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Emotional Design in Digital Media for Learning

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Abstract

More and more evidence still points to something that practitioners in education have known for millennia: human learning and performance cannot be simply described from a cognitive or even sociocultural perspective alone. In order to fully understand how we process the world around us, we need to consider our affective responses to the information we perceive. This is especially important for the designers of digital educational materials, as these materials offer many important opportunities to incorporate emotional considerations. However, few if any theories of learning with media consider emotions, and if they do, they do so only in very limited ways. In this chapter, we first review definitions of key terms related to emotion and learning, and summarize research on emotional design in digital media for learning. We then present a theoretical framework of learning from digital media that emphasizes the integration of emotional and cognitive processing and of related design factors, and describe a resulting research agenda for the study of emotional design.

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... Emotions are inherently connected with cognition and inextricably bound to the learning process (D'Mello & Graesser, 2012). To evoke positive emotions, reduce negative emotions, and consequently improve learning outcomes, emotional design for multimedia learning materials and environments has been proposed (Plass & Kaplan, 2016;Um et al., 2012). The positivity principle posits that learners can perform better when key elements of a multimedia lesson are designed to elicit positive emotions, ultimately fostering a more engaging and effective learning experience (Horovitz & Mayer, 2021;Zhao & Mayer, 2023). ...
... There are two approaches to emotional design: one involves designing learning materials using emotional-designed elements, such as warm colours and anthropomorphism to present information in a positive manner; the other involves positively designing interactive features in multimedia learning environments, such as positive pedagogical agents (PPAs) (Plass & Kaplan, 2016). Research on emotional design has focused only on emotional learning materials or PPAs separately and mainly recruited college students as participants. ...
... According to the Integrated Cognitive-Affective Model of Learning with Multimedia (ICALM, Plass & Kaplan, 2016), the processing of multimedia stimuli is a dynamic interplay where cognitive and affective processes are intricately linked and mutually influential. As learners perceive and process multimedia content, positive emotional states elicited by emotional design influence the cognitive processes of what information is selected, how information is organized, and how different mental representations are integrated. ...
... Aiming for a holistic understanding of the mechanisms by which game elements can influence learning, it seems advisable to consider the possible interrelations between all three, i.e., cognitive, affective, and motivational components in the learning process. A theoretical framework that integrates these components is provided by the integrated cognitive affective model of learning with multimedia (ICALM) developed by Plass and Kaplan [26]. ...
... A crucial point in the ICALM is that cognitive processes are inseparably intertwined with affective processes inducing the emergence of highly context -sensitive emotion schemas that serve as motivators for learning in multimedia environments. Due to the inevitable interrelatedness of cognition and affect, affective processes influence cognitive processes and vice versa [26]. ...
... Hence, on the one hand, emotional design features may induce positive affect or enjoyment in learners. Positive affect involving appraisal is subjectively experienced in the form of interest or motivation [26]. By facilitating engagement in generative cognitive processing, motivation can support the utilization of free cognitive capacity [29]. ...
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Earlier studies repeatedly showed increased learner motivation due to game elements, while overall cognitive effects on learning outcomes were absent. One possible explanation for this discrepancy is provided by theories integrating cognitive and affective learning processes: the beneficial effect on learner motivation eventually balancing simultaneously higher cognitive processing demands associated with game elements. In this paper, we provide results of an empirical test of this theoretical suggestion. In particular, we report results of a value-added online experiment (with n = 61 participants, mostly students; 44 female, 15 male, 2 diverse; median age: 24 years), comparing a more gameful with a less gameful version of a learning task. In agreement with earlier studies, we find similar cognitive learning outcomes (δ < 0.2), but medium (δ = 0.5) and large (δ = 0.9) effects on affective and motivational outcomes, respectively. Furthermore, mediation models show that a small negative direct effect of game elements on cognitive outcomes (β = −0.2) is indeed effectively cancelled by an indirect path through motivational outcomes (β = +0.4). Overall, our results corroborate the tenability of the integrated cognitive affective model of learning with multimedia. This implies its feasibility in purposefully designing learning environments with specific motivational or cognitive aims in mind.
... Theoretical Framework for Instructional Design and Learning in Multimedia Environments: There are five theoretical frameworks in this part, which include the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) (Mayer, 2002), the Cognitive-Affective-Social Theory of Learning with Media (CATLM) (Park et al., 2014), the Cognitive-Affective-Social Theory of Learning with Media (CASTLM) (Stiller et al., 2020), the Integrated Cognitive Affective Model of Learning with the Multimedia (ICALM) (Plass & Kaplan, 2016), the Cognitive-Affective-Social Theory of Learning in Digital Environments (CASTLE) (Schneider et al., 2021). These five theories mainly discuss some/all of the aspects and the relationship among these aspects in learning with multimedia materials, including cognitive, metacognitive, social, and parasocial, as well as motivational and affective elements. ...
... In terms of the affective and motivational factors in multimedia learning, these are identified as two aspects without clear definitions in most of the theories except for ICALM (Plass & Kaplan, 2016), which take affective factors as the focus while mentioning the motivational effects frequently. ...
... Also, it is indicated that the interaction of these different aspects in multimedia learning calls on more academic scrutiny (Stiller et al., 2020), for instance, the effects of social cues on parasocial interaction, learning motivation, and cognitive load, and the interaction of these three aspects on learning performance, since inconsistent results are reported in various research contexts. Noticeably, research on affective/motivational factors in learning settings is not emphasized, though it is claimed that this aspect exists in the whole learning process and inherently interacts with cognitive processes (Plass & Kaplan, 2016). Additionally, it is also pointed out by these researchers that affective factors can influence learning via motivational processes. ...
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Background and Aim: Videos are popular in the dissemination of knowledge at scale, which can be seen in various video-based platforms and educational disruption. However, inconsistent results were reported in studies. This research is designed to determine the effectiveness of social cues in self-produced micro video lectures on parasocial interaction, motivational interest, extraneous cognitive load, and concept learning performance and the relationship among them. Materials and Methods: Self-produced videos for learning concepts of morality and the rule of law in junior high schools were used as the treatment. Tests were used to determine concept learning performance and Likert scales were utilized to collect information on the other three variables. 248 students from the eighth grade in a public school were involved in the sample. One-way ANOVA was used to analyze differences among groups, and path analysis as well as was adopted to determine the relationship between variables. Results: There was no significant difference among the four groups on each variable. Parasocial interaction has a significant positive impact on motivational interest, motivational interest has a negative significant impact on extraneous cognitive load, and extraneous cognitive load has a negative significant impact on concept learning performance. Conclusion: The effects of the increment of types of social cues can be ignored in 6-minute self-produced video lectures. Students’ parasocial interaction can influence concept learning performance via the mediation of the cognition process and motivational factors. The extraneous cognitive load decreases with the stimulation of the motivational interest.
... Emotions are ubiquitous, dynamic, and interconnected with cognition and metacognition (e.g., the use of learning strategies). If such attributes of emotions are taken into consideration, the instructional design can be more effective for no matter academic achievement or emotional experience (Plass & Kaplan, 2016). ...
... The emotional processing makes greater demands on cognitive resources, and the allocation of resources and cognitive processing can be affected by emotional factors. Emotional-supportive features of instructional design may evoke both positive and effective cognition-emotion interactions, which in turn will influence not only academic emotions but also cognitive processes (e.g., selecting, organizing, and integrating visual and verbal information), and even learning performance (Plass & Kaplan, 2016). What can be inferred from aforementioned theories is that a PA equipped with emotional support is expected to help learners get better emotional states and stronger motivation, and reduce their taskirrelevant processing, such as thinking about their own emotional states and processing information not related to the learning task that makes demands on their cognitive resources. ...
... These results also provided strong evidence for control-value theory and ICALM in the context of high-order learning with an SPA. A supporting learning environment targeting learners' emotions is able to reduce negative emotions, which can affect the cognitive and regulatory processes as well as learning achievement (Pekrun, 2006;Plass & Kaplan, 2016). However, H1b was not supported here as intrinsic motivation maintained at a medium to high level (M > 5) regardless of whether learners studied with either an SPA or an NSPA. ...
Article
The present research conducted two experiments with an intelligent tutoring system to investigate the overall and dynamic impact of emotional support from a pedagogical agent (PA). In Experiment 1, a single factor intergroup design was used to explore the impact of PA’s emotional support (supportive vs. non-supportive) on learners’ emotions, intrinsic motivation, and learning gain. Sixty participants were recruited and randomly assigned to one of the two conditions. Experiment 2 also conducted a single factor between-subjects design to investigated the dynamic patterns between emotions and learning strategies among 30 participants using lag sequential analysis. Results showed that: Compared with the non-supportive pedagogical agent, the supportive pedagogical agent reduced frustration and improved learning gain, but did not increase intrinsic motivation. In addition, learners with the supportive pedagogical agent used more appropriate strategies after frustration and surprise, and use less ineffective strategies after confusion and enjoyment to avoid reaching a wrong answer. If learners did not receive emotional support in such cases, learning strategies following these emotions were more likely lead to negative cognitive results, or negative emotions tended to appear repeatedly. Instructors or PAs should identify learners’ emotions in time and provide the appropriate emotional support according to learners’ emotions.
... The cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML, , for example, postulates that written and spoken words as well as pictures of a multimedia presentation are selected by attentional processes and further processed in two separate channels of the working memory-a verbal and a pictorial channel, both with limited capacities-leading to a verbal and a pictorial mental representation that is merged into an integrated mental model by the help of prior knowledge and transferred to long-term memory. While the CTML neglects the cognitive processing of non-verbal sounds, the cognitive-affective model of learning with media (CATLM, Moreno & Mayer, 2007) and the integrated cognitive affective model of learning with multimedia (ICALM, Plass & Kaplan, 2016) differentiate between non-verbal sounds and verbal narrations as auditive input. However, they still stick to the dichotomous modes of representation -pictorial and verbal-and do not consider non-verbal sound information as cognitive representations relevant for the learning process. ...
... In research about cognitive processing and learning based on the CTML , CATLM (Moreno & Mayer, 2007), and ICALM (Plass & Kaplan, 2016), memory of learning content is usually measured either by retention or recognition tests, whereby retention can be seen as the higher order cognitive process compared to recognition. This should also be appropriate for measuring learning based on our MAVCP. ...
... Since learning based on the CTML , CATLM (Moreno & Mayer, 2007), ICALM (Plass & Kaplan, 2016), and our MAVCP includes the integration of auditive or written texts and pictures as an important aspect of learning, a text-picture integration test in paper pencil form was used to assess how well participants were able to connect the details in the audio explanations with the corresponding portraits. Participants were shown portrait details depicting the face of each inventor together with four different statements about his invention (one correct and three incorrect) and were asked to mark the one correct statement. ...
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The present paper examines possible benefits of spatial audio guides on learning outcomes in the spatial learning setting of an experimental exhibition and attempts to differentiate between different mechanisms underlying such an effect. In Experiment 1, we examined whether the spatial contiguity principle may be such a mechanism. A spatial audio guide was used that allows for perception of audio explanations either at the location of the exhibit (audio-visuo-spatially close) or within the headphones (audio-visuo-spatially distant). The results showed that with the external, exhibit-located compared to headphone-located presentation, memory of audio explanations was significantly better. No significant differences were found regarding text-picture-integration. However, these results cannot only be explained by audio-visuo-spatial contiguity but also by externalization and audio-spatial cueing. In Experiment 2, we therefore tried to disentangle these possible mechanisms and compared three conditions (audio explanations perceptually located within the exhibits, behind the visitors at the opposite wall, always at the same location in the room), thereby keeping externalization constant while varying audio-visuo-spatial contiguity and audio-spatial cueing. No significant differences between the conditions were found regarding memory of the audio explanations and text-picture integration, whereby memory of audio explanations in all conditions was at the same level as in the picture-located audio condition in the first experiment. This excludes spatial contiguity effects and audio-spatial cueing as explanations for the results in Experiment 1 and indicates a general externalization effect needing closer examination. The results are discussed regarding future studies and the use of spatial audio guides in museums and exhibitions.
