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Floods in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia: Unusual Phenomenon and Huge Losses. What Prognoses

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Situated in the South-West of Saudi Arabia, Jeddah is the biggest port city in the red sea and the kingdom's second city after Riadth. Jeddah has a population of 3500000 inhabitants. It benefits from many economic assets due mainly to its being a transit point toward the holly sites of Islam. Despite being characterized by a dry climate, by poor rain fall levels, by deficits of rain compared to evaporation, and by the irregularity of water flow systems along with the functional degradation of its hydraulic networks, Jeddah underwent many unexpected floods- three big ones in 2009, 2010, and 2011. The human tolls as well as the material losses were huge: hundreds dead, thousands of damaged buildings which were built on slopes or close to river beds with legal permits. Such floods were studied by local and national authorities as well as scholars in order find adequate solutions. It is within this framework and with modelization statistics and cartographic analyses in mind that we will attempt to understand what caused such floods: –Natural causes (geo-morphological specifics, climate change, intensive rainfall), –Human causes: lack of hazard culture, urban extension and planification, and the absence of viable strategies of prevention
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
Floods in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia: Unusual Phenomenon and Huge Losses.
What Prognoses
Faouzi Ameur
King Abdel Aziz University, Faculty of Environmental Designs, Geomatics Department, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
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
                         
                  
                       
          

       



.
DOI: 10.1051/
04019 (2016)
,
6E3S We b of Conferences e3sconf/201
FLOODrisk 2016 - 3rd European Conference on Flood Risk Management
7
0704019
© The Authors, published by EDP Sciences. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution
License 4.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Introduction
       
 >@     
        


         

        
>@

          
      
          
       
       
         
       

     
      
        

Figure 1: Location of Jeddah
1 General geology
        
>@ 
       
     
     
        


>@>@
x      

      
      

x   
      
     

x      
      
 

