameter pellet). Despite lowering the
weaning BW, performance of intermittent suckling
increased creep feed intake and improved growth in
the first week after weaning in piglets that ate creep
feed (Kuller et al., 2004, 2007). As suggested by
Wattanakul et al. (2005), the method of creep feed
presentation is very important in the initiation of
feeding behaviour. Accordingly, offering creep feed
with different flavours or using a feeder that stimulates
piglet exploratory behaviour are strategies that might
enhance creep feed intake during lactation (Adeleye et
al., 2014, Kuller et al., 2010). A recent study has
suggested that providing liquid milk replacement to
piglets during lactation might have a positive influence
on post-weaning survival (Park et al., 2014).
In addition to the management practices
mentioned above (colostrum supplementation, cross-
fostering and creep-feeding), weaning age is also an
important factor determining future performance of
the animals. In past experiments, lactation of 21 days
increased wean-to-finish average daily gain and
survival compared to shorter lactation (Main et al.,
2004), and lactation of 33 days improved piglet growth
after weaning compared to lactation of 27 days
(Callesen et al., 2007a). It is known that longer lactation
increases weight and physiologic maturity of piglets at
weaning (Main et al., 2004). However, with the current
multisite pig production system and its specific pig-
flow, little decision capacity is left concerning weaning
age.
Human-animal interaction: Intensive husbandry and
housing practices in animal production also affect the
nature and amount of human contact that the animals
receive. Compared to other phases, lactation demands
more human handling of sows and piglets.
Implementation of good practices by trained
employees and positive experiences with human
interactions may have powerful influences. Good
practices and positive experiences might have an effect
not only on the productivity and welfare of the animal,
but also on how the animal responds to aversive
routine practices (Hemsworth and Coleman, 2011;
Muns et al., 2015b). On one hand, the negative effects of
negative emotional states such as fear on the welfare of
animals are well known (Gonyou et al., 1986;
Hemsworth et al., 1981, 1987, 1989). Routine
interactions between stockpeople and their animals
can result in farm animals becoming highly fearful of
humans and, through stress, their productivity and
welfare might be impaired (Hemsworth, 2003). The
attitude and behaviour of stockpeople when handling
and interacting with sows and piglets may have
implications on both the productivity and stress
physiology of the animals (Gonyou et al., 1986;
Hemsworth and Coleman, 2011; Hemsworth et al.,
1989). In addition, it was observed that handling pigs
early in life might influence their subsequent
behavioural responses to humans (Hemsworth and
Barnett, 1992). On the other hand, there are limited
data indicating the impact of positive emotional
responses of farm animals in the presence of humans
on subsequent experiences when in the presence of
humans. Precisely, Muns et al. (2015b) observed that
positive human contact after birth reduced piglet
escape behaviour at subsequent stressful events. Early
handling of piglets (tactile stimulation performed daily
from day 5 to day 35 of age) resulted in piglets that
were more active and less fearful in a novel
environment, and less fearful of people in general (de
Oliveira et al., 2015). Zupan et al. (2016) also observed
that handling (tactile stimulation performed daily from
day 5 to day 35 of age) increased piglet locomotor play
and handling half of the litter increased social
exploratory behaviour of the entire litter. They
suggested that handling all or half of the piglets in the
litter might be beneficial for the piglets’ emotional state
after weaning, thus increasing their welfare. However,
the mechanisms underlying the influence of positive
early contact are unclear. Additionally, secondary
management practices commonly performed in
farrowing facilities (e.g. castration, iron
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administration, vaccination, ear clipping, tail docking,
etc.) might have an impact on piglet and sow welfare
and performance. Therefore, they should also be
considered when planning or suggesting a protocol for
management routines in the farrowing house. Finally,
environmental factors (e.g. facility design, housing
system, climatic conditions, etc.) also play an
important role in the success of the management
performed in the farrowing house.
Conclusion
Most of the management protocols studied so
far are too complex and laborious, or they need to be
performed too close to farrowing to be effective. Two
of the simplest practices that have been studied, drying
piglets at birth and placing them at the udder or under
a heating lamp, successfully reduced mortality. While
the importance of proper colostrum intake by piglets is
completely assumed, very few studies have been
performed under farm conditions regarding oral
supplementation of piglets. Oral administration of
colostrum (with manually milked sow colostrum
obtained from the same herd) to low birth BW piglets
guarantees a proper level of IgG, while direct energy
supplementation reduces the mortality of low birth BW
piglets. Therefore, a combination of oral
supplementation using sow colostrum and a
commercial energy booster might enhance both piglet
energy and immunity status. Such management
practices could reduce on-farm PWM and should be
further studied. On the other hand, cross-fostering has
been proven to strongly influence PWM. However,
more conclusive studies are needed to clearly
understand the effect of cross-fostering on piglet
performance, especially on the reduction in litter
weight variation. In addition, more studies of the effect
of cross-fostering combined with other husbandry
practices (e.g. oral supplementation) are necessary.
Concerning the use of creep feeding, there is a lack of
knowledge about whether the more vigorous or the
smaller piglets are consuming creep feed during
lactation. Recent studies have suggested that creep
feed consumption can be enhanced by stimulating
piglet exploratory behaviour and/or by modifying
creep feed presentation. Further studies of the
motivation that leads piglets to consume creep feed are
of great interest and could help enhance post-weaning
piglet adaptation. Furthermore, recent studies have
suggested the benefits of positive human handling on
piglet welfare, behaviour, and fear response. Given the
amount of management and manipulation that piglets
suffer during lactation, better understanding of the
piglet emotional response to human handling could
become an important tool to improve pig welfare and
handling during lactation and after weaning. Indeed,
improved knowledge of the piglet emotional response
to human handling could strongly influence the
producers’ approach to the skills and attitudes of
stockpeople, as well as lactation management
planning. Finally, it would be of great interest to study
the impact of the reviewed management strategies on
farms differing in their sanitary status or on farms
under different climatic conditions, thereby comparing
the impact of similar management strategies in
different countries or continents.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the
Ratchadaphisek Somphot Fund (Postdoctoral
Fellowship). P. Tummaruk is a grantee of the
International Research Integration: Chula Research
Scholar, Ratchadaphiseksomphot Endowment Fund.
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   

: 
ภาควิชาสูติศาสตร์ เธนุเวชวิทยา และวิทยาการสึบพันธุ์ คณะสัตวแพทยศาสตร์ จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย ปทุมวัน กรุงเทพฯ 10330
*ผู้รับผิดชอบบทความ E-mail: padet.t@chula.ac.th
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