... Indeed, emotional information/material "constitutes much of the information we process daily" [52] (p. 1). Because emotions have the capacity of promoting social and moral behavior [53] and are central to achievement strivings [48,54], emotions can also be conceptualized as action tendencies that link actions and behaviors [55,56]. Thus, emotions inherently involve subjective (or psychological) feeling experiences and physiological expressions, as well as behavioral tendencies [53,57]. ...
... Thus, emotions inherently involve subjective (or psychological) feeling experiences and physiological expressions, as well as behavioral tendencies [53,57]. They are dynamic in nature, encompassing complex motivational and behavioral characteristics/aspects [55]. In general, emotions arise from a cognitive appraisal of the object, person, or situation associated with the emotion, particularly in terms of how it relates to one's well-being [53,58]. ...
... Two core dimensions constitute the nature and function of emotion: valence (e.g., pleasant vs. unpleasant) and arousal (e.g., intensity of emotion; activating vs. deactivating) [55,56,59]. Positive states (i.e., pleasant valence) include emotions such as joy, excitement, and enjoyment, whereas negative states (i.e., unpleasant valence) are associated with emotions such as frustration, anger, and sadness. ...
Article
Within this integrative review, cognitive load theory (CLT) is asserted as a powerful framework for conceptualizing human cognitive processes within learning. The relationship between cognition and emotion is then examined and further integrated within the scope of CLT. Emotion regulation strategies are discussed and adaptive strategies are proposed as being of particular relevance to broadening the theoretical and practical impacts of CLT. Central to the argument of this review is the use of cognitive reappraisal as a potential mitigator of cognitive load. Cognitive reappraisal involves reframing or reassessing understandings or beliefs that underlie an emotional response, which may mitigate cognitive load imposed by maladaptive emotion. It is proposed that effectively integrating adaptive emotion regulation strategies such as cognitive reappraisal in our pursuit of more effective cognitive functioning will aid in the development of a more integrated model of cognition and emotion within CLT.
... Recently, scholars have extended the CTML to explain how motivational, affective, and social elements influence learning. Cognitiveaffective models of learning (e.g., Mayer, 2020;Plass & Kaplan, 2016) posit that learners try harder to understand learning content when they experience positive emotions while learning. For example, the Integrated Cognitive-Affective Model of Learning with Multimedia (ICALM) outlines how cognitive processes are inseparably intertwined with affective processes, such as emotions or moods (Plass & Kaplan, 2016). ...
... Cognitiveaffective models of learning (e.g., Mayer, 2020;Plass & Kaplan, 2016) posit that learners try harder to understand learning content when they experience positive emotions while learning. For example, the Integrated Cognitive-Affective Model of Learning with Multimedia (ICALM) outlines how cognitive processes are inseparably intertwined with affective processes, such as emotions or moods (Plass & Kaplan, 2016). The model highlights that learning material that can evoke learners' affect involving some appraisal can enhance their motivation and interest, followed by deeper processing and comprehension of new information. ...
... Findings from research on instructional videos with on-screen instructors align with cognitive-affective models of learning (e.g., Mayer, 2020;Plass & Kaplan, 2016), proposing that learners may exert greater effort to understand learning content when experiencing positive emotions. However, on-screen instructors and emotional design elements should not cause excessive extraneous cognitive load. ...
... At no level, at no state, even in adulthood, can we find a behavior or a state that is purely cognitive without affect, nor a purely affective state without a cognitive element involved [30,31]. Humans are affective beings, motivated to action by a complex system of emotions, drives, needs, and environmental conditioning in addition to cognitive factors [32,33]. ...
... In the design and production phase of a virtual curriculum, using multimedia capabilities, various information resources, and communication and personalization features can help create credible and high-quality content, design diverse learning activities, and provide learner-centered teaching methods and assessments [55,56]. Addressing a learner's affect can be a significant part of emotional design, enabling academics and educators to comprehend and support the complex role of emotions in learning to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of the learning process [33]. How to measure the cognitive emotions of learners in the e-learning system and achieve harmonious emotional interaction has become an important research topic in e-learning [57]. ...
... The main thesis of this theory is that affective processes are intertwined with, and inseparable from, cognitive processes. The cognitive-affective processing of multimedia stimuli involves affective processes that place demands on cognitive resources, and vice versa [33]. ...
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The present study aimed to examine students’ emotions in e-learning classes through facial expressions and investigate the influence of different instructional methods on students’ emotional responses. In this study, we examined the facial expressions of 17 undergraduate students using three different methods of presenting educational content (PowerPoint, video, and Kahoot) in online classes and analyzed the data with face reader software. The findings demonstrated that students experienced various positive and negative emotions with different methods of content delivery. Furthermore, comparing the three methods revealed that the Kahoot method elicited the highest average of positive emotions among students compared to the other two methods. This difference can be attributed to the visual attractiveness and interactive nature of the Kahoot environment. Additionally, this study highlights that simply incorporating multimedia materials, such as PowerPoint presentations and videos, is not sufficient to enhance effectiveness and cultivate positive emotions in e-learning. While multimedia materials serve as supportive tools and enhance visualization, interaction at various levels (content, teacher, peers, etc.) is necessary. Nevertheless, the significance of this research lies in the innovative application of a tool for analyzing emotions in online learning classrooms, thereby enhancing the measurement of genuine and objective emotional responses in e-learning environments.
... The emotions experienced during learning can enhance attention, information processing, retention, and motivation [3]. Affective state, or "core affect" [11] can influence learning outcomes [9]. Heightened emotional states (arousal) enhance learning outcomes for both positive and negative valence [7]. ...
... Emotional design for learning is the design of affective elements that are tied directly to the learning content without significantly increasing the learners' cognitive load [8]. Affective features specific to the learning material lead to better educational outcomes [9]. Russell's circumplex model of affect which has two dimensions, arousal (activation) and pleasure (valence) allows fast capture of self-reported affective experience [10]. ...
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When designing learning experiences, there is evidence that affective features can improve learning. This paper explores the question of how spatial movements of NPCs impact a player’s emotions in an executive function VR game. In two studies, NPC movement approaching players significantly increased arousal when compared to static distance movements. Though EF was not significantly improved following gameplay, a more challenging and adaptive level design may elicit the desired effect.
... Plass et al. discuss how aesthetically pleasing pictures can facilitate comprehension [31]. Plass & Kaplan note that designs with different aesthetics initiate different emotions and these emotions can influence the perception of learners and their cognitive processing [32]. They also note, that other researchers found that multimedia elements like the visual design 'resulted in positive user perceptions about learning' [32]. ...
... Plass & Kaplan note that designs with different aesthetics initiate different emotions and these emotions can influence the perception of learners and their cognitive processing [32]. They also note, that other researchers found that multimedia elements like the visual design 'resulted in positive user perceptions about learning' [32]. These findings are consistent with earlier research suggesting that positive effective states in general can have a positive impact on learning [33,34]. ...
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Pictures in physics education go beyond instructional functions and serve affective roles, such as attracting attention, creating fascination, and fostering engagement with the depicted content. Recognizing the importance of these affective functions highlights the need to understand and utilize aesthetic pictures in a research-based educational environment. Prior research suggests that aesthetic and affective attractiveness in pictures enhances enjoyment and engagement with the physics content. This paper offers three main contributions: Firstly, it conceptualizes and presents research-based criteria for selecting pictures perceived as aesthetically pleasing, drawing on insights from psychology and physics education research. Following these criteria, aesthetic pictures related to a given curricular content can be selected. Secondly, the paper applies these criteria to selecting pictures showing geometrical optics. It then delves into an evaluation of students' aesthetic and affective perception of the selected pictures. A validated instrument measured these responses, showing strong reliability (aesthetic perception: αC\alpha_C = 0.87 [0.85, 0.89]; affective perception: αC\alpha_C = 0.82 [0.80, 0.85]). Thirdly, it combines decorative and instructional functions in tasks and compares students' perceptions of aesthetic pictures (AP) and classroom experiment pictures (CEP) in junior high school (N = 118), using a crossover design. Results indicated significantly better aesthetic and affective evaluations for APs, with large effect sizes (AP vs. CEP, aesthetic and affective perception: d = 1.05 - 1.56 and 0.85 - 1.48, respectively). We conclude that the here developed and investigated criteria are useful for selecting aesthetic and affective pictures. This provides a basis for further leveraging their educational potential to create fascination and engagement in science education.
... Immersive scenarios can generate interest, scaffolding and low-stakes practice can build confidence, and social collaboration can foster enjoyment. For instance, Plass and Kaplan (2016) suggest these approaches in their research. ...
... It is also key to align cognitive and emotional goals so they logically reinforce each other (Plass & Kaplan, 2016) -for example, pairing content retention objectives with curiosity or enjoyment goals. Objectives may scaffold in tiers from basic to more advanced skills. ...
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Learning holistically engages emotion and cognition, yet education often overlooks affective processes. This chapter explores their dynamic interplay through a comprehensive literature review examining theories on how emotions shape learning. The aims are to establish an evidence-based framework emphasizing the intentional integration of factors like motivation, curiosity, and self-efficacy with cognitive objectives in instructional design. The methodology includes synthesizing foundational theories and empirical studies, then exemplifying transformative potential through case studies demonstrating enhanced engagement and holistic development when addressing emotions. Results reveal that emotions can enable adults to take risks, overcome barriers, and achieve meaningful change through learning. Also, emotion and cognition are fundamentally intertwined; practical pedagogical approaches must integrate intellectual to unlock human potential. The chapter proposes an Emotional Learning Design framework for an impactful education through person-centered humanistic instructional practices.
... Being able to act competently and reflectively and to participate in discourses on sustainable education is an important step towards equal maturity in society. Again, it is to emphasize here that the way video games represent spaces affects how children imagine spaces and how they think spatially (among others: Ash, 2009Ash, , 2010Ash, & 2012Shaw & Warf, 2009;Plass & Kaplan, 2016). ...
... This is mainly because digital space is used in a particularly active way to metaphorically represent emotions such as fear or loneliness. Moreover, language from OFF is superimposed on the visual perception of space to additionally shape the spatial experience (also see: Zhang, 2015, Evans, 2018, Schur, C. & Strüver, A., 2016, Plass, J. & Kaplan, U. 2016, Pile, 2010. The following statements present planning from the aloud thinking protocols of the two teachers (P1 for teachers TA-protocols) related to the didactic reduction and factual analysis of the lesson. ...