      pediments
[18].
2 Previous Studies
Studies on floods in Jeddah city before 2009 were
rare enough, and if they existed, they were merely part of
more general studies that focused on broader
environmental issues [14]. A unique study was carried
out in 2009 and it focused on floods that occurred among
a number of watersheds in the area located between
Jeddah and Yanboua [1] [2]. If there were studies
dedicated to flood assessment, they would be applied to
the whole of Saudi Arabia.
Authors have given more attention to the topic of
floods since the severe episode that took place in
November 2009, and especially after another flood
occurred in January 2011. Both events resulted in many
casualties, and in damage that severely affected the
infrastructure and inhabitants of Jeddah City and the
surrounding areas. In this context, investigations were
undertaken in order to understand the general conditions
that gave rise to them, so that flood control measures
could be taken in the region, and a number of preliminary
reports and press releases were issued directly after the
events. The author of this study is concerned with floods
and torrents from the geomorphological and hydrological
point of view and has gathered information obtained
using geomatics.
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3 The consequences of flood
3.1. The history of floods in the City of Jeddah
before 2009
According Katibah Maghrabi [9], the main floods, which
happened in Jeddah, are:
- The floods of 1968, which came from the valleys east
of Jeddah and destroyed many constructions as well as
the walls of the old airport. However, the built-up area
was not as big as the current one.
- The flood of November 1972: the quantity of rain
reached 83 mm in a short period of time and left its
destructive action on the streets of the old districts and
formed swamps, which polluted the environment
- Floods of 1979, which resulted from continuous rain.
The water rose in the streets above 1 meter, life ceased
for three days.
- Floods of November 1985, which happened after
heavy rain over Jeddah and the surrounding area.
3.2 The flood in 2009, 2010 and 2011
Three major flash flood events occurred in Jeddah
city during 25 November 2009,December 2010 and
January 2011. These events were characterized by rainfall
precipitation values of 70 and 111 mm, respectively.
Each flash flood event had duration of three hours [7].
With sound infrastructure and proper drainage systems,
lacking, this rain turned into a worst disaster. The
downpour resulted in water tides coming from the hills
on the East of city, heading west to the red sea, and
cutting their way through the city. Jeddah has rare
rainfalls, and hence preparedness to any risk arising from
such a natural phenomenon is, at best, minimal. The
passage of the floods through a city with almost non-
existent drainage systems was devastating. Several
residential houses collapsed. King Abdel Aziz hospital
was affected by water waves. The hospital's underground
was repeatedly reported to have been submerged with
water. Laboratories and databases were destroyed,
wasting valuable resources, specimen and medical
records. Major roads of the city were blocked by meters-
high water waves, or by cars that have been washed out
[10].
As for the monetary losses, it amounted to about 1
billion dollars, long installations and government
facilities and compensation for those affected was
estimated at 2 billion dollars. As for the number of deaths
it reached 122, according to Arab News [19] and to the
statement of defense and civilian volunteer efforts
accounted scene in Jeddah [20]. The Guardian [21] said
hundreds had died in the Jeddah floods 2009. About 10
people also died in 2011 when additional floods swept
through Jeddah. The number of those sheltered was about
26,711 people in furnished apartments and also pay
subsistence for the families of 7821 people. 11849
damaged properties and 10913 damaged cars were
estimated (figures 2, 3 and 4). Commercial traffic was
paralyzed and sales fell to about 60% in some shops and
the fear of epidemics and diseases (dengue fever) spread.
What is more, the flood led to the destruction of farms
along the road in length of about 100 km. Some buildings
got cracks such as residential buildings, shops, leading
the collapse of some houses.
Figure 2: Jeddah's flood (January 2011)
Figure 3: Tunnel in King Abdullah Street (December 2010)
Figure 4: A pile of cars in Jeddah (November 2009)
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4 Causes of flood in Jeddah
4.1 Rain Characteristics
Figure 5: Annual office plurality of precipitations in the station of Jeddah
Source: Presidency of Meteorology and Environment (KSA)
Figure 6: Monthly precipitations in the station of Jeddah (1970-2014)
Source: Presidency of Meteorology and Environment (KSA)
It arises from figures 5 and 6 that the pluviometric mode
of the zone of Jeddah is characterized by a great inter-
annual variability marked by the alternation between wet
years (like in 1996, year during which one recorded 284
mm) and completely dry years as 1986 (where no drop of
rain was recorded according to the treated data). As for
the seasonal variation of the rains, one notes that
precipitations occur in winter (they start in October and
finish in April, figure 8). They are typical of the climate
of temperate zones and Mediterranean characteristics. It
is thus, not the mode of monsoon which is generally
active in the month of July and September. One can also
say that November records the maximum of
precipitations and which the protection services civil
must be more vigilant to envisage periods of raw wadis
and floods. The analysis of precipitations day laborers
(even if these last do not cover all the period) is
interesting. It shows that, precipitations day laborers
fallen during the flood of 2009 (70 mm) “Flash flood or
believed flash” are most important since 1979 in 24:00.
This extreme event combined with the urban growth that
the city knew during this time, explains the gravity and
the extent of the recorded catastrophes. The Seventies did
not know major floods, in spite of great quantities of rain
falls (1972, 1973.1978 and 1979), that is due to the
absence of the urban development during this time in the
zones at the risk (beds of the wadis). The year 1996 knew
an exceptional annual office plurality, but did not cause
damages because the rains fell over several days [4] [7].
It clearly appears that Saudi Arabia is located in new
climatic trends, represented mainly by torrential rains.
That was obviously marked by events of frequent natural
disasters and more especially of intense precipitations in
the various parts of the territory. The catastrophes
recorded in 2009 and 2011 are induced by problems of
urbanization. The town of Jeddah does not have a truly
effective system of cleansing and of drainage, especially
the southern part of the city, the houses localized in the
beds of the wadis and are badly built and do not
