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Floods in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia: Unusual Phenomenon and Huge Losses.
What Prognoses
Faouzi Ameur
King Abdel Aziz University, Faculty of Environmental Designs, Geomatics Department, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
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© The Authors, published by EDP Sciences. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
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Introduction
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Figure 1: Location of Jeddah
1 General geology
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pediments
[18].
2 Previous Studies
Studies on floods in Jeddah city before 2009 were
rare enough, and if they existed, they were merely part of
more general studies that focused on broader
environmental issues [14]. A unique study was carried
out in 2009 and it focused on floods that occurred among
a number of watersheds in the area located between
Jeddah and Yanboua [1] [2]. If there were studies
dedicated to flood assessment, they would be applied to
the whole of Saudi Arabia.
Authors have given more attention to the topic of
floods since the severe episode that took place in
November 2009, and especially after another flood
occurred in January 2011. Both events resulted in many
casualties, and in damage that severely affected the
infrastructure and inhabitants of Jeddah City and the
surrounding areas. In this context, investigations were
undertaken in order to understand the general conditions
that gave rise to them, so that flood control measures
could be taken in the region, and a number of preliminary
reports and press releases were issued directly after the
events. The author of this study is concerned with floods
and torrents from the geomorphological and hydrological
point of view and has gathered information obtained
using geomatics.
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3 The consequences of flood
3.1. The history of floods in the City of Jeddah
before 2009
According Katibah Maghrabi [9], the main floods, which
happened in Jeddah, are:
- The floods of 1968, which came from the valleys east
of Jeddah and destroyed many constructions as well as
the walls of the old airport. However, the built-up area
was not as big as the current one.
- The flood of November 1972: the quantity of rain
reached 83 mm in a short period of time and left its
destructive action on the streets of the old districts and
formed swamps, which polluted the environment
- Floods of 1979, which resulted from continuous rain.
The water rose in the streets above 1 meter, life ceased
for three days.
- Floods of November 1985, which happened after
heavy rain over Jeddah and the surrounding area.
3.2 The flood in 2009, 2010 and 2011
Three major flash flood events occurred in Jeddah
city during 25 November 2009,December 2010 and
January 2011. These events were characterized by rainfall
precipitation values of 70 and 111 mm, respectively.
Each flash flood event had duration of three hours [7].
With sound infrastructure and proper drainage systems,
lacking, this rain turned into a worst disaster. The
downpour resulted in water tides coming from the hills
on the East of city, heading west to the red sea, and
cutting their way through the city. Jeddah has rare
rainfalls, and hence preparedness to any risk arising from
such a natural phenomenon is, at best, minimal. The
passage of the floods through a city with almost non-
existent drainage systems was devastating. Several
residential houses collapsed. King Abdel Aziz hospital
was affected by water waves. The hospital's underground
was repeatedly reported to have been submerged with
water. Laboratories and databases were destroyed,
wasting valuable resources, specimen and medical
records. Major roads of the city were blocked by meters-
high water waves, or by cars that have been washed out
[10].
As for the monetary losses, it amounted to about 1
billion dollars, long installations and government
facilities and compensation for those affected was
estimated at 2 billion dollars. As for the number of deaths
it reached 122, according to Arab News [19] and to the
statement of defense and civilian volunteer efforts
accounted scene in Jeddah [20]. The Guardian [21] said
hundreds had died in the Jeddah floods 2009. About 10
people also died in 2011 when additional floods swept
through Jeddah. The number of those sheltered was about
26,711 people in furnished apartments and also pay
subsistence for the families of 7821 people. 11849
damaged properties and 10913 damaged cars were
estimated (figures 2, 3 and 4). Commercial traffic was
paralyzed and sales fell to about 60% in some shops and
the fear of epidemics and diseases (dengue fever) spread.
What is more, the flood led to the destruction of farms
along the road in length of about 100 km. Some buildings
got cracks such as residential buildings, shops, leading
the collapse of some houses.
Figure 2: Jeddah's flood (January 2011)
Figure 3: Tunnel in King Abdullah Street (December 2010)
Figure 4: A pile of cars in Jeddah (November 2009)
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4 Causes of flood in Jeddah
4.1 Rain Characteristics
Figure 5: Annual office plurality of precipitations in the station of Jeddah
Source: Presidency of Meteorology and Environment (KSA)
Figure 6: Monthly precipitations in the station of Jeddah (1970-2014)
Source: Presidency of Meteorology and Environment (KSA)
It arises from figures 5 and 6 that the pluviometric mode
of the zone of Jeddah is characterized by a great inter-
annual variability marked by the alternation between wet
years (like in 1996, year during which one recorded 284
mm) and completely dry years as 1986 (where no drop of
rain was recorded according to the treated data). As for
the seasonal variation of the rains, one notes that
precipitations occur in winter (they start in October and
finish in April, figure 8). They are typical of the climate
of temperate zones and Mediterranean characteristics. It
is thus, not the mode of monsoon which is generally
active in the month of July and September. One can also
say that November records the maximum of
precipitations and which the protection services civil
must be more vigilant to envisage periods of raw wadis
and floods. The analysis of precipitations day laborers
(even if these last do not cover all the period) is
interesting. It shows that, precipitations day laborers
fallen during the flood of 2009 (70 mm) “Flash flood or
believed flash” are most important since 1979 in 24:00.