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The paradigm shifts of the various philosophical-cultural turns (e.g., spatial, linguistic) significantly brought the subjective perception and construction of space into focus in geography as a spatial science. In video games, vast digital spaces are created and experienced. These digital spaces—often oriented to “real” spaces—are created by designers/programmers based on different motives, values, prior knowledge domains, abilities, emotions, and worldviews, and in turn, are received/played by players through these same filters. Thus, when playing and producing/programming games, constructions of (digital) spaces are created, negotiated, and interpreted. Players and designers communicate about spaces and what they experience, thus successively influencing their view of spaces. Based on this argumentation, this contribution wants to initiate more intensively the discourse to recognize video games as a medium in geography and hence wants to integrate itself into the relevant discourses of the disciplines of geography and geography education. In the following article, the main aim is to theoretically develop and present a model of reflexive spatial analysis in video games based on discourses of the digital turn and (digital) spatial reflexivity in geography (education). This model is then, secondarily, used to theoretically justify the concept of a lesson design, which applies the model and is used in a bilingual geography classroom with the goal of promoting pupils’ reflexive competencies of spatial perceptions and constructions of digital space in video games. The empirical analysis of the lesson and its processing of digital spatial reflexivity is based on the qualitative analysis of transcripts of 51 students (Most of the time, if not separately explained/defined with students, pupils at high school are meant.) and three teachers (think aloud protocols). It reflects upon the subjective construction and perception of digital spaces with reference to the generated emotions—as an example of spatial reflexivity—of the recipients, using the game That Dragon, Cancer. The results show that students can actively and critically relate gameplay and spatial constructs and certainly reflect on the emotional impact of digital spaces.
... This result can be explained through the control-value theory (CVT) of achievement emotions (Pekrun, 2006;Pekrun & Perry, 2014): An optimal challenge (rather than being too hard or too easy) might foster perceived controllability, which, in turn, is linked to positive emotional experiences. Moreover, described in the literature as emotional design (Plass & Kaplan, 2016), a strong narrative and aesthetic visual and auditive design are examples of game features that influence emotions. (For a detailed overview of affective foundations of game-based learning, see Loderer, Pekrun, and Plass (2020).) ...
... By virtue of their motivational, affective, and sociocultural properties described above, games have been intended to foster learning. In the overall context of multimedia learning, both motivation and emotions have been found to be important prerequisites for and mediators of cognitive processes and outcomes (Astleitner & Wiesner, 2004;Leutner, 2014;Moreno & Mayer, 2007;Plass & Kaplan, 2016). Fostering motivational concepts and inducing positive emotions through certain game mechanics could serve as facilitators for cognitive generative processing during learning, including the selection of relevant learning information, its arrangement into a coherent structure, and its integration with prior knowledge relevant for the academic content conveyed through a game (Mayer, 2014). ...
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This chapter summarizes theory and empirical research concerned with the use of serious games and game-based learning in educational contexts. Relevant characteristics and theoretical foundations of the value of games are assessed. The reviewed empirical findings indicate a strong effect of serious games and game-based learning on learner motivation, affect, and cognitive outcomes. However, the direction of their impact is not always straightforward as it depends on the interplay of conditions including the game type, design features, learner characteristics, and learning activities. This chapter suggests that developers and educators take this interplay into account to ensure optimal learner experiences when developing or choosing serious games or game-based learning approaches for educational purposes.
... In the current study, we align with Schlosberg's emotion framework (Schlosberg, 1954) and categorize emotions into topic, epistemic, and social dimensions to explore how children differentiate knowledge and emotion within a folksonomy-based topic structure. Plass and Kaplan (2016) emphasized the importance of considering affective responses in understanding how individuals process the world. Verbal ability is a critical tool for cognitive representation and involves mastering word meanings, describing psychological states, and conveying perspectives (Harris et al., 2005). ...
Article
This study created a visualized folksonomy classification that integrates topic icons and emojis to help children to find books that they like in library settings. The National Library of Public Information in Taiwan commissioned a book-navigation app using the proposed classification. We recruited 35 children to use this app to search for books to read, and they recorded their feelings about these books over a twelve-week period. A statistical analysis of 1,938 system logs was per�formed under three themes: thematic preferences, epistemic cognition, and social communication. The implementation of thematic and emotion icons in a folksonomy topic structure appeared to successfully aid young Taiwanese readers in finding books that they wanted. Evidence of complex relationships among cultural, psychological, cognitive, and social aspects of book-finding was found, suggesting the benefits of supervised learning in the extraction of gross-fine emotions in the sentiment analysis of multiple topics.
... Besides, digital media installations serve as effective tools for aiding audiences' comprehension of artworks while facilitating physical interaction and emotional engagement (Plass and Kaplan, 2016). The immersive and interactive format of digital media installations, such as the reception of people's vision, is the most direct way to understand the artworks (Katja Kwastek and Dieter Daniels, 2015;Ahmed, 2018). ...
Article
Many studies have highlighted how digital media installations encourage sensory engagement, fostering emotional connections with audiences. However, scant literature delves into the profound emotions within these installations or whether viewers can extract emotional worth from the visual components. Consequently, this study aims to explore the emotional interaction between digital media installations and viewers and how viewers can derive emotional value from them, based on the perspective of visual communication design. This study encompasses two primary objectives: firstly, analysing digital media installations that can be experienced in person, focusing on the visual elements in the installations to capture emotional interaction and value; secondly, probing the correlation between the level of visual design and the emotional interplay between viewers and the underlying concepts intended by the artist's creation. Data collection employed three techniques, with participants categorized based on artistic and non-artistic backgrounds. Firstly, using cyber ethnography on the Instagram platform, posts and comments related to the target digital media installation of the study were observed to analyse their sentiments towards the corresponding work. Subsequently, 10 local London participants were recruited on WeChat for an on-site experience of the digital media installations, followed by semi-structured interviews conducted by the researcher to explore their assessments of emotional interactions and values elicited by specific visual elements within the installations. Finally, participants engaged in a drawing workshop, providing a more direct avenue to visualize emotions and delve deeper into the emotional value of the digital media installation from the viewer's perspective. The findings reveal that visual elements in digital media installations can help viewers understand the concept of the work and interact emotionally, with generating emotional value depending more on whether the conceptual mood of the work preset by the artist is positive or not. This essay provides a comprehensive literature review concerning the connections among digital media installations, visual communication design components, emotional interactions, and emotional values. In addition, Chapter Three describes three methods of research design and data collection: cyber ethnography, semi-structured interviews and drawing workshops. Chapter Four describes the main research findings while Chapter Five merges these findings with theoretical literature for a critical discussion and analysis. Finally, Chapter Six summarises the main findings, limitations and recommendations for future research.
... Finalmente, la aplicación de talleres divulgativos de esta índole normaliza el aprendizaje y la enseñanza del sistema braille al cambiar su percepción emocional: de un sistema imposible o difícil de aprender (Comisión Braille Española, 2015) a retratarlo como un código intrigante e interesante para aprender a través de competiciones y retos, reflexionando sobre su concienciación, uso y necesidad. En este sentido, los factores afectivos y motivacionales dentro del aprendizaje basado en el juego se centran en la inducción de emociones que pueden provocar el compromiso de aprendizaje de los/as estudiantes a través del diseño emocional y motivacional del juego (Plass y Kaplan, 2015) mediante experiencias agradables (Gee, 2003). Así, las interacciones durante el juego pueden promover la motivación mientras fomentan el procesamiento cognitivo, mejorando el aprendizaje de las nociones básicas del braille (Adipat et al., 2021). ...
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La enseñanza del braille es crucial para una sociedad inclusiva, pero su desconocimiento sigue siendo generalizado. Así, este estudio evaluó dos metodologías, el aprendizaje basado en el juego y en la repetición, a través de talleres divulgativos mediante un diseño pretest-postest a 89 estudiantes divididos en grupos experimental y de control, respectivamente, en los tres ciclos de Educación Primaria. El Cuestionario NBR-Braille diseñado fue utilizado para medir el conocimiento básico (variable 1) y la representación alfabética del braille (variable 2). A través de un diseño cuasiexperimental, se observó que ambas metodologías mejoraron el conocimiento básico del braille, pero el enfoque lúdico mostró una ventaja significativa en la representación alfabética del braille, particularmente en el tercer ciclo. Estos hallazgos subrayan la importancia de implementar metodologías educativas que no solo enseñen, sino que también motiven y sensibilicen a los estudiantes, promoviendo una mayor conciencia social sobre la importancia y conocimiento del braille. [Teaching Braille is crucial for fostering an inclusive society, yet it remains largely unknown to many. Thus, this study assessed two educational methodologies, game-based learning and repetition-based learning, through informative workshops. Using a pretest-posttest design, 89 students were divided into experimental and control groups, respectively, in the three cycles of Primary Education. The NBR-Braille Questionnaire was designed and employed to measure basic Braille knowledge (variable 1) and the alphabetic representation of Braille (variable 2). The quasi-experimental design used revealed that while both methodologies enhanced basic Braille knowledge, the game-based learning approach showed a significant advantage in improving alphabetic Braille representation, particularly in the third cycle. These findings highlight the importance of implementing educational methodologies that not only impart knowledge, but also motivate and sensitise students, thereby promoting greater social awareness of Braille and its significance.]
... On one hand, anthropomorphic representations can enhance learning. In the education literature, anthropomorphic representations are considered part of emotional design or features of lessons that influence students' emotions and, therefore, learning (Plass & Kaplan, 2016). Anthropomorphic representations in educational materials are more engaging to students (Stárková et al., 2019), which increases their motivation to learn the topic and, in turn, increases their learning. ...
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Having a robust understanding of viruses is critical for children to understand the COVID-19 pandemic and the protective measures recommended to promote their safety. However, viral transmission is not part of current educational standards in the United States, so children likely must learn about it through informal means, such as media and conversations with caregivers—contexts that often animate and anthropomorphize viruses. In this registered report, we developed an at-home educational intervention to teach children about viruses by creating a picture storybook about COVID-19. We tested children ages 5–8 on their understanding of viruses before and after reading the book at home with their caregivers. Critically, we manipulated which of three books children received: realistic (that detailed the microscopic processes involved in COVID-19 transmission), anthropomorphic (that depicted all the same information but using anthropomorphic language and images for COVID-19), or control (that only showed the visible aspects of illness). Bayesian analyses revealed that children learned about COVID-19 by reading the picture books with their parents at home and extended this knowledge to other viruses and that learning was substantially higher for those reading the realistic and anthropomorphic books than the control books. We also found that learning did not differ as a function of whether the book used anthropomorphic depictions or not although children reading the anthropomorphic book reported being less afraid of viruses. Altogether, these results demonstrate that carefully constructed picture books can help children learn about complex scientific topics at home.
... This is because the link between emotional processing and cognitive processing is dynamic, leading to PPA playing different roles in different situations. Emotions are changeable and intertwined with cognition and metacognition (e.g., the use of learning strategies) throughout the learning process (Plass & Kaplan, 2016). Therefore, when and how to intervene in emotions by PPA need to refer to the mechanism of transformation among emotion, cognition, and metacognition. ...
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The present study conducted two experiments to investigate the impact of pedagogical agent’s emotional expression on multimedia learning from multi-faceted perspectives. Experiment 1 explored the overall impact of the pedagogical agent’s emotional expression (positive vs. neutral) on learning from a macro perspective. The positive pedagogical agent (PPA) had a smiling face and an enthusiastic voice, while the neutral pedagogical agent (NPA) displayed a neutral facial expression and a neutral voice. Sixty undergraduate students were randomly assigned to one of two conditions. Results showed that compared to NPA, PPA increased enjoyment but also induced frustration. Furthermore, it had no significant impact on intrinsic motivation or learning performance. Building on the results of Experiment 1, Experiment 2 explored the dynamic impact of the pedagogical agent’s emotional expression (positive vs. neutral) on learning processes from a micro perspective. Results showed that the dynamic impact of the pedagogical agent’s emotional expression was emotional-specific: PPA had an obvious advantage over NPA only when learners were enjoyable. However, presenting a PPA when learners were surprised could hinder learning. When learners felt frustrated and confused, PPA and NPA had their own advantages and disadvantages. Learners could benefit from both types of pedagogical agents when their emotions were neutral but disengaged from learning when they were bored. Therefore, pedagogical agents should identify learners’ emotions in real time and exhibit positive emotions on appropriate occasions.