respecting the technical standards. The recorded
significant pluviometric events these last years and about
which not much was said in the media are those of the
month of January 2011 “75.9 mm”, December 2010
“65.6 mm” and November 2009 “70 mm” (Figure 7)
Figure 7: Precipitation day laborers in the station of Jeddah (1970-2015)
Source: Presidency of Meteorology and Environment (KSA)
4.2 absence of a culture of risk
According to UNESCO [23], “in its broadest
direction culture can be regarded today as the whole of
the distinctive features, spiritual and material, intellectual
and emotional, which characterize a company or a social
group. It includes moreover arts and the letters, the
lifestyles, the basic rights of human being, the systems of
values, the traditions and the beliefs”. For Sandrine
Glatron [22] “to mention the existence of a culture of the
risks, it is to refer to a knowledge, a collective luggage
common to all those which belong to a company: the
members of this one would have a particular manner to
conceive the risk” the term of risk appeared in Europe in
a quite particular context, that of the rise of the big
business towards Asia at the 13th century and the 14th
century. In the same way the institutions of risk
management are installation gradually [24]. In the field of
risks generally and the risks hydrological in a particular
way, the effectiveness of prevention passes by a training
and information of the citizens to allow them to adopt a
responsible behavior in all full knowledge of the facts. To
identify the zones at the risks must be systematic and
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close to the knowledge of the public one. The population
must be informed of the risks which it incurs.
In Jeddah and at the time of floods, one notes an absence
of culture of risks among the citizens which appears as
follows:
• A bad knowledge of the citizen of his environment.
• A bad knowledge of vulnerability.
• An absence of the reflex in time of danger.
• An absence of information on the risk which can exist
on the territory.
At the time of an investigation into the perception of
the risk of flood carried out in the district of Guiza in
October 2015. 400 persons were asked the following
question: Do you estimate to be quite informed about the
flood risk? The result is the following: 93% of the
surveyed people answered by not and the remaining 7%
did not answer the question (Figure 8). This underlines
the absence of a culture of risk among inhabitants; the
absence of conscience of the risk also appears among
decision makers. After the flood events, a number of
preliminary preventative measures were taken, but these
were not based on solid scientific study of the matter,
because such studies did not then exist. There was an
urgent need to carry out a comprehensive assessment of
the situation in order to avoid the recurrence of such
catastrophic events.
Figure 8: Survey Results in the district of Guiza (October 2015)
5 Urban Expansion
5.1 The city is a place of danger
The city was always exposed to dangers [11]. It is at
this level that one could speak about urban risk. Until
recently, three dangers were recurring at the point to be
regarded as specific urban risks like fire, famine (or of
the food shortages) and other epidemics. To these risks
were added the flood and in a very specific way, the
earthquakes (Lisbon in 1755) and volcanicity. Moreover,
restricted dimensions of the majority of the urban
organizations explain why the other great natural
disasters (droughts, heat waves, hails, storms, etc.) were
overlooked. Lastly, the city was the place of sporadic
agitations: social riots, generally related to political
crises, frumenties, riots. The riots frumenties could
strongly destabilize the social and political body beyond
the simple territorial limits of the city
With scientific progress, the old risks are gradually
controlled [12]. The fire becomes little by little an
accident. So certain risks as the health risks continue in
the least favored layers of the population, one does not
regard them any more as specific urban risks, apart from
some pathologies like lead poisoning. On the other hand,
new risks appear in connection with the new industrial
functions of the city. The industrial risks become the
urban danger par excellence. To look more closely at
these dangers; they seem to be the fruit of progress
technical and technological, the price to be culturally paid
for the economic development and human whose
contemporary city was the symbol a long time, in
opposition to a campaign perceived like economically
and late. But the question that needs to be asked is the
following one: were these dangers specific to the city?
One can identify three type of danger which is seen as
being specifically urban:
-Technological risks
The technological risks and the industrial risks remain
the urban risks par excellence.
-Health risks and environmental
Dependent on the urban lifestyles: pollution, rustled,
stress, stress, degradation of the landscapes.
-Risks related to the fracture of the social body
They can be sporadic violence, which point out the
urban riots of the past, crawling insecurity taking various
forms and with the people), terrorist acts, etc.
It appears that these dangers are not specifically urban
in a strict sense: there exist industries elsewhere than
downtown. In the same way, the medical, environmental
and societies dangers are not specific to the city. But they
are associated with the urban environment insofar as it is
there that they are expressed with the most intensity,
where they create the more important disturbances, where
the elements which give them rise are seen like
specifically urban. In opposition to these dangers, the
natural risk seems foreign to the city. It is the irruption of
nature downtown, while at the same time the city is
thought like wrenching of nature.
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5.2 Increase of Urban Population
5.2.1 Increase of Urban Population in Saudi Arabia
According to the United Nations “World Urbanization
Prospects” [24], urbanization in Saudi Arabia is the
world’s most rapid. Urban population percentage was
almost 20% in 1950 and will be nearly 90% in 2050.
Moreover, the urban population has increased from
665000 in 1950 to 24800000 in 2015. It will reach
35800000 in 2050. This means that there will be an
overall 11 million increase during the next 34 years. The
urban increase will occur in metropolitan cities like
Jeddah.
5.2.2 Increase of Urban Population in Jeddah
The population of Jeddah grew from an estimated
404,600 in 1971 to 595,900 in 1974, and 915,800 in
1978; this gives an exponential growth rate of 11.3%
between1974 and 1978. Since then the Jeddah population
has shown a steady increase until it reached 1,234,200
inhabitants in 1985. In 2010 about 3500000 people live in
Jeddah.
5.3 Land management
Studies on floods in Jeddah city before 2009 were rare
enough, and if they existed, they were merely part of