This extreme event combined with the urban growth that
the city knew during this time, explains the gravity and
the extent of the recorded catastrophes. The Seventies did
not know major floods, in spite of great quantities of rain
falls (1972, 1973.1978 and 1979), that is due to the
absence of the urban development during this time in the
zones at the risk (beds of the wadis). The year 1996 knew
an exceptional annual office plurality, but did not cause
damages because the rains fell over several days [4] [7].
It clearly appears that Saudi Arabia is located in new
climatic trends, represented mainly by torrential rains.
That was obviously marked by events of frequent natural
disasters and more especially of intense precipitations in
the various parts of the territory. The catastrophes
recorded in 2009 and 2011 are induced by problems of
urbanization. The town of Jeddah does not have a truly
effective system of cleansing and of drainage, especially
the southern part of the city, the houses localized in the
beds of the wadis and are badly built and do not
respecting the technical standards. The recorded
significant pluviometric events these last years and about
which not much was said in the media are those of the
month of January 2011 “75.9 mm”, December 2010
“65.6 mm” and November 2009 “70 mm” (Figure 7)
Figure 7: Precipitation day laborers in the station of Jeddah (1970-2015)
Source: Presidency of Meteorology and Environment (KSA)
4.2 absence of a culture of risk
According to UNESCO [23], “in its broadest
direction culture can be regarded today as the whole of
the distinctive features, spiritual and material, intellectual
and emotional, which characterize a company or a social
group. It includes moreover arts and the letters, the
lifestyles, the basic rights of human being, the systems of
values, the traditions and the beliefs”. For Sandrine
Glatron [22] “to mention the existence of a culture of the
risks, it is to refer to a knowledge, a collective luggage
common to all those which belong to a company: the
members of this one would have a particular manner to
conceive the risk” the term of risk appeared in Europe in
a quite particular context, that of the rise of the big
business towards Asia at the 13th century and the 14th
century. In the same way the institutions of risk
management are installation gradually [24]. In the field of
risks generally and the risks hydrological in a particular
way, the effectiveness of prevention passes by a training
and information of the citizens to allow them to adopt a
responsible behavior in all full knowledge of the facts. To
identify the zones at the risks must be systematic and
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close to the knowledge of the public one. The population
must be informed of the risks which it incurs.
In Jeddah and at the time of floods, one notes an absence
of culture of risks among the citizens which appears as
follows:
• A bad knowledge of the citizen of his environment.
• A bad knowledge of vulnerability.
• An absence of the reflex in time of danger.
• An absence of information on the risk which can exist
on the territory.
At the time of an investigation into the perception of
the risk of flood carried out in the district of Guiza in
October 2015. 400 persons were asked the following
question: Do you estimate to be quite informed about the
flood risk? The result is the following: 93% of the
surveyed people answered by not and the remaining 7%
did not answer the question (Figure 8). This underlines
the absence of a culture of risk among inhabitants; the
absence of conscience of the risk also appears among
decision makers. After the flood events, a number of
preliminary preventative measures were taken, but these
were not based on solid scientific study of the matter,
because such studies did not then exist. There was an
urgent need to carry out a comprehensive assessment of
the situation in order to avoid the recurrence of such
catastrophic events.
Figure 8: Survey Results in the district of Guiza (October 2015)
5 Urban Expansion
5.1 The city is a place of danger
The city was always exposed to dangers [11]. It is at
this level that one could speak about urban risk. Until
recently, three dangers were recurring at the point to be
regarded as specific urban risks like fire, famine (or of
the food shortages) and other epidemics. To these risks
were added the flood and in a very specific way, the
earthquakes (Lisbon in 1755) and volcanicity. Moreover,
restricted dimensions of the majority of the urban
organizations explain why the other great natural
disasters (droughts, heat waves, hails, storms, etc.) were
overlooked. Lastly, the city was the place of sporadic
agitations: social riots, generally related to political
crises, frumenties, riots. The riots frumenties could
strongly destabilize the social and political body beyond
the simple territorial limits of the city
With scientific progress, the old risks are gradually
controlled [12]. The fire becomes little by little an
accident. So certain risks as the health risks continue in
the least favored layers of the population, one does not
regard them any more as specific urban risks, apart from
some pathologies like lead poisoning. On the other hand,
new risks appear in connection with the new industrial
functions of the city. The industrial risks become the
urban danger par excellence. To look more closely at
these dangers; they seem to be the fruit of progress
technical and technological, the price to be culturally paid
for the economic development and human whose
contemporary city was the symbol a long time, in
opposition to a campaign perceived like economically
and late. But the question that needs to be asked is the
following one: were these dangers specific to the city?