... (2020) indicated that there is a correlation between learning through VEs and the improvement of academic results. Therefore, the use of VEs can foster positive attitudes in students towards knowledge acquisition (Plass & Kaplan, 2016), as well as facilitate learning content about the human body. Also, Abdullah et al. (2022) observed significant improvement using VEs in science education because students can visualize abstract or complex phenomena carried out in the field. ...
Article
This study investigated the impact of virtual environments (VEs), such as Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR), on learning processes within Natural Sciences course of second-grade primary education. To address this objective, an experimental study was designed using a sample of 24 students aged 7 to 8 years from Spain. The subjects used VR and AR to teach about the human body. Knowledge gains were evaluated with pre-tests, post-tests, and delayed tests. Results showed significant improvements in student understanding of the human body. All students improved their results after the experience using VEs, and 14 students achieved post-test scores 80% higher than their pre-test results. The gains obtained through the experience were sustained over time, even after 52 days. While VEs were generally well-received and sparked interest among students in continuing their use, some expressed a preference for traditional learning methods. This research highlights the potential of using VR and AR to overcome challenges in learning abstract or inscrutable concepts in Natural Sciences, such as understanding the internal elements of the human body. By offering immersive experiences, these tools provide a more realistic and tangible view of the subject matter. However, they should be used to complement, not replace, other methodologies, ensuring they align with the student' interests and needs.
... This interconnectedness is an essential aspect of the complexity of human consciousness. An important quality of this interconnectedness is that emotional activity enables and sustains cognitive activity, including mechanisms that are central to learning, such as attention and memory (Plass and Kaplan, 2016). Based on our research, we propose that youth empowerment program be deployed using a multimedia learning platform. ...
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Facial recognition technology has made significant strides in recent years, becoming an increasingly important tool in various fields such as security, law enforcement, and retail. This technology utilizes biometric data, specifically facial features, to identify individuals. The article provides an overview of the diverse applications of facial recognition technology, delving into state-of-the-art methods including deep learning-based approaches. Various face databases utilized to evaluate these algorithms are discussed, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses. A significant study, the Face Recognition Vendor Test (FRVT) 2002, is reviewed, illustrating improvements in the technology and the need for further research to address issues such as bias and variability. The potential benefits of facial recognition technology in counterterrorism are discussed, emphasizing the importance of proper regulation to balance security and civil liberties. The article concludes that while facial recognition technology can significantly enhance state authority, it must be used responsibly to ensure it does not infringe upon civil rights. Keywords: Facial recognition, biometric data, deep learning, face databases, Face Recognition Vendor Test (FRVT), security, civil liberties
... This approach allows learners to develop their abilities effectively according to their individual potential (Preim & Meuschke, 2022). Thus, the use of media plays an important role in learning and can arouse learners to be more motivated so that it can affect learners' cognition to develop their interest and desire to learn (Plass & Kaplan, 2016). ...
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The problem based learning model is expected to be effective in enabling students to find solutions and solve their own problems, thereby increasing conceptual understanding of SPLDV material. The aim of this research is to find out how much influence the problem based learning model has on SPLDV material which can improve student learning outcomes at SMPN 6 Surabaya. This research uses the PBL method. The design of this research is a single case study, namely an experimental design by providing treatment to a small group and a large group. The results of data processing using the influence of the PBL learning model on the learning outcomes of conflict resources and social integration at SMPN 6 Surabaya. The result is the use of a problem-based learning model that involves sources of conflict which will improve student learning outcomes at SMPN 6 Surabaya. The use of the PBL learning model for learning outcomes related to SPLDV material at SMPN 6 Surabaya is classified as good, this can be seen from the average pre-cycle score carried out by individuals, namely 85.18, the average LKPD score is 1 learning outcome for small group students consisting of 2 participants. students is 85.90 and the average score for LKPD 2 student learning outcomes for a large group of 6 students is 99.09. In the collaborative classroom action research carried out it can be declared successful because there is an average increase in pre-cycle, cycle 1 and cycle 2 in learning outcomes.
... Game design can induce flow states and ease learners into a zone of proximal development by installing challenge states, like boss battles, and building player competence through proximal goal achievement [4,33,25]. However, theories regarding design around games and learning tend to focus on two-dimensional graphical user interfaces (GUIs) and interpretations rather than on three-dimensional experiences, a shortcoming of the Integrated Cognitive-Affective Model of Learning with Multimedia (ICALM) [22] and dual coding theory among others [20]. ...
Chapter
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Somatosensory experiences beyond the audio-visual, such as haptics, should be intentionally incorporated into pedagogical designs within serious games. Creating alternative controllers for serious games that externally represent domain-specific tools and concepts in their design can enhance learner competence within the field while fostering professional self-identification and belonging. Alternative game controllers that enable domain-specific embodied interactions can thus promote a learner’s intrinsic motivation and technical knowledge as they digitally engage with the field of study. Embodied game interactions (EGIs) are mapped interactions that engage the learner directly and physically throughout gameplay, bridging game mechanics with learning mechanics. Applying the technological underpinnings of tangible user interfaces to learning theories and serious game design can augment how learners interact with and understand the material at hand, providing opportunities for near knowledge transfer in real-life situations.
... The level of immersion, according to Makransky and Lilleholt (2018), can induce positive emotions, which can accordingly lead to a higher perception of the utility of the technology (Makransky and Lilleholt 2018). Although the cognitive appraisal of immersive technologies is important in the evaluation of user experience, the intrinsic values and enjoyment, as supported by previous literature in other contexts (Plass and Kaplan 2016;Ryan and Deci 2000), can also frame users' experience and impact adoption intention of users. ...
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Immersive technologies strive to enhance users’ digital experiences by enabling more interactive, engaging, and realistic virtual environments. Despite the growing popularity and advancements in immersive technologies, achieving widespread user acceptance remains a significant challenge. In addition, previous acceptance models may not fully capture the unique and emerging aspects of immersive experiences. Accordingly, understanding the underlying factors shaping user intentions towards immersive technologies is crucial for devising effective strategies to promote acceptance and foster adoption across diverse user populations and application domains. This research attempt to investigate what factors impact user’s intention to use immersive technology. We adopted the well-recognized TAM model as the theoretical ground of this study. To meet the requirements of immersive technologies, a new research model, called i-TAM (Immersive Technology Acceptance Model) is developed to examine the individuals’ acceptance of immersive technologies. The research model was tested by the data collected from 454 individuals who have interacted with an immersive platform. i-TAM suggests that perceived social presence, perceived emotional impact, perceived ease of use, and perceived learning impact behavioral intention to engage, which accordingly impacts immersive engagement. The study also examines the moderation impacts of experience on the relationships between each of perceived social presence, perceived emotional impact, perceived ease of use, and perceived learning and behavioral intention to engage. The collected data was then analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), in which both the quality of the data and the significance of paths were examined. The results support the main hypotheses of the research model and the moderation effects of experience on the relationships between perceived ease of use and perceived learning and behavioral intention to engage. i-TAM provides a useful tool and base model for researchers in conducting research in immersive technologies and helps managers and information technology developers to better understand the drivers of acceptance of an immersive technology by individuals.
... On one hand, anthropomorphic representations can enhance learning. In the education literature, anthropomorphic representations are considered part of emotional design, or features of lessons that influence students' emotions and therefore learning (Plass & Kaplan, 2016). ...
Preprint
Having a robust understanding of viruses is critical for children to understand the COVID-19 pandemic and the protective measures recommended to promote their safety. However, viral transmission is not part of current educational standards in the United States, so children likely must learn about it through informal means, such as media and conversations with caregivers--contexts that often animate and anthropomorphize viruses. In this registered report, we developed an at-home educational intervention to teach children about viruses by creating a picture storybook about COVID-19. We tested children ages 5-8 on their understanding of viruses before and after reading the book at home with their caregivers. Critically, we manipulated which of three books children received: realistic (that detailed the microscopic processes involved in COVID-19 transmission), anthropomorphic (that depicted all the same information but using anthropomorphic language and images for COVID-19), or control (that only showed the visible aspects of illness). Bayesian analyses revealed that children learned about COVID by reading the picture books with their parents at home and extended this knowledge to other viruses, and that learning was substantially higher for those reading the realistic and anthropomorphic books than the control books. We also found that learning did not differ as a function of whether the book used anthropomorphic depictions or not, although children reading the anthropomorphic book reported being less afraid of viruses. Altogether, these results demonstrate that carefully constructed picture books can help children learn about complex scientific topics at home.
... In recent times, the field has expanded to encompass the impact of emotions on academic learning, particularly in relation to computer-based technologies (D'Mello & Graesser, 2012;Loderer et al., 2020). While the interplay between cognitive processing and affective processing during academic learning has been investigated by numerous studies in the educational field (McGaugh, 2018;Pekrun, 2016Pekrun, , 2017Pekrun & Perry, 2014), there has been relatively limited research specifically examining the role of emotion in multimedia learning environments (Plass & Kaplan, 2016). Additionally, although several previous studies have explored the effect of on-screen human and animated instructors' emotional tones in multimedia lessons (Horovitz & Mayer, 2021;Lawson et al., 2021aLawson et al., , 2021cLawson & Mayer, 2021;Mayer, 2021;Schroeder & Adesope, 2014), our understanding of the influence of emotional tones conveyed by computer-generated voices in multimedia lessons, specifically in scenarios where no visual presence of an instructor is involved, remains relatively limited (Craig et al., 2004;D'Mello, 2017;Graesser et al., 2007). ...
Article
The goal of this study was to determine whether learning processes and outcomes are affected by the emotional tone of the computer-generated voice in a narrated slideshow. In a between-subjects design, participants viewed a narrated slideshow on lightning formation involving a computer-generated female (Experiment 1) or male voice (Experiment 2) that displayed happy, content, angry, or sad emotion. On subsequent surveys and post-tests, students could recognize positive or negative emotions conveyed by the female voice but not the male voice. The emotional tone of the instructor’s voices had minimal impact on students’ ratings of felt emotion during learning, ratings of social connection with the instructor, or scores on retention and transfer tests of learning outcome. The findings highlight the limitations of computer-generated voices to convey emotions that trigger affective, social, and cognitive processes when an onscreen instructor is absent, thereby suggesting a boundary condition for the cognitive-affective model of e-learning.
... Higher levels of arousal and positive affective states are related to the willingness to seek new elements and explore novel assets in a virtual environment, including a web-based desktop platform [32], enhancing the immersive experience [165], boosting consumers' creativity [166] and their sense of presence [167,168], and promoting purchase intention [169]. The lower emotional involvement in SL may be related to the cognitively demanding features of the environment, confirming the interconnection between cognitive and affective states [170][171][172]. Indeed, recent evidence suggests that more cognitively demanding tasks can inhibit the cortical and subcortical brain structures involved in emotional responses [173], indicating that higher levels of cognitive effort may negatively affect emotional states [174]. ...
