No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.
Animal cruelty and firesetting as behavioral markers of fearlessness and disinhibition: putting two-thirds of Macdonald’s triad to work
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine whether animal cruelty and firesetting can serve as markers of fearlessness and disinhibition, respectively. File data gathered on 496 male sex offenders were analyzed in an effort to test two hypotheses, a countervailing hypothesis and a narrowness hypothesis. Results pertaining to the countervailing hypothesis revealed that animal cruelty correlated significantly better with fearlessness than with disinhibition and firesetting correlated significantly better with disinhibition than with fearlessness. A multiple regression analysis controlling for age at time of discharge, participant race, and offender category (pure rapist and pure child molester) also confirmed this hypothesis. Corroborating the narrowness hypothesis, animal cruelty and firesetting failed to predict violent offending after controlling for fearlessness and disinhibition, respectively. These results suggest that animal cruelty may serve as a marker for fearlessness and callous–unemotional traits, whereas firesetting may serve as a marker for disinhibition and low self-control.
... The literature has produced a number of empirical studies, which present results that are sometimes controversial. Some studies found that animal cruelty is related to other forms of interpersonal violence and antisocial behavior, including bullying, juvenile delinquency, and adult criminality involving both violent and nonviolent actions (e.g., Ascione, Thompson, & Black, 1997;Baldry, 2005;Currie, 2006;Gullone & Robertson, 2008;Kellert & Felthous, 1985;Longobardi, Iotti, Jungert, & Settanni, 2018;Tapia, 1971); however, other studies did not report this relationship (e.g., Miller & Knutson, 1997;Walters, 2017). For example, Felthous and Kellert (1987) conducted a meta-analysis of 15 studies examining the relationship between childhood animal abuse and later interpersonal violence. ...
... Animal cruelty was associated with family context and externalizing variables, such as the temperament dimensions of fearlessness and disinhibition. Consequently, animal cruelty may be an important indicator of future offenses by virtue of its link with the temperament dimensions of fearlessness and disinhibition, rather than because of any direct effect it may have on subsequent violence and aggressive behavior (Walters, 2017;Walters & Noon, 2015). ...
... Furthermore, as Flynn (2011) points out, it is possible that animal cruelty and interpersonal violence are the result of a third factor, rather than being causally related to each other. For example, animal cruelty may be relevant to future offenses by virtue of its link to the temperament dimensions of fearlessness and disinhibition, rather than because of any direct effect it may have on subsequence violence and aggressive behavior (Walters, 2012(Walters, , 2017. As Walters and Noon (2015) point out, animal cruelty might be a marker of nonviolent and violent offenses by virtue of its position in the proactive subdimension of the externalizing spectrum. ...
... Instead of viewing fire setting and animal cruelty as direct antecedents of violence, Walters (2012Walters ( , 2017 has suggested that they may be more accurately viewed as expressions of temperamental dimensions that predispose an individual to act violently (i.e., temperament mediates the relationship between Triad behaviors and later violent behaviors). Specifically, he showed that animal cruelty was highly correlated with fearlessness, whereas fire setting was highly correlated with disinhibition. ...
... Specifically, he showed that animal cruelty was highly correlated with fearlessness, whereas fire setting was highly correlated with disinhibition. In addition, he found that animal cruelty and fire setting failed to predict violent offending after controlling for fearlessness and disinhibition, respectively (Walters, 2017). This suggests that fire setting and animal cruelty may be behaviors directly associated with temperament rather than violence. ...
Psychopathy and serial murder have been topics of great public interest and media attention for several decades. Dennis Rader, a serial killer well-known by his pseudonym “BTK,” was responsible for the gruesome torture and murder of ten people between 1974 and 1991. Although some information is known about him through media accounts, little work has been done to synthesize information about his life and crimes, and to examine him as a case study of psychopathy. Through careful literature review and analysis, this study aims to provide insight into Rader’s life and crimes, and to delineate his psychopathology to gain a better understanding of psychopathy. The results of this case study indicate that Dennis Rader exhibited many features of psychopathy, as well as antisocial and narcissistic personality disorders. This case study has important implications for the public perception of psychopathy and serial murderers, and the