One can identify three type of danger which is seen as
being specifically urban:
-Technological risks
The technological risks and the industrial risks remain
the urban risks par excellence.
-Health risks and environmental
Dependent on the urban lifestyles: pollution, rustled,
stress, stress, degradation of the landscapes.
-Risks related to the fracture of the social body
They can be sporadic violence, which point out the
urban riots of the past, crawling insecurity taking various
forms and with the people), terrorist acts, etc.
It appears that these dangers are not specifically urban
in a strict sense: there exist industries elsewhere than
downtown. In the same way, the medical, environmental
and societies dangers are not specific to the city. But they
are associated with the urban environment insofar as it is
there that they are expressed with the most intensity,
where they create the more important disturbances, where
the elements which give them rise are seen like
specifically urban. In opposition to these dangers, the
natural risk seems foreign to the city. It is the irruption of
nature downtown, while at the same time the city is
thought like wrenching of nature.
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5.2 Increase of Urban Population
5.2.1 Increase of Urban Population in Saudi Arabia
According to the United Nations “World Urbanization
Prospects” [24], urbanization in Saudi Arabia is the
world’s most rapid. Urban population percentage was
almost 20% in 1950 and will be nearly 90% in 2050.
Moreover, the urban population has increased from
665000 in 1950 to 24800000 in 2015. It will reach
35800000 in 2050. This means that there will be an
overall 11 million increase during the next 34 years. The
urban increase will occur in metropolitan cities like
Jeddah.
5.2.2 Increase of Urban Population in Jeddah
The population of Jeddah grew from an estimated
404,600 in 1971 to 595,900 in 1974, and 915,800 in
1978; this gives an exponential growth rate of 11.3%
between1974 and 1978. Since then the Jeddah population
has shown a steady increase until it reached 1,234,200
inhabitants in 1985. In 2010 about 3500000 people live in
Jeddah.
5.3 Land management
Studies on floods in Jeddah city before 2009 were rare
enough, and if they existed, they were merely part of
more general studies that focused on broader
environmental issues [13] [14]. A unique study was
carried out in 2009 and it focused on floods that occurred
among a number of watersheds in the area located
between Jeddah and Yanboua [2]. If there were studies
dedicated to flood assessment, they would be applied to
the whole of Saudi Arabia.
Risk (disaster) is an essential component of land
management since danger is always there [25]. Urban
land management actors set up measures to prevent
predictable natural risks (disasters) like floods. These
measures aim when necessary at:
-Identifying zones exposed to risks
-Identifying zones that are not directly exposed to risks
-Defining prevention measures to protect and
safeguard risk zones
Urban management actors in Jeddah used many
documents to put up with the city expansion: master
plans, regional development plans, and structural local
plans. Decisions were made to solve obvious problems
like state buildings, city roads [15]. For years, city
planners, urban managers, and public authorities
neglected floods in all urban managements.
Nonetheless, Jeddah urban management was overseen
by two ministries:
-The Ministry of municipal and rural affaires. This
ministry looks after the physical development of the
kingdom.
- The Ministry of Economy and Planning. Lack of
coordination between these two ministries left, according
to Daghesteni [16], local public authorities powerless and
unable to carry out their duties properly.
5.4 Urban Sprawl
Figure 9: Jeddah's Urban Sprawl
Jeddah was limited to the old city known as “Elbaled”
(figure 10 and 11). The demolition of the walls of the
ancient city in 1947 ushered in Jeddah’s stretch process.
From 1973 till present, the city northern and
southwestern expansion continued to grow. It should be
mentioned at this level that Jeddah’s expansion was
mainly to the North and occasionally in other directions.
Numerous investigations related to the floods of 2009
and 2011 show that:
- Urbanism has affected the water cycle and this
obvious in terms of:
*Ground waterproof
The most obvious effect of urbanization is ground
waterproof. This effect reduces water infiltration and this
explains in huge measure how floods happen.
*The second most important effect of urbanization-
though less obvious but is nonetheless very important- is
water drain.