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The growing interest in consumer behavior in the digital environment is leading scholars and companies to focus on consumer behavior and choices on digital platforms, such as the metaverse. On this immersive digital shopping platform, consumer neuroscience provides an optimal opportunity to explore consumers’ emotions and cognitions. In this study, neuroscience techniques (EEG, SC, BVP) were used to compare emotional and cognitive aspects of shopping between metaverse and traditional e-commerce platforms. Participants were asked to purchase the same product once on a metaverse platform (Second Life, SL) and once via an e-commerce website (EC). After each task, questionnaires were administered to measure perceived enjoyment, informativeness, ease of use, cognitive effort, and flow. Statistical analyses were conducted to examine differences between SL and EC at the neurophysiological and self-report levels, as well as between different stages of the purchase process. The results show that SL elicits greater cognitive engagement than EC, but it is also more mentally demanding, with a higher workload and more memorization, and fails to elicit a strong positive emotional response, leading to a poorer shopping experience. These findings provide insights not only for digital-related consumer research but also for companies to improve their metaverse shopping experience. Before investing in the platform or creating a digital retail space, companies should thoroughly analyze it, focusing on how to enhance users’ cognition and emotions, ultimately promoting a better consumer experience. Despite its limitations, this pilot study sheds light on the emotional and cognitive aspects of metaverse shopping and suggests potential for further research with a consumer neuroscience approach in the metaverse field.
... Research on multimedia design principles has been primarily based on CTML (Mayer, 2001(Mayer, , 2021, focusing on cognitive aspects and aimed at minimizing extraneous processing and managing essential processing according to Cognitive Load Theory (CLT, Sweller, 1988Sweller, , 2020. However, few models have been introduced that extend CTML by including affective and motivational factors, such as the Cognitive-Affective Theory of Learning with Media (CATLM, Moreno, 2006) and the Integrated Cognitive Affective Model of Learning with Multimedia (ICALM, Plass & Kaplan, 2015). Schneider and colleagues (2021) additionally consider social responses (Cognitive-Affective-Social Theory of Learning in digital Environments, CASTLE). ...
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In formal educational settings, such as online university lectures, instructional videos often consist of PowerPoint slides accompanied by a video or audio explanation from the instructor. It has been assumed that the social cues provided by the instructor’s video may facilitate affective processes and affect learning outcomes. Research on instructor presence in instructional videos has focused primarily on laboratory and online studies that are not embedded in the courses in which learners are enrolled. Therefore, we present three field studies examining instructor presence in instructional videos embedded in higher education courses to strengthen external validity (exam-relevant topic, > 30 min long, personally known instructor). The results of these studies show positive effects of a visible instructor compared to no visible instructor on some affective measures: social presence in Study 1 ( n = 18, d = .85) and well-being in Study 3 ( n = 38, d = 1.01), but not on others (well-being in Studies 1 & 2 ( n = 53); motivation in Studies 1–3, social presence in Studies 2 & 3). They also show no effects on extraneous processing or learning outcomes (Studies 1–3). Thus, no general effect of instructor presence can be shown for instructional videos embedded in university courses in higher education, but there are also no detrimental effects. This leads to implications for future research, teaching, and design practice.
... For example, the Cognitive-Affective Theory of Learning with Media posits that motivational factors influence learning by regulating the levels of cognitive engagement, either by enhancing or diminishing it (Moreno & Mayer, 2007). Moreover, the Integrated Cognitive-Affective Model of Learning with Multimedia maintains that the cognitive processes of selecting, organising, and integrating information are intertwined with emotional processes (Plass & Kaplan, 2016). While much attention continues to focus on the effect of interactive questions on cognitive learning outcomes (e.g. ...
Article
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Empirical evidence has consistently shown that interactive questions are an effective strategy for strengthening student learning through instructional videos. However, research has not directly addressed the crucial question of whether the beneficial effects of interactive questions in instructional videos are attributable to the presence of questions, or whether they result from a combination of question presence and computer-paced interactivity. This question is important for understanding the mechanisms by which interactive questions work and holds practical significance for instructors’ selection of suitable video formats for student learning. To fill this research gap, this study conducted a quasi-experiment with pre-test post-test design to determine the effects of question presence and interactivity on university students’ cognitive load, emotional engagement, video view counts, and cognitive learning outcomes. Three discrete classes were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions: videos with questions (Experimental Group 1, n = 39), videos with interactive questions (Experimental Group 2, n = 35), and videos without questions (Control Group, n = 35). Age, gender, motivation, and actual and perceived prior knowledge were controlled in the experiment. The findings revealed that (a) question presence in traditional linear videos conferred beneficial effects on germane cognitive load, emotional engagement, knowledge acquisition, and knowledge application; (b) question interactivity did not offer additional advantages in reinforcing knowledge acquisition or application compared with question presence alone; and (c) question presence or interactivity exerted no significant effect on video view counts. This study has practical implications for instructors seeking to develop effective instructional videos.
... Some consider positive reactions to have a less direct but mediating effect toward learning (Makransky & Petersen, 2019;Pekrun, 2006). As such, positive emotions can influence achievements and facilitate learning through increased focus on the task (Pekrun, 2006;Pekrun, Muis, Frenzel, & Goetz, 2017;Plass & Kaplan, 2016). Others have also reported no correlations between reaction and learning (Alliger & Janak, 1989), or observed positive reactions without improved learning (Makransky, Andreasen, Baceviciute, & Mayer, 2021;Stefan et al., 2023a). ...
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Introduction: The widespread use and inherent risks associated with low-voltage electrical equipment require all workers to understand its hazards and how to manage them. Despite being the most commonly used method for raising safety awareness, lecture-based training often proves ineffective. Virtual reality (VR) allows the user to be immersed in a virtual environment and actively participate in practical training while maintaining their safety, which can potentially result in engaging and effective training. This paper investigates the effectiveness of using immersive VR for low-voltage (LV) electrical safety training to understand the potential benefits of VR technology for industrial safety training applications. Method: A within-group experimental design was employed with 18 participants undertaking the LV VR training. The effectiveness of the training was evaluated by measuring participants’ reactions, learning, and training duration. Participants’ learning was measured before, immediately after, and four weeks after the training, whereas reaction and suitability of training duration were measured after the training. Results: Participants reported highly positive reactions to the LV VR training, particularly regarding their level of engagement, intention to use the system in the future, and enjoyment. Knowledge test scores significantly improved immediately after training with high effect sizes. Although scores decreased significantly four weeks after training, they remained significantly higher compared to before training. The training duration, ranging from 29 to 44 minutes was considered suitable for the training. Conclusions: LV VR training effectively elicited positive reactions from trainees and supporting trainees to acquire and retain safety information while maintaining appropriate training duration. Practical Implications: VR emerges as a viable alternative training method worth exploring for organizations seeking to improve their safety training programs. VR combines educational and entertainment values, facilitating enjoyable learning experiences.
... The fact that emotions are a feature that should not be separated from cognitive processes also makes them important in terms of learning processes. Plass and Kaplan (2016) emphasize that certain features in learning and multimedia design may affect some combinations of cognition and emotion, which in turn, may determine the quality of the learner's interaction with the learning material. ...
Article
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This study provides a current systematic review of emotional design research in the multimedia learning domain and explores how emotional design is studied in multimedia learning. All studies on emotional design in multimedia learning published until 2023 were examined thoroughly. In this study, 51 journal articles were identified based on PRISMA guidelines and reviewed regarding emotional state parameters, emotional design techniques, emotional and other measurements, learning materials, research methodologies, and learning outcomes. The analysis provided several salient findings. Firstly, there has been growing interest in emotional design. Secondly, the impact of emotional design on learning outcomes, emotional states, motivation, and cognitive load was explored. Thirdly, most studies preferred subjective measurements or indirect objective measurements. Fourthly, there was a tendency to examine the effects of shape and color elements in the emotional design techniques. Lastly, the studies reported contradictory results on learning outcomes but agreed that emotional design had a positive impact on motivation and emotional state. This review highlights research gaps and provides recommendations for future studies in the field of emotional design in multimedia learning.
... Relevant design principles are mainly based on the Cognitive Load Theory (CLT; Sweller et al., 1998) and the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML; Mayer, 2022). These theories were extended to affective factors, such as the Cognitive-Affective Theory of Learning with Media (CATLM; Moreno & Mayer, 2007;Schrader et al., 2022), the Cognitive-Affective-Social Theory of Learning in Digital Environments (CASTLE; Schneider et al., 2021) and the Integrated Cognitive Affective Model of Learning with Multimedia (ICALM; Plass & Kaplan, 2016). These more recent theories instigate us to rethink the applicability of well-studied design principles in contexts where emotions are especially relevant, such as health information, where contents are not always neutral but can also be emotionally aversive. ...
Article
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Background According to the personalization effect in multimedia learning, the use of personal and possessive pronouns in instructional materials (e.g., ‘you’ and ‘your’) is beneficial. However, current research suggests that the personalization effect is inverted for emotionally aversive content (e.g., illnesses). Objective This study investigates whether a beneficial personalization effect can be observed for emotionally neutral health‐related content whereas the effect may be reversed for emotionally aversive health‐related content. Methods In this study, 139 university students learned both emotionally aversive learning content on type 1 diabetes (within‐factor) that was presented in either personalized or non‐personalized language (between‐factor). The presentation order of the content (neutral first vs. aversive first) was controlled (between‐factor), resulting in a 2 × 2 × 2 mixed design. The dependent variables measured include learning outcomes (regarding retention and transfer), state anxiety, extraneous cognitive load, motivation and learning time. Results and Conclusions In the transfer test, learners generally performed better when learning with non‐personalized instructional materials than with personalized instructional materials, regardless of whether the content was emotionally neutral or aversive. The results raise questions regarding the robustness of the personalization effect and the underlying mechanisms of the inverted personalization effect. An alternative explanation to be investigated is whether the direct reference to a disease that the participants do not have (here: ‘your type 1 diabetes’) leads to schema interference, which could be responsible for poorer learning performance—even if the learning content about the disease can be considered emotionally neutral.
... Recent research has challenged this assumption. The integrated cognitive-affective model of learning with multimedia (ICALM) posits the role of emotions in cognition and performance-it argues that emotions cannot be decoupled from cognition [57] but none of our models reflect this. According to studies from neuroscience, affect and cognition rely on similar brain systems [38]. ...
Article
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Background Online videos featuring human‐generated drawing are increasingly popular in education. However, their effectiveness may vary depending on learners' prior knowledge, and further research is needed to confirm their advantages over other common instructional videos. Objectives The primary goal of this study is to investigate the impact of instructional video formats on learners' outcomes and experiences, and to further explore the interaction between video formats and prior knowledge. Methods In a 2 × 3 between‐subjects design, 144 college students were divided into two groups based on their (high vs. low) prior knowledge levels and then randomly assigned to different video format conditions. Students listened to oral explanations from the instructor while viewing either dynamic instructor hand‐drawn diagrams (instructor‐generated visuals), dynamic PowerPoint diagrams (PPT visuals), or static diagrams identical to the PPT visuals (static visuals). Finally, we measured learners' outcomes (i.e., retention and transfer scores) and experiences (i.e., emotion and cognitive load). Results Viewing dynamic visuals have a significant facilitating effect on learning compared to static visuals. Moreover, the expertise reversal effect was confirmed. Specifically, for learners with low prior knowledge, the retention test scores and learning experiences of students viewing instructor‐generated dynamic visuals outperformed those viewing dynamic PPT visuals and static visuals. For learners with high levels of prior knowledge, no significant differences are observed between the groups. Finally, we found that students' emotional experiences significantly mediated the relationship between instructor‐generated visuals and learning outcomes. Conclusions These results indicate that the choice of instructional videos should align with learners' prior knowledge and emphasises the importance of learning experiences.
Article
This study explores the integration of real-time adaptive learning environments with gaze tracking and emotion recognition technologies to enhance student engagement and learning outcomes. By leveraging artificial intelligence (Al) and machine learning, the research aims to develop a framework that dynamically adjusts instructional strategies based on students' cognitive and emotional states. The focus is on three objectives: integrating these technologies, evaluating their impact, and assessing the effectiveness of automated communication strategies—Affective Backchannels (AB), Conversational Strategies (CS), and their combination (AB+CS). Using a mixed-methods approach, data from approximately 30 university students in digital learning environments will be analyzed. The findings are expected to provide valuable insights into the application of these technologies in education, potentially informing future educational policies and practices.