more general studies that focused on broader
environmental issues [13] [14]. A unique study was
carried out in 2009 and it focused on floods that occurred
among a number of watersheds in the area located
between Jeddah and Yanboua [2]. If there were studies
dedicated to flood assessment, they would be applied to
the whole of Saudi Arabia.
Risk (disaster) is an essential component of land
management since danger is always there [25]. Urban
land management actors set up measures to prevent
predictable natural risks (disasters) like floods. These
measures aim when necessary at:
-Identifying zones exposed to risks
-Identifying zones that are not directly exposed to risks
-Defining prevention measures to protect and
safeguard risk zones
Urban management actors in Jeddah used many
documents to put up with the city expansion: master
plans, regional development plans, and structural local
plans. Decisions were made to solve obvious problems
like state buildings, city roads [15]. For years, city
planners, urban managers, and public authorities
neglected floods in all urban managements.
Nonetheless, Jeddah urban management was overseen
by two ministries:
-The Ministry of municipal and rural affaires. This
ministry looks after the physical development of the
kingdom.
- The Ministry of Economy and Planning. Lack of
coordination between these two ministries left, according
to Daghesteni [16], local public authorities powerless and
unable to carry out their duties properly.
5.4 Urban Sprawl
Figure 9: Jeddah's Urban Sprawl
Jeddah was limited to the old city known as “Elbaled”
(figure 10 and 11). The demolition of the walls of the
ancient city in 1947 ushered in Jeddah’s stretch process.
From 1973 till present, the city northern and
southwestern expansion continued to grow. It should be
mentioned at this level that Jeddah’s expansion was
mainly to the North and occasionally in other directions.
Numerous investigations related to the floods of 2009
and 2011 show that:
- Urbanism has affected the water cycle and this
obvious in terms of:
*Ground waterproof
The most obvious effect of urbanization is ground
waterproof. This effect reduces water infiltration and this
explains in huge measure how floods happen.
*The second most important effect of urbanization-
though less obvious but is nonetheless very important- is
water drain.
- The construction of obstacles to water drainage.
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Urbanization even in pre-urban zones is
accompanied by the construction of roads and streets.
Figure 10: Jeddah before the demolition of the walls
Source: Alharbi, T.H, 1989
Figure 11: Elbaled (old city)
Source: Alharbi, T.H, 1989
5.5 Geomorphological of Jeddah district
Jeddah region has different geomorphological
features:
-The Red Sea shoreline: with an upper limit of 0.5 m of
elevation. It has two distinct sub-zones or parts. The
northern part is almost straight and is characterized by
gently sloping and flat sand beaches, ridges, lagoons,
sabkhas, and salt flats. The southern part is a huge
complex concave bay named Jeddah Bay with open and
closed lagoons. It has more than fifty islands and some of
these islands display a variety of forms from linear to
curved complex spits and atolls.
- The Coastal Plain Zone is approximately 10km wide. It
lies east of the red sea shore and extends in a N-NW
direction. (Figure12). The coastal plain has an almost flat
relief with gradient ranging between 0.002 at the northern
part and 0.005 at the south of Makah road. The coastal
plain area is characterized by coralline limestone, alluvial
terraces, fluvial deposits, sabkhas, and Aeolian sands.
-The Coastal Hills and Pediments Zone extends roughly
in a N-NW orientation. It lies east of the Red Sea coastal
plain. It is made of low-lying hills which range in
elevation between a few tens of meters in the West to a
few hundred meters in the east above the sea line. Some
characteristic features are present in this zone. Numerous
peaks and hogbacks are present and they litter this zone at
various locations.
Figure 12: Geomorphological Features of Jeddah
Source: Ahmed M.Y et al, 2015
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5.6 Drainage Systems
The classification and analysis of these systems
involved descriptive and geometrical aspects. The
description of the systems included distribution, location,
extent or size, shape of catchment area, orientation, stage
of development, genetic classification and the drainage
patterns (figures 13, 14 and table 1).
-Wadi Al-Kura
This system is located at the northernmost part of
Jeddah District. The system consists of numerous
channels or subsystems that are separated from the main
course of the Wadi. Owing to its extension through more
than one geomorphological zone, the system shows more
than one genetic characteristic; such as it is subsequent
upstream in coastal hills along the coastal plain.
-Wadi Muraygh and Wadi Ghuraiych
These two wadis lie south of, and closet to, Wadi
Al-Kura’s system. Their upper courses exhibit a sudden
and sharp shift in a N-S direction. The major wadi
courses are directed toward the west. At their upper
courses, they display trellis pattern. The lower courses of
the wadi show parallel pattern, where the catchment area
describes an elongate shape oriented in E-W direction.
-Wadi Um Hadlayn
This system is located to the North of KAA. It is formed
of major channels. The main wadi channel terminates
within the coastal plain at about 1.5 km from the sea
shore.
-Wadi Burayman
It is located in the north of Jeddah city and consists of
numerous curved short upper channels and double
channels with a possibility of stream congestion at its
middle course. The drainage density is high as it is
heavily branched at the upper course than at the lower
parts of the drainage basin and is moderate to high at the
upper part within the coastal hills.
-Wadi Hutayl
This system is located in the northern part of Jeddah
city. The drainage basin area is an elongated banana-
shaped within the main wadi and is directed toward the
west.
-Wadi Bani -Malek
This is perhaps the most important system in the area in
terms of length and basin area. The drainage branching
ranges is very low in the western zone, moderate in the
central zone, and low where the wadi might have once
been either a continuation of the Wadi or another branch
lying north of Wadi Mirayykh to the Red Sea.
-Wadi Mirayyikh
Is a relatively short system than the others in the area
that lies south of Bani Malik and terminates at the central
zone of Jeddah City. The drainage basin is relatively
wider compared to its length. It differs also in this regard
from the rest of the wadi systems in the area. The
drainage density is very low in the western part and is
moderate to high at the eastern part of the basin.
Figure 13: Drainage Systems
Source:
Ahmed M.Y et al, 2015
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Figure 14: Classified Basin Types
Conclusion
The risk of flood in Jeddah is a reality today that