- The construction of obstacles to water drainage.
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Urbanization even in pre-urban zones is
accompanied by the construction of roads and streets.
Figure 10: Jeddah before the demolition of the walls
Source: Alharbi, T.H, 1989
Figure 11: Elbaled (old city)
Source: Alharbi, T.H, 1989
5.5 Geomorphological of Jeddah district
Jeddah region has different geomorphological
features:
-The Red Sea shoreline: with an upper limit of 0.5 m of
elevation. It has two distinct sub-zones or parts. The
northern part is almost straight and is characterized by
gently sloping and flat sand beaches, ridges, lagoons,
sabkhas, and salt flats. The southern part is a huge
complex concave bay named Jeddah Bay with open and
closed lagoons. It has more than fifty islands and some of
these islands display a variety of forms from linear to
curved complex spits and atolls.
- The Coastal Plain Zone is approximately 10km wide. It
lies east of the red sea shore and extends in a N-NW
direction. (Figure12). The coastal plain has an almost flat
relief with gradient ranging between 0.002 at the northern
part and 0.005 at the south of Makah road. The coastal
plain area is characterized by coralline limestone, alluvial
terraces, fluvial deposits, sabkhas, and Aeolian sands.
-The Coastal Hills and Pediments Zone extends roughly
in a N-NW orientation. It lies east of the Red Sea coastal
plain. It is made of low-lying hills which range in
elevation between a few tens of meters in the West to a
few hundred meters in the east above the sea line. Some
characteristic features are present in this zone. Numerous
peaks and hogbacks are present and they litter this zone at
various locations.
Figure 12: Geomorphological Features of Jeddah
Source: Ahmed M.Y et al, 2015
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5.6 Drainage Systems
The classification and analysis of these systems
involved descriptive and geometrical aspects. The
description of the systems included distribution, location,
extent or size, shape of catchment area, orientation, stage
of development, genetic classification and the drainage
patterns (figures 13, 14 and table 1).
-Wadi Al-Kura
This system is located at the northernmost part of
Jeddah District. The system consists of numerous
channels or subsystems that are separated from the main
course of the Wadi. Owing to its extension through more
than one geomorphological zone, the system shows more
than one genetic characteristic; such as it is subsequent
upstream in coastal hills along the coastal plain.
-Wadi Muraygh and Wadi Ghuraiych
These two wadis lie south of, and closet to, Wadi
Al-Kura’s system. Their upper courses exhibit a sudden
and sharp shift in a N-S direction. The major wadi
courses are directed toward the west. At their upper
courses, they display trellis pattern. The lower courses of
the wadi show parallel pattern, where the catchment area
describes an elongate shape oriented in E-W direction.
-Wadi Um Hadlayn
This system is located to the North of KAA. It is formed
of major channels. The main wadi channel terminates
within the coastal plain at about 1.5 km from the sea
shore.
-Wadi Burayman
It is located in the north of Jeddah city and consists of
numerous curved short upper channels and double
channels with a possibility of stream congestion at its
middle course. The drainage density is high as it is
heavily branched at the upper course than at the lower
parts of the drainage basin and is moderate to high at the
upper part within the coastal hills.
-Wadi Hutayl
This system is located in the northern part of Jeddah
city. The drainage basin area is an elongated banana-
shaped within the main wadi and is directed toward the
west.
-Wadi Bani -Malek
This is perhaps the most important system in the area in
terms of length and basin area. The drainage branching
ranges is very low in the western zone, moderate in the
central zone, and low where the wadi might have once
been either a continuation of the Wadi or another branch
lying north of Wadi Mirayykh to the Red Sea.
-Wadi Mirayyikh
Is a relatively short system than the others in the area
that lies south of Bani Malik and terminates at the central
zone of Jeddah City. The drainage basin is relatively
wider compared to its length. It differs also in this regard
from the rest of the wadi systems in the area. The
drainage density is very low in the western part and is
moderate to high at the eastern part of the basin.
Figure 13: Drainage Systems
Source:
Ahmed M.Y et al, 2015
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Figure 14: Classified Basin Types
Conclusion
The risk of flood in Jeddah is a reality today that
nobody can deny. Fast extension of urban fabrics as well
as the absence of culture of risks among citizens and
decision makers strongly increased the vulnerability of
city to the risk of flood.
The present study of the risk of flood in Jeddah District,
Saudi Arabia has made it possible to produce valuable
data which can be developed and used within the
framework of a geographical information system in order
to set up a policy of natural risks management in Jeddah.
Table 1: Basins and their Streams
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Source: Al Saud M, 2015
Source:
Source: Al Saud M, 2015
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