Conference Paper
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This study explores the integration of real-time adaptive learning environments with gaze tracking and emotion recognition technologies to enhance student engagement and learning outcomes. By leveraging artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning, the research aims to develop a framework that dynamically adjusts instructional strategies based on students' cognitive and emotional states. The focus is on three objectives: integrating these technologies, evaluating their impact, and assessing the effectiveness of automated communication strategies-Affective Backchannels (AB), Conversational Strategies (CS), and their combination (AB+CS). Using a mixed-methods approach, data from approximately 30 university students in digital learning environments will be analyzed. The findings are expected to provide valuable insights into the application of these technologies in education, potentially informing future educational policies and practices.
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This article critically examines the paradigm shift from the attention economy to the intimacy economy—a market system where personal and emotional data are exchanged for customized experiences that cater to individual emotional and psychological needs. It explores how AI transforms these personal and emotional inputs into services, thereby raising essential questions about the authenticity of digital interactions and the potential commodification of intimate experiences. The study delineates the roles of human–computer interaction and AI in deepening personal connections, significantly impacting emotional dynamics, and underscores AI’s role in various applications, from healthcare to grief tech, highlighting both enhancements in emotional connections and potential disruptions to genuine human interactions. An AI-mediated framework (AMIE) is introduced to assess how AI reshapes these connections and the overall digital society through personalized interactions. This framework explores the interplay between human emotions and AI-generated responses within the new Avatar Sphere, emphasizing the necessity for regulatory measures to safeguard digital identities, recognize emotional data as intellectual property, and maintain system transparency. It highlights the critical need for maintaining genuine human interactions and advocates for context-aware consent, continuous monitoring, and cross-cultural considerations to foster ethical AI practices. Leveraging blockchain technology and decentralized autonomous organizations, the framework proposes methods to enhance individual control over emotional data, mitigating the commodification risks. The findings contribute to ongoing discussions on AI ethics, digital privacy, and the future of human-AI interactions, providing valuable insights for cultivating a responsible intimacy economy.
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This study proposes that the gestures of an agent tutor in a multimedia learning environment can generate positive and negative emotions in learners and influence their cognitive processes. To achieve this, we developed and integrated positive and negative agent tutor gestures in a multimedia learning environment directed by cognitive gestures. The effects of emotion type on cognition were examined in terms of cognitive load, learning motivation, and achievement. The subjects were 46 university students in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. The students were divided into three learner groups: cognition, cognition + negative emotion, and cognition + positive emotion. The learners watched a tutorial lecture on the Notion note-taking app by an agent tutor. Data analysis was conducted using one-way ANOVA to determine the cognitive load, learning motivation, and achievement. The results showed that the positive emotion design was more effective in terms of intrinsic cognitive load, learning motivation, and achievement but had a higher extrinsic cognitive load. However, even the negative + passive group showed more positive learning than the cognition group. Although this study focused on gestures by an agent tutor, it implies that such gestures in multimedia learning contexts must be informed by emotional as well as cognitive design to provide a more meaningful learning experience.
Thesis
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Trotz ihres großen motivationalen Potenzials werden (digitale) spielbasierte Lernanwendungen (DGBL) selten nachhaltig in die Hochschullehre integriert. Gründe dafür sind mitunter in dem aufwändigen und ressourcenintensiven Entwicklungsprozess zu identifizieren. Ziel dieser Dissertationsstudie ist es daher, herauszufinden, welche Faktoren bereits im Entwicklungsprozess einen Mehrwert für die Entstehung von Lernmotivation liefern können. Zu diesem Zweck wurde eine empirische Fragebogenstudie (N = 112) im Rahmen eines DGBL-Prototypentests für Studierende der Berufs- und Wirtschaftspädagogik durchgeführt. Folgende Bedingungsfaktoren wurden festgelegt: Anwendbarkeit, Emotionales Erleben, Spielerisches Erleben und Wahrgenommene Nutzer:innenzentrierung. Für die Lernmotivation als Kriterium wurden zwei Facetten ausgewählt: Intrinsische Lernmotivation (Deci & Ryan 1985) und Instruktionsinduzierte Lernmotivation (Keller 1987). Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass im Kriterium der Intrinsischen Lernmotivation die Anwendbarkeit und das Spielerische Erleben einen signifikanten Mehrwert für die Erklärung der Lernmotivation aufzeigen. Im Kriterium der Instruktionsinduzierten Lernmotivation lässt sich bei allen Bedingungsfaktoren ein signifikanter Mehrwert feststellen. Die Ergebnisse können dabei helfen, die Parameter zu identifizieren, die bereits im Entwicklungsprozess berücksichtigt werden müssen, um eine motivierende DGBL-Anwendung zu gestalten. Ferner verdeutlichen sie die Relevanz einer nutzer:innenzentrierten Entwicklung für motivationale Wirkungen sowie die Notwendigkeit einer ganzheitlichen, interdisziplinären Ausrichtung der Thematik.
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El enfoque educativo basado en el aprendizaje a través del juego ha experimentado un crecimiento notable en términos de reconocimiento y aceptación en los últimos años. Este artículo se sumerge en la exploración de cómo el juego puede desempeñar un papel fundamental como facilitador del aprendizaje, ofreciendo una perspectiva detallada sobre sus beneficios y consideraciones esenciales. Desde una mirada histórica, se examinan los elementos clave del aprendizaje lúdico en las civilizaciones griega y romana, junto con la adaptación de juegos específicos para abordar las necesidades particulares de los estudiantes.
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Purpose The Hong Kong Palace Museum (HKPM) showcases China’s rich heritage with multimedia technologies. This research examines the effectiveness of the museum’s exhibition, visitors’ perceptions of multimedia technologies, and the educational role of multimedia technologies in Chinese art and culture. Design/methodology/approach This research fills the gap with a survey to investigate sociodemographic factors and user perceptions guided by the 5E Instructional Model. Findings Results indicated that the younger generation is enthusiastic about utilizing multimedia technologies as educational tools when visiting the HKPM museum. Incorporating such technologies in museums can also benefit visitors, enhancing their understanding and appreciation of Chinese art and culture. Originality/value Results support recommendations for improving the use of multimedia technologies in museums for educational programs and visitor experiences in Chinese art and culture appreciation. Few studies have investigated the effectiveness of recent multimedia technologies for museum education, especially in East Asia.
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In line with the Saudi Arabia Vision Re- alization Program 2030, improving the quality of life of citizens through increased recreational opportunities and optimized educational time has become a top pri-ority. Consequently, a wealth of self-report tools has been developed to evaluate quality of life. Our study contributes to resolving the students’ self-report bias issue by introducing emotion detection as an additional factor to self-report in the measurement of educational satisfaction. The study first provides a brief introduction to automatic emotion detection systems and then presents its contribution to the integration of self-report and emotion detection. The proposed method for detecting emotions utilizes a machine learning-based bi- modal approach that involves facial expression and body gestures, utilizing an Ensemble Machine Learning (EM) model that incorporates a Support Vector Machines Classifier (SVM), Random Forest Classifier (RF), and Logistic Regression Classifier (LR). The emotions detector achieved an accuracy of 97% on the Emotions in Context Dataset (EMOTIC). This study highlights the vital significance of emotional experience measurement in educational sessions as well as the potential pitfalls of self-reporting. Therefore, it can be utilized as a performance metric for educational programs within the Saudi Quality of Life program.
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Designing an online course is a complex and resource-intensive activity with a focus on pedagogical and technological aspects. One approach is the e-learning experience design (EXD) model, which combines user-experience design concepts, such as agile methodology and design thinking. This study aimed to design a website and activities for an undergraduate human–computer interaction (HCI) online course based on the EXD model and analyze the students’ learning experiences. The students’ experiences were captured from two online surveys opened during the first weeks (n = 94 students) and at the end of the semester (n = 93). The surveys utilized the e-Learning Usability Questionnaire (EUS) and asked for suggestions to improve the course delivery. In addition, the students rated their experience in pain points when participating in the course. The findings show that adopting the EXD model for an online course design and implementing some design best practices can promote students’ positive attitudes toward the course. The contributions of this study include an example of how an online course can be designed using the EXD model and a description of its effects on student attitudes.
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This study aimed to evaluate the utilization of Language Strategies in teaching Grade 10 Mathematics at Narvacan National Central High School during the 4th quarter of the SY 2022-2023. Specifically, it focused on the profile of the students, their level of performance in language strategies, and their mathematics performance. It further determined the relationship between the students’ profile and the level of performance in language strategies, the students’ profile and their level of participation, the students’ performance in language strategies and their mathematics performance, and the problem encountered by the teachers in teaching mathematics using language strategies. This study used a quantitative research approach employing the correlational research design. The research design is a combined description, evaluative and correlational design. This study made use of a questionnaire consisting of two parts, the performance of the students when using language strategies and the 4th quarter grades of the learners in Mathematics. Hence, it is recommended students will participate in every activity or discussion related to the different language strategies. The performance of the students may be improved by sustaining the utilization of Language Strategies in Teaching Mathematics. Teachers and school heads are encouraged to innovate programs or activities that address issues related to low comprehension and low retention of students.
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This chapter presents an overview of theoretical and research-based design considerations for the study and design of the motivational functions of digital badges with a particular focus on learning game environments. We combine our discussion of relevant theories with a review of the empirical research we conducted on this topic. To guide future research, we present the Educational Badge Typology (EBT) and Badging Player Profile (BPP) we developed. These frameworks are tools for designers seeking to implement digital badges within learning contexts that allow them to consider the role and function of badges within the game environment.
Conference Paper
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How does the design of digital badges in a middle school geometry game impact motivational and cognitive learning outcomes? Based on achievement goal theory, learners were first primed for either mastery or achievement, and then received either mastery badges, achievement badges, or no badges while playing the game. Dependent measures included situational interest and learning outcomes. Result show that learning outcomes in the performance badges condition was significantly better than in the Mastery Badges condition. However, learners with higher situational interest performed better with Mastery badges. Findings suggest the importance of learner characteristics such as situational interest for the effectiveness of motivational features such as badges for games for learning.
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Paper submitted for presentation at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (AERA), New Orleans, LA (April, 2011). Results are presented from an experimental investigation of the effect of mode of play on motivational and educational outcomes. A computer-based arithmetic game was adapted to allow for solo, competitive, or collaborative game play. Participants (n = 54) from seven urban middle schools were randomly assigned to each experimental condition. Results suggest that solo play was found to be less situationally interesting than competitive or collaborative play. Participants in the competitive condition were found to endorse a stronger mastery goal orientation and a stronger performance-approach goal orientation, and perform better overall, than those in the solo condition. In contrast, those in the solo play condition scored higher on post-test measures of math fluency. Introduction The past decade has seen great interest in the educational potential of computer-based games and simulations. Computer-based games are highly engaging and motivating for players, and educators have suggested taking advantage of this engagement and motivation to support learning (Gee, 2007; Prensky, 2001; Squire, 2003). Furthermore, a number of influential books and articles have argued that well-designed games embody educational theory and are inline with some of the "best practices" of education (e.g., Collins & Halverson, 2009; Gee, 2003; Mayo, 2007; Plass, Homer & Hayward, 2009). Current efforts in research games are examining the effects of different design patterns on students' learning experiences and outcomes (Plass et al., 2009). The current study examined the effects of manipulating the social context of playing an educational game. Middle-school students were randomly assigned to play a math game, Factor Reactor, either on their own (solo), against another student (competitive), or with another student (collaborative). Learning outcomes, situational interest, and game-specific achievement goal orientation were dependent variables. Method Participants and Design. Participants were 54 students from seven urban schools in a major Northeastern city. There were 35 female participants (65%). Each participant was randomly assigned to one of three modes of play: solo, competitive, and collaborative. In the solo condition, participants played the game independently, whereas in the competitive and collaborative conditions they played the game in pairs.