nobody can deny. Fast extension of urban fabrics as well
as the absence of culture of risks among citizens and
decision makers strongly increased the vulnerability of
city to the risk of flood.
The present study of the risk of flood in Jeddah District,
Saudi Arabia has made it possible to produce valuable
data which can be developed and used within the
framework of a geographical information system in order
to set up a policy of natural risks management in Jeddah.
Table 1: Basins and their Streams
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Source: Al Saud M, 2015
Source: Al Saud M, 2015
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... The projected monetary damages were $1 billion, with long installations and government facilities accounting for the majority of the costs. Compensation for those impacted was estimated to be $2 billion (Ameur, 2016). In 2009, there were 163 fatalities and 11,640 injuries (Abosuliman et al., 2013). ...
... In 2009, there were 163 fatalities and 11,640 injuries (Abosuliman et al., 2013). When more floods hit Jeddah in 2011, it is estimated that 10,913 cars and 11,849 houses were damaged, and about 10 more people perished (Ameur, 2016). Riyadh recorded flood event in 2013 that led to some deaths and severe damages to properties and disruptions to city life and educational institutions (Ledraa & Al-Ghamdi, 2020). ...
... Second, our analysis provides a novel insight into climate change, urban policy and resilience in the Arabian context (Abosuliman et al., 2013;Abualnaja, 2011;Ameur, 2016). Although previous studies have highlighted the severity of climate change risk in the Arabian context, it still remains to be demonstrated the importance of a nation's wealth to managing climate change risks. ...
... The pluviometric mode of rainfall in Jeddah has faced severe variations [60]. For instance, there have been recorded dry years when there was no rainfall at all, i.e., 1986, and there have also been witnessed wet years, with annual precipitation of 284 mm in the year 1996, as shown in Figure 13 [61]. Precipitation analysis shows that despite heavy precipitation, rainfall events in 1970s did not record major floods, the reason being that no urban developments were in the zones of high flood risk at that time. ...
... To cope with flash floods, three drainage channels were previously constructed in Jeddah City, namely southern, eastern and northern channels which drain runoff water coming from fifteen catchment areas [68] towards the Red Sea, as shown in Figure 16. Being linked with the major drainage basins comprising several drainage networks, the city has witnessed massive flash events in recent years irrespective of having dams i.e., Al-Samer, Umm Al Khair and an emergency dam [61]. The runoff from wadis such wadis Qus, Asheer, Methweb, Ghulail and Al-Khumra is covered by the southern channel. ...
... Annual precipitation for Jeddah City[61]. ...
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Natural hazard threats have grown as a result of climate change, fast demographic development, and major urbanization. Devastating floods have occurred in several areas of the world recently, including the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, which is located in a region with a dry environment. In arid or semi-arid regions, rapidly forming flash floods associated with debris flowing down over dry water courses leading to a potential threat to both lives and property. Being located at the coastal plain of western Saudi Arabia, Jeddah City has witnessed an unexpected amount of rainfall events in recent years. Such extreme rainfall events, integrated with other factors, namely topography, land use, surface runoff, etc., have led to flood generation, which is alarming indeed. Herein, this paper addresses the varying climatic classifications of the Kingdom, its risk and vulnerability, followed by reasoning about the impact of flash flood events and the associated casualties and property losses. Further, it reports about the existing strategies of the government and proposes a systematic way forward on how to alleviate such events in future. Thus, risk variables have been discovered and integrated in the context of climate change and rising anthropogenic strain on coastal communities to give planners and decision makers tools to assure effective and appropriate flood risk management.
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In recent years, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) has experienced a marked increase in extreme rainfall events, challenging urban planning and infrastructure. This study investigates four extreme rainfall events in Al Ain, UAE, between 2007 and 2020, using data from 11 rain gauges and estimates from three satellite precipitation products. These events set new rainfall records, with some gauges recording up to 195.7 mm and intensities exceeding 175 mm/hr. Comparisons revealed significant discrepancies among satellite products, which underestimated three events and overestimated one. A watershed encompassing Al Ain was delineated, and runoff from these events was simulated using the fully distributed, physically based GSSHA hydrologic model. The model provided detailed, spatially explicit runoff estimates, highlighting urban areas of Al Ain as particularly vulnerable to flooding. Despite low runoff ratios (0.11% to 3.14%) due to high infiltration rates, significant flooding occurred in urban regions, emphasizing compounded flood risks from intense rainfall and rapid urban expansion. The study discusses general mitigation strategies that can be considered to enhance Al Ain’s resilience, ensuring the safety of residents and infrastructure and managing escalating flood hazards amid increasingly extreme weather patterns. Thoroughly evaluated strategies are essential for adapting to the dynamic climate and safeguarding urban areas from future extreme weather events.
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... Although Saudi Arabia is in a region characterized as arid/semi-arid [36], flash floods are quite frequent there, and they are becoming increasingly so [37][38][39][40][41][42][43]. The events often cause heavy human casualties, as well as significant damage to infrastructure, even though the country lacks permanent year-round rivers. ...
Conference Paper
Predicting flash floods in the arid region of the Arabia Peninsula poses unique challenges to researchers and practitioners due to the generally limited data records and field observations. The rapid onset of these events hinders mitigation measures and limits timely decisions, resulting in fatalities and property losses. To improve our predictive capability, we deployed a flash flood forecasting system that integrates numerical weather forecasts from the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model with a distributed hydrological model, the Coupled Routing and Excess STorage (CREST), and a 2D hydrodynamic model (HEC-RAS). The atmospheric component runs at cloud-resolving scales (1.6 km) to incorporate local features and strong convection. The hydrological and hydrodynamic models run at variable spatiotemporal resolution: the rainfall-runoff generation runs at 500 meter-by-hourly, routing at 30 meter-by-hourly, while the floodplain dynamics are computed at 30 meter-by-hourly. The significant differences in computational demands dictate the domain differences: CREST runs over large natural basins while HEC-RAS runs over small urban sub-basins associated with dense infrastructures and exposure. The effectiveness of the operational national scale flash flood forecasting system is evaluated in this study for the extreme precipitation event that hit Jeddah on 24 November 2022. The event was the heaviest ever recorded in the area, causing widespread flash floods across Jeddah's urban and rural areas. The atmospheric component forecast is compared to the NASA satellite precipitation product (IMERG Late) and radar-rainfall estimates that were bias-adjusted based on in situ gauge observations. Since no hydrological observations were available to the authors for this event, discharge obtained from the gauge-adjusted radar-rainfall data, which represents the benchmark precipitation, was used as a reference to assess the skill of the WRF-based flood forecasts. Finally, the effectiveness of the warning system was compared to reported localized flood incidents at the street or neighborhood level by the public ('crowd source'). The results of this study reveal an excellent temporal and spatial agreement between the forecasted precipitation from WRF and the bias-adjusted radar-rainfall estimates. The same conclusions cannot be drawn for the IMERG Late data. The satellite product seems to overestimate precipitation in most cases, which is consistent with the findings of several prior satellite validation studies. Comparing the flood quantiles for the Nov. 24th flood event indicates that the WRF-driven flood peak discharge properties agree with the radar-based ones. The differences between the flood characteristics (hydrographs peak, timing, and flood volume) when using WRF-forecasted versus radar-based benchmark precipitation were also minimal. The simulated flood inundation could capture the broad patterns of inundated areas at the city level: a high degree of agreement was reached, and more than 95% of the reported incidents across the city districts fell within the forecasted high or extreme warnings provided by the operational system on Nov. 23rd, at 12.30; therefore, more than 12 hours ahead. The importance of the study comes from the fact that it provides an effective solution and a state-of-the-art methodology to forecast such types of extreme rainfall events, which can cause major flash floods in the urban areas of Saudi Arabia.
Chapter
Climate change, specifically global warming, is expected to increase the intensity of the hydrological cycle, leading to more frequent and severe precipitation events and destructive floods. Urbanization is an inexorable phenomenon resulting from societal and economic progress. Urban regions, characterized by high population density, extensive infrastructure, and diverse commercial activities, are highly susceptible to flooding and can experience significant socio-economic damage due to climate change. The mapping and analysis of surface water inundation resulting from heavy rainstorms are necessary for effective flood risk management in metropolitan settings. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) has recently undergone notable alterations in its rainfall patterns, including changes in strength, frequency, length, and distribution. These changes have led to destructive floods in various regions. In this study, Jeddah city will be an example to evaluate the rainfall pattern changes and impact of climate change and predict the future trend of rainstorms between 2009 and 2022. In addition, an emphasis will be placed on understanding and comparing the devastating flood events that hit Jeddah city between 2009 and 2022. Finally, evaluating the devastating floods that occurred on 25 November 2022, which led to the submergence of Jeddah city by an unprecedented flood event, will be discussed. Our findings show that extreme precipitation and flooding events in the Jeddah region have intensified due to climate change and will increase in the future. Dams and existing drainage systems played a great role in protecting Jeddah city from wadi floods. However, the lack of surface drainage inside the urban zone increases the impact of urban floods.
Chapter
Studies on urban flash floods in Saudi Arabia received less attention from scholars due to the low occurrence level while the negative impacts resulting from it are significant. The objective of this study is to examine the disaster management and mitigation of urban flash floods in Saudi Arabia, particularly Riyadh the capital city. A mixed method combining quantitative and desk review was used as the main approach. It was done through an online survey to collect first-hand data while secondary data relied on the literature, statistical and historical records. This study highlights the importance of disaster and mitigation planning to prevent losses from urban flash floods, especially for Riyadh as the Kingdom’s capital. Some recommendations on how to help mitigate property losses by improving the infrastructure and city planning are also presented. Keywords: Disaster Management and Mitigation · Urban Flash Floods · Urban Planning · Property Loss · Riyadh · Saudi Arabia
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The interplay between climate change and society requires the cultivation of deeper insights into the interdisciplinary connections between faith and development. This study seeks to undertake a grounded theory analysis of the Islamic narrative among policy makers about climate change and Islamic values. A focus group panel of key experts was conducted on the topic of sustainability and faith, using a climate policy canvas to gain insights into the role of faith in shaping perceptions and policies to mitigate climate change. The results showed that Islamic values can be in positive interaction with environmental responsibility and ecologically friendly behavior. Despite the divergent narratives between the Global South and North with regard to equity and liability, policy makers are mindful of the ecological imperatives and the need to mainstream ethical values in order to influence climate policy. This research reveals that Islamic values can influence the perceptions on and practice of climate action for both policy makers and the public. The study recommends supporting value-based initiatives for shaping a new discourse around climate policy.