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In this chapter, we discuss research on learning from simulations and microworlds. After providing working defi nitions and examples for these environments, we review research on their effectiveness and, where available, on specifi c questions of their information design, interaction design, and instructional guidance design. On the basis of the research fi ndings, we pro-pose extensions to current theories of multimedia learning to involve social and affective processes and outcomes, describe implications for instructional design, discuss limitations of the existing research, and outline areas for future research.
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First, we propose a theory of multimedia learning based on the assumptions that humans possess separate systems for processing pictorial and verbal material (dual-channel assumption), each channel is limited in the amount of material that can be processed at one time (limited-capacity assumption), and meaningful learning involves cognitive processing including building con- nections between pictorial and verbal representations (active-processing assumption). Second, based on the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, we examine the concept of cognitive over- load in which the learner's intended cognitive processing exceeds the learner's available cogni- tive capacity. Third, we examine five overload scenarios. For each overload scenario, we offer one or two theory-based suggestions for reducing cognitive load, and we summarize our re- search results aimed at testing the effectiveness of each suggestion. Overall, our analysis shows that cognitive load is a central consideration in the design of multimedia instruction.
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New research on affective computing aiming to develop computer systems that recognize and respond to affective states can also contribute to the issues raised by Coan. Research on how humans interact with computers, and computer models that automatically recognize affective states from features in our physiology, behaviour, and language, may provide insights on how emotions that are experienced and expressed come to be. For example, there is empirical evidence that affect recognition techniques using several modalities are more accurate than those using a single modality, but it is not clear if these improvements are caused by superadditivity (i.e., emergence) or redundancy.
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Examined whether physically attractive stimulus persons, both male and female, are (a) assumed to possess more socially desirable personality traits than physically unattractive stimulus persons, and (b) expected to lead better lives (e.g., be more competent husbands and wives and more successful occupationally) than unattractive stimulus persons. Sex of Subject * Sex of Stimulus Person interactions along these dimensions also were investigated. Results with 30 male and 30 female undergraduates indicate a "what is beautiful is good" stereotype along the physical attractiveness dimension with no Sex of Judge * Sex of Stimulus interaction. Implications of such a stereotype on self-concept development and the course of social interaction are discussed.
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Research on the relation between social information processing and social adjustment in childhood is reviewed and interpreted within the framework of a reformulated model of human performance and social exchange. This reformulation proves to assimilate almost all previous studies and is a useful heuristic device for organizing the field. The review suggests that overwhelming evidence supports the empirical relation between characteristic processing styles and children's social adjustment, with some aspects of processing (e.g., hostile attributional biases, intention cue detection accuracy, response access patterns, and evaluation of response outcomes) likely to be causal of behaviors that lead to social status and other aspects (e.g., perceived self-competence) likely to be responsive to peer status. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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A theoretical model linking achievement goals to discrete achievement emotions is proposed. The model posits relations between the goals of the trichotomous achievement goal framework and 8 commonly experienced achievement emotions organized in a 2 (activity/outcome focus) × 2 (positive/negative valence) taxonomy. Two prospective studies tested the model in German and American college classrooms. The results were largely in line with the hypotheses. Mastery goals were positive predictors of enjoyment of learning, hope, and pride and were negative predictors of boredom and anger. Performance-approach goals were positive predictors of pride, whereas performance-avoidance goals were positive predictors of anxiety, hopelessness, and shame. The results were consistent across studies and robust when controlled for gender, GPA, social desirability, temperament, and competence expectancy. The research is discussed with regard to the underdeveloped literature on achievement emotions and with regard to the motivation and emotion research domains more broadly. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Attempted to tackle a hurdle that continues to plague the research on interest: the lack of an adequate theoretical model. In particular, the tenability of a hypothetical construct of interest as it applies to the secondary mathematics classroom was proposed and empirically assessed. Building on previous theoretical work, the study used qualitative and quantitative methodologies to first develop a model and then assess its construct validity. The results indicate that it is useful to distinguish between personal and situational interest. Furthermore, the results indicate that the structure of situational interest is multifaceted, clarifying 5 subfacets of situational interest in the high school mathematics classroom. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Book
I: Background.- 1. An Introduction.- 2. Conceptualizations of Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination.- II: Self-Determination Theory.- 3. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Perceived Causality and Perceived Competence.- 4. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Interpersonal Communication and Intrapersonal Regulation.- 5. Toward an Organismic Integration Theory: Motivation and Development.- 6. Causality Orientations Theory: Personality Influences on Motivation.- III: Alternative Approaches.- 7. Operant and Attributional Theories.- 8. Information-Processing Theories.- IV: Applications and Implications.- 9. Education.- 10. Psychotherapy.- 11. Work.- 12. Sports.- References.- Author Index.
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It is argued that interest is central in determining how we select and persist in processing certain types of information in preference to others. Evidence that shows that both individual and text-based interest have a profound facilitative effect on cognitive functioning and learning is reviewed. Factors that contribute to text-based interest are discussed, and it is suggested that interest elicits spontaneous, rather than conscious, selective allocation of attention. It is further proposed that the psychological and physiological processes associated with interesting information have unique aspects not present in processing information without such interest. Current advances in neuro-cognitive research show promise that we will gain further knowledge of the impact of interest on cognitive functioning and that we will finally be in a position to integrate the physiological and psychological aspects of interest.
Book
Cognitive load theory (CLT) is one of the most important theories in educational psychology, a highly effective guide for the design of multimedia and other learning materials. This edited volume brings together the most prolific researchers from around the world who study various aspects of cognitive load to discuss its current theoretical as well as practical issues. The book is divided into three parts. The first part describes the theoretical foundations and assumptions of CLT, the second discusses the empirical findings about the application of CLT to the design of learning environments, and the third part concludes the book with discussions and suggestions for new directions for future research. It aims to become the standard handbook in CLT for researchers and graduate students in psychology, education, and educational technology.
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The significant role of emotions in evolution and adaptation suggests that there must be more than 1 mechanism for generating them. Nevertheless, much of current emotion theory focuses on cognitive processes (appraisal, attribution, and construal) as the sole, or primary, means of eliciting emotions. As an alternative to this position, the present model describes 4 types of emotion-activating systems, 3 of which involve noncognitive information processing. From an evolutionary-developmental perspective, the systems may be viewed as a loosely organized hierarchical arrangement, with neural systems, the simplest and most rapid, at the base and cognitive systems, the most complex and versatile, at the top. The emotion-activating systems operate under a number of constraints, including genetically influenced individual differences. The hierarchical organization of the systems for generating emotions provides an adaptive advantage.
Chapter
There is a good deal of debate about what develops in emotional development. Theorists have examined the acquisition of new and more complex emotions, changes in the cognitive concomitants of emotions, and the consolidation of regulatory strategies, social skills, and personality traits. Yet most theorists agree that what develops is a set of new acquisitions added to (or supplanting) a repertoire of existing ones.
Chapter
This chapter is divided into two parts. The first describes the effect of Pat Rabbitt's influence in encouraging the first author to use the increasingly sophisticated methods of ageing research to answer questions about the fundamental characteristics of working memory, together with reflections on why so little of this work reached publication. The second part presents a brief review of the literature on working memory and ageing, followed by an account of more recent work attempting to apply the traditional method of experimental dissociation to research on normal ageing and Alzheimer's disease. The discussion suggests that even such simple methods can throw light on both the processes of ageing and the understanding of working memory.
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This chapter describes feeling and meaning as two aspects of the same material processes in a dynamical system that is always larger than an individual human organism. Both semiosis and emotion occur across multiple timescales and levels of organization in complex open dynamical systems and are spatially distributed, situated, context dependent, active, and culture specific. Consideration is given to feeling and meaning along paths of lived experience, to their evaluative functions, their likely coeval biological origins, and how a unitary account of them informs new perspectives on each.
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Multiple moral emotions were examined from a dynamic motivational framework through two hypothetical dilemmas that originate from the cognitive-developmental research program in morality. A questionnaire based on recognition task measurement of moral motivation and emotions was administered to 546 college students. As part of the dynamic complexity of moral motivation, intrapersonal operation of multiple emotions were expected and found toward each emotion target in each judgment context. Compassion and distress were among the most important moral emotions. Relatively strong degrees of anger and hate were reported toward the victimizers in ways that distinguished judgment choices. Participants distinguished a variety of positive emotions from anger and hate through differential associations with judgment choices. The study revealed orderly patterns of variability in the multiplicity of moral emotional experience based on relations with specific emotion targets, judgment choices, and developmental quality of moral motivation. The overall developmental quality of moral motivation was negatively associated with hate and positively associated with anger toward the victimizers. Emotional awareness was also found to be positively related to the developmental quality of moral motivation. Exploring the intrapersonal multiplicity of moral emotional experience has important implications for understanding the complexity of moral decision making and motivation.
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In this study, we present a qualitative approach to changes in daily well-being as a function of mental imagery practice. Each morning for a period of 1 week, participants practiced a brief (approximately 1- to 2-minute long) mental imagery practice designed to facilitate well-being. Upon completing each exercise, they provided brief written reflections on their well-being. Qualitative analysis of these subjective reports revealed significant patterns that correspond to three of the four major components of well-being (positive affect, vitality, negative affect) examined by researchers from a Self-Determination Theory perspective. All participants reported immediate well-being benefits of mental imagery practice, and these benefits reflected several patterns that we identified. As these changes take place in seconds and minutes, this study reflects a microdevelopmental approach to well-being from a Dynamic Systems perspective. The value of exploring short-term imagery-related improvements in well-being in combination with long-term influences is discussed.
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In this experimental study, we explored effects of mental imagery practice on psychophysiological coherence, measured as heart rhythm coherence. A total of 82 undergraduates participated in the study and were randomly assigned to mental imagery, thought monitoring, and control groups. The experiment took a period of 3 weeks, during which the first group regularly practiced two imagery exercises, and the second group practiced a thought monitoring exercise. Participants in all three groups visited a lab, twice a week, where their heart rhythm coherence was measured by a device that monitors heart rate variability. Results showed significant increases in heart rhythm coherence as a function of mental imagery practice. The effects of thought monitoring practice were much more limited. Methodological limitations of the study were discussed particularly in terms of the regulation of thought monitoring practice. Suggestions for future study include manipulating possible sources of variation in the effectiveness of imagery practice, and making connections between the cognitive study of imagery and its therapeutic function.
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The purpose of this study was to examine the within-person multiplicity of moral motivation in the context of specific judgment choices using a new and integrative approach. This purpose serves to test a new model of moral motivation. In this model, Kohlberg’s six developmental stages are reconceptualized as dynamic structures of motivation that operate together within person, reflecting motivational pluralism. A total of 391 university students participated by responding to a questionnaire that elicited six different moral judgments. Three judgments were about hypothetical dilemmas, and three were about social policy issues (war, abortion, death penalty). Using a recognition task, the questionnaire presented participants with standard descriptions of motivational structures to be rated separately as possible reasons for decisions. Results provided support for the hypothesized within-person operation of multiple stages in each judgment context. The majority of motivational structures operated in ways that were significantly correlated with each other. Correlations observed a developmental order. Analyses revealed patterns of association between the use of specific developmental stages and different judgment choices in each judgment context. The most pervasive associations with specific judgment choices were revealed by a combination of stage 1 (obedience) and stage 4 (social order). The motivation of moral judgment involves the operation of multiple motivational strategies that are developmentally connected to each other. This motivational pluralism can be detected by the multiplicity of stage structures that are recognized by individuals as reasons behind their judgments, and by the multiplicity of relationships between stages and judgment choices. Limitations and possibilities of future research are discussed in terms of the need to examine individual developmental trajectories over time and across contexts.