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The Jeddah city is located in a coastal plain area, in the middle of the western side of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, bounded by the Red Sea to the west and mountains to the east. Jeddah city receives rainfall runoff from the foothills through different drainage pathways (wadis). During intense rainfall events, runoff flows westward from the hills and mountains towards the Red Sea, causing flash floods in the urban areas along the pathways of these wadis. Two major flash flood events occurred in Jeddah city during 20 November 2009 - January 2011. These events were characterized by rainfall precipitation values of 70 and 111 mm, respectively. Each flash flood event has duration of three hours. The impact of these two flood events have been disastrous causing extensive flooding that killed 113 people in 2009 and damaged infrastructure and property (more than 10,000 homes and 17,000 vehicles). This study deals with the analysis of the different factors that caused these flash flood events. The results indicate that the causes of these floods are related to a number of factors which play as a major contribution to the worsening of the flood disaster. These factors were classified into the following: geomorphological features, anthropogenic activities (urban changes), network and catchment factors, and rainfall and climatic changes factors. The climatic changes have a major impact on the rainfall intensity and will appear more in the future. Other factors related to the wadis tributaries are narrow passes, and high slope of the wadi has additional impacts in the flash floods in the area. The anthropogenic activities include the proliferation of slums and construction in the valleys coupled with the lack of suitable water streams to accommodate the amount of water flowing and the presence of dirt led to the direction of flow.
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Due climatic variability and anthropogenic changes, floods have been raised lately in several regions world-wide. The resulting impact from floods is often harmful. This can be applied to Saudi Arabia, the country which is known by dry climatic conditions, and it became lately a typical region for such natural hazard. Hence, floods are observed as a yearly disaster with high magnitude of influence. Jeddah, a coastal Saudi city on the Red Sea to the west, has witnessed severe event in November 2009, when flooded water and sediments (torrents) invaded the urban areas and resulted decease of many people and destroyed the infra-structure and civilized zones. The lack of mitigation implements exacerbated the problem. This study implies an assessment of flood hazard risk in Jeddah region. It aims to identify the zones subjected to flood and then inducing the influencing factors at different levels of effect. For this purpose space techniques were utilized, with a focus on IKONOS satellite images, which are characterized by high resolution in identifying terrain features. In addition Geographic Information System (GIS) was also used to support space techniques. Thus, damaged areas and the mechanism of flooding process were recognized. This helps avoiding further urban expansion in areas under flood risk and will aid decision maker to put new strategies for hazard management.
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Problem statement: This study discussed the last flood disaster which occurred in Jeddah City-Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 25th of November 2009 which caused more than 121 fatalities and billions of dollars in losses in addition to around 20,000 sheltered families which cause a shift in public policy to deal with natural disasters in Saudi Arabia. Approach: We followed the flood disaster events starting from rain fall to the recovery stage. Then, timeline for the event is constructed with the intention to document and draw lessons for quick response in future disasters. Results: Natural causes and human errors and lack of clear public policy to deal with natural disasters were the most contributors to human and monetary losses due to the flood disaster in Jeddah City. Conclusion/Recommendations: It is necessary to have declared public policy for accountability which enable decision makers develop and implement policies and procedures, as well as plans to deal with natural and man-made disasters.
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The impact of natural disasters over the last decade has resulted in many lives lost and livelihoods destroyed. Recent disasters, such as the earthquakes, the drought in the Horn of Africa, and landslides in Yemen have tested the capacities of Member States as well as national and international humanitarian agencies to provide quick and effective assistance. Flood disaster constitutes the most costly natural as well as technology-induced disaster, in terms of both human suffering and financial loss. Natural disaster risk assessment is a complex task, involving a wide variety of processes which require large amounts of spatial and temporal thematic data and information coming from disparate sources. In conjunction with the natural disaster risk assessment, medical geography aims at explaining the distribution of health status and disease. It identifies efficient ways to intervene and distribute trained personal and technology and has a crucial role in assessing and managing the consequences of disasters.Aim of the study: Exploring the impact of the floods on the mental health of the residents in the Eastern region of Jeddah Governorate, Locate neighbourhoods affected by the flood disaster in the city of Jeddah; Identify the natural factors causing the disaster; Human impact and negative role in the disaster; Measuring the psychological impact on the population in the affected place; Estimate the prevalence of PTSD among residents in the eastern region of Jeddah, as well as the residents who were shifted to the lodging houses; Describe the potential and exacerbating factors associated with occurrence of PTSD among residents exposed to the flood disaster and finally develop plans and recommendations that would reduce the recurrence of the disaster in the future. Methods and subjects: The study depends on the objective approach, using many methods in analyzing the information such as the descriptive, analytical and interpretative in addition to field studies. Through a cross sectional community based on a design sample of 450 individuals, who were selected randomly from an estimated 336000 residents who were living along the stream courses of the flood. Cluster sampling using ArcGis 9.1 was made to assign 40 random clusters distributed proportionally according to the expected severity of exposure and from each cluster 10 households were selected by systematic random sampling plus 50 individuals who were selected randomly from those who were evacuated to lodging houses. PTSS-10 questionnaire was used to discover PTSD among people exposed to disasters. The results obtained from this study are explained and illustrated in tables and figures, in addition the study covering the following topics:Re-experiencing symptoms (Flashbacks- reliving the trauma over and over, including physical symptoms like a racing heart or sweating, bad dreams and frightening thoughts); Avoidance symptoms(e.g. Staying away from places, events, or objects that remind of the experience, feeling emotionally numb, feeling strong guilt, depression, worry, losing interest in activities that were enjoyable in the past and having trouble remembering the dangerous event) and Hyper-arousal symptoms (Being easily startled, feeling tense or "on edge", having difficulty sleeping, and/or having angry outbursts). Conclusion and Recommendations: While it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to predict the occurrence of most natural hazards; it is possible to take action before emergency events happen to plan for their occurrence when possible and to mitigate their potential effects putting into consideration the expected scenario of the event. Our study revealed two important issues that would help in the preparedness plan for flood disaster in Jeddah Governorate, first, the anatomy of the expected flood that could be modified through establishment of properly designed underground drainage tunnels leading to the red sea on the western border of the city. Secondly, in addition to the direct effect of the disaster represented by loss of properties and morbidities that could be ameliorated by compensations and concurrent health services, an overlooked post disaster impact shown as Post Traumatic Stress Disorders should be put in consideration in planning for the comprehensive health services provided to the victims of the flood. Thirdly, the authorities must prevent the establishment of any buildings, roads or infra-structure along the courses of dry valleys.
Book
During the past years, Saudi Arabia has been affected by particularly severe torrential rains and floods. This book presents an in-depth and all-encompassing study on the floods that occurred in the Jeddah area in 2009 and 2011, including water-flow mechanisms, state-of-the-art techniques for flood assessment, flood control and appropriate management approaches. It highlights a number of methods and concepts that can be applied in similar areas in Saudi Arabia in order to reduce and mitigate the impact of torrential rains and floods.
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Urban flooding is a significant challenge which today increasingly confronts the residents of the expanding cities and towns of developing countries, as well as policymakers and national, regional and local government officials. The Global Handbook presents the state-of-the art in urban flood risk management in a thorough and user-friendly way. It serves as a primer in integrated urban flood risk management for technical specialists, decision-makers and other concerned stakeholders in the private and community sectors. It covers the causes, probability and impacts of floods; the measures that can be used to manage flood risk, balancing structural and non-structural solutions in an integrated fashion; and the means by which these measures can be financed and implemented, and their progress monitored and evaluated. The Handbook provides an operational guide on how most effectively to manage the risk of floods in rapidly urbanizing settings ? and within the context of a changing climate.
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The spatial and temporal variability of rainfall is a major problem in its description and prediction. Saudi Arabia has an extremely dry climate, but in the southwest region comparatively more rainfall events occur within the effects of topography and seasonality. Sixty-three representative stations were selected for a 21-year period covering different micro-climate conditions. Geostatistical methods were used to reflect the regional and seasonal rainfall patterns throughout the southwest region. The results indicate that high variations in regional rainfall estimation occur in the mountainous areas, while the variance decreases in shadow areas in all seasons. The variation of the rainfall estimation accuracy decreases from winter to autumn.
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The spatial and temporal variability of rainfall is a major problem in its description and prediction. Saudi Arabia has an extremely dry climate, but in the southwest region comparatively more rainfall events occur within the effects of topography and seasonality. Sixty-three representative stations were selected for a 21-year period covering different micro-climate conditions. Geostatistical methods were used to reflect the regional and seasonal rainfall patterns throughout the southwest region. The results indicate that high variations in regional rainfall estimation occur in the mountainous areas, while the variance decreases in shadow areas in all seasons. The variation of the rainfall estimation accuracy decreases from winter to autumn. Distribution géostatistique de la pluie moyenne annuelle et saisonnière dans le Sud-Ouest de l'Arabie Saoudite Résumé La description et la prévision de la variabilité spatiale et temporelle de la pluie sont des problèmes majeurs. L'Arabie Saoudite a un climat extrêmement sec; mais, comparativement, les événements pluvieux sont plus nombreux dans la région Sud-Ouest, sous influence de la topographie et de la saisonnalité. Soixante trois stations représentatives, couvrant différentes conditions micro-climatiques, et une période de 21 ans, ont été sélectionnées. Des méthodes géostatistiques ont été utilisées pour caractériser la distribution de la pluie régionale saisonnière au sein de la région Sud-Ouest. Les résultats indiquent de grandes variations dans l'estimation régionale de la pluie dans les zones montagneuses, tandis que la variance décroît dans les zones abritées, pour toutes les saisons. La variation de la précision de l'estimation de la pluie décroît de l'hiver à l'automne.
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The paper examines public sector management of urban growth and development in the Riyadh Metropolitan Area, Saudi Arabia. The focus of the paper is on institutional capacity building and development intervention. The paper traces changes in public sector management structures and development activities over the history of the city with the aim of assessing development impact and identifying forces that have shaped the evolving state of urban management. The paper notes that urban management has significantly improved with time but the persistence of urban problems coupled with projections of future growth point to the need for further improvements. The paper, in conclusion, while acknowledging the utility of the metropolitan development strategy (MEDSTAR) being formulated for the city, points to the need for broader administrative reform to improve the ability to cope with long-term challenges of growth in the city. Some issues that reform could address are suggested.