Article
ABSTRACT Intrapersonal variability and multiplicity in the complexity of moral motivation were examined from Dynamic Systems and Self-Determination Theory perspectives. L. Kohlberg's (1969) stages of moral development are reconceptualized as soft-assembled and dynamically transformable process structures of motivation that may operate simultaneously within person in different degrees. Moral motivation is conceptualized as the real-time process of self-organization of cognitive and emotional dynamics out of which moral judgment and action emerge. A detailed inquiry into intrapersonal variation in moral motivation is carried out based on the differential operation of multiple motivational structures. A total of 74 high school students and 97 college students participated in the study by completing a new questionnaire, involving 3 different hypothetical moral judgments. As hypothesized, findings revealed significant multiplicity in the within-person operation of developmental stage structures, and intrapersonal variability in the degrees to which stages were used. Developmental patterns were found in terms of different distributions of multiple stages between high school and college samples, as well as the association between age and overall motivation scores. Differential relations of specific emotions to moral motivation revealed and confirmed the value of differentiating multiple emotions. Implications of the present theoretical perspective and the findings for understanding the complexity of moral judgment and motivation are discussed.
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Building on and extending existing research, this article proposes a 4-phase model of interest development. The model describes 4 phases in the development and deepening of learner interest: triggered situational interest, maintained situational interest, emerging (less-developed) individual interest, and well-developed individual interest. Affective as well as cognitive factors are considered. Educational implications of the proposed model are identified.
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The incidence and dynamics of confusion during complex learning and problem solving were investigated in an experiment where participants first read illustrated texts on everyday devices (e.g., an electric bell) followed by breakdown scenarios reflecting device malfunctions (e.g., "When a person rang the bell there was a short ding and then no sound was heard"). The breakdown scenarios were expected to trigger impasses and put participants in a state of cognitive disequilibrium where they would experience confusion and engage in effortful confusion resolution activities in order to restore equilibrium. The results confirmed that participants reported more confusion when presented with the breakdown scenarios compared to control scenarios that involved focusing on important device components in the absence of malfunctions. A second-by-second analysis of the dynamics of confusion yielded two characteristic trajectories that distinguished participants who partially resolved their confusion from those who remained confused. Participants who were successful in partial confusion resolution while processing the breakdowns outperformed their counterparts on knowledge assessments after controlling for scholastic aptitude, engagement, and frustration. This effect was amplified for those who were highly confused by the breakdowns. There was no direct breakdown vs. control effect on learning, but being actively engaged and partially resolving confusion during breakdown processing were positive predictors of increased learning with the breakdown compared to control scenarios. Implications of our findings for theories that highlight the role of impasses, cognitive disequilibrium, and confusion to learning are discussed.
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This study investigated the effects of the nature of music and a concurrent task on measures of task performance and musical preference. Subjects completed 5 laps of a computer motor racing game whilst listening to either arousing or relatively unarousing music in either the presence or absence of a backward-counting task. Both these manipulations affected performance on the game with arousing music and backward-counting leading to slower lap times than relatively unarousing music and the absence of the backward-counting task. Backward-counting led to lower liking for the music than did the absence of this task. These results support the idea that music and the concurrent task competed for a limited processing resource. The results also indicated that liking for the music was positively related to task performance, and in conjunction these findings seem to suggest a direct link between music and the listening context.
Conference Paper
A computer-based geometry game was adapted to allow for play using a conceptual rule or an arithmetic problem-solving mechanic. Participants (n = 91) from an urban middle school were randomly assigned to experimental conditions. Results suggest that play in the number condition was more situationally interesting than play in the rule condition. Participants in the rule condition were found to perform better in the game than those in the number condition. Learning outcome results suggest that in the number condition, but not the rule condition, playing more levels in the game diminishes the gain from pretest to posttest. For the design of games for learning, results highlight the importance of choosing a game mechanic that reflects the intended learning outcomes.
Article
We examine design factors that may evoke positive emotions in learners and investigate the effects of these positive emotions on learning. Recent research showed that the emotional design of multimedia learning material can induce positive emotions in learners that in turn facilitate comprehension and transfer. We sought to replicate these results with a different population and different mood induction procedure and examine individual emotions, and to decompose the effects of the design elements of color and shape. Study 1 showed that well-designed materials induced positive emotions and facilitated comprehension, though transfer performance was not affected by emotional design. Study 2 found that round face-like shapes both alone and in conjunction with warm color induced positive emotions. Warm colors alone, however, did not affect learners' emotions. Comprehension was facilitated by warm colors and round face-like shapes, independently as well as together. Transfer was facilitated by round face-like shapes when used with neutral colors.
Article
Research on “stereotype threat” (Aronson, Quinn, & Spencer, 1998; Steele, 1997; Steele & Aronson, 1995) suggests that the social stigma of intellectual inferiority borne by certain cultural minorities can undermine the standardized test performance and school outcomes of members of these groups. This research tested two assumptions about the necessary conditions for stereotype threat to impair intellectual test performance. First, we tested the hypothesis that to interfere with performance, stereotype threat requires neither a history of stigmatization nor internalized feelings of intellectual inferiority, but can arise and become disruptive as a result of situational pressures alone. Two experiments tested this notion with participants for whom no stereotype of low ability exists in the domain we tested and who, in fact, were selected for high ability in that domain (math-proficient white males). In Study 1 we induced stereotype threat by invoking a comparison with a minority group stereotyped to excel at math (Asians). As predicted, these stereotype-threatened white males performed worse on a difficult math test than a nonstereotype-threatened control group. Study 2 replicated this effect and further tested the assumption that stereotype threat is in part mediated by domain identification and, therefore, most likely to undermine the performances of individuals who are highly identified with the domain being tested. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for the development of stereotype threat theory as well as for standardized testing.
Article
Researchers have found undeniable variability and irrefutable evidence of consistencies in emotional responses across situations, individuals, and cultures. Both must be acknowledged in constructing adequate, enduring models of emotional phenomena. In this article I outline an empirically-grounded model of the structure of the emotion system, in which relatively variable actions may be used to pursue relatively consistent goals within discrete emotion syndromes; the syndromes form a stable, coherent set of strategies for coping with crises and opportunities. I also discuss a framework that can integrate dimensional and discrete perspectives on emotions.
Article
Two core motivational systems have been conceptualized as underlying emotion and behavior. The approach system drives the organism toward stimuli or events in the environment, and the avoidance system instead deters the organism away from these stimuli or events. This approach—avoidance dichotomy has been central to theories of emotion. Advances in neuroscience complementing well-designed behavioral experiments have begun to elucidate the neural mechanisms underlying approach—avoidance motivation, suggesting that these two systems exist in parallel and are lateralized in the brain. This review explores the notion of approach—avoidance and the cerebral lateralization of these motivational tendencies.
Article
We propose a model to explain the dynamics of affective states that emerge during deep learning activities. The model predicts that learners in a state of engagement/flow will experience cognitive disequilibrium and confusion when they face contradictions, incongruities, anomalies, obstacles to goals, and other impasses. Learners revert into the engaged/flow state if equilibrium is restored through thought, reflection, and problem solving. However, failure to restore equilibrium as well as obstacles that block goals trigger frustration, which, if unresolved, will eventually lead to boredom. The major hypotheses of the model were supported in two studies in which participants completed a 32–35min tutoring session with a computer tutor. Their affective states were tracked at approximately 110 points in their tutoring sessions via a retrospective affect judgment protocol. Time series analyses confirmed the presence of confusion–engagement/flow, boredom–frustration, and confusion–frustration oscillations. We discuss enhancements of the model to address individual differences and pedagogical and motivational strategies that are inspired by the model.
Article
This article discusses the research on the relations between achievement goals and develops a conceptual model based on a review of extant literature. The model distinguishes between moods and emotions and the relative roles of perceived classroom goal structures and personal goals. In this article, it is suggested that the relation between achievement goals and affect is asymmetrical and bidirectional. However, given differences in the conceptualization and measurement of affect, the empirical findings are somewhat inconsistent and difficult to interpret in some studies. Thus, there is a clear need for more research on the dynamics of achievement goals and affect in classroom settings.
Article
When women perform math, unlike men, they risk being judged by the negative stereotype that women have weaker math ability. We call this predicamentstereotype threatand hypothesize that the apprehension it causes may disrupt women's math performance. In Study 1 we demonstrated that the pattern observed in the literature that women underperform on difficult (but not easy) math tests was observed among a highly selected sample of men and women. In Study 2 we demonstrated that this difference in performance could be eliminated when we lowered stereotype threat by describing the test as not producing gender differences. However, when the test was described as producing gender differences and stereotype threat was high, women performed substantially worse than equally qualified men did. A third experiment replicated this finding with a less highly selected population and explored the mediation of the effect. The implication that stereotype threat may underlie gender differences in advanced math performance, even those that have been attributed to genetically rooted sex differences, is discussed.
Article
Students viewed a computer-generated animation depicting the process of lightning formation (Experiment 1) or the operation of a car's braking system (Experiment 2). In each experiment, students received either concurrent narration describing the major steps (Group AN) or concurrent on-screen text involving the same words and presentation timing (Group AT). Across both experiments, students in Group AN outperformed students in Group AT in recalling the steps in the process on a retention test, in finding named elements in an illustration on a matching test, and in generating correct solutions to problems on a transfer test. Multimedia learners can integrate words and pictures more easily when the words are presented auditorily rather than visually. This split-attention effect is consistent with a dual-processing model of working memory consisting of separate visual and auditory channels.
Article
College students (in Experiment 1) and 7th-grade students (in Experiment 2) learned how to design the roots, stem, and leaves of plants to survive in 8 different environments through a computer-based multimedia lesson. They learned by interacting with an animated pedagogical agent who spoke to them (Group PA) or received identical graphics and explanations as on-screen text without a pedagogical agent (Group No PA). Group PA outperformed Group No PA on transfer tests and interest ratings but not on retention tests. To investigate further the basis for this personal agent effect, we varied the interactivity of the agent-based lesson (Experiment 3) and found an interactivity effect: Students who participate in the design of plant parts remember more and transfer what they have learned to solve new problems better than students who learn the same materials without participation. Next, we varied whether the agent's words were presented as speech or on-screen text, and whether the agent's image appeared on the screen. Both with a fictional agent (Experiment 4) and a video of a human face (Experiment 5), students performed better on tests of retention and problem-solving transfer when words were presented as speech rather than on-screen text (producing a modality effect) but visual presence of the agent did not affect test performance (producing no image effect). Results support the introduction of interactive pedagogical agents who communicate with students via speech to promote meaningful learning in multimedia lessons.
Article
The concept of "emotion-as-motivation" is challenged on theoretical and empirical grounds and emotion as a response is offered as the alternative. Theoretical relations between the "intertwined concepts" of adaptation and emotion are discussed. Emotion is "said to flow from appraisal processes by which the person or infrahuman animal evaluated the adaptive significance of the stimulus." A review of empirical research on emotion involving appraisal and reappraisal of threat under laboratory conditions is presented. (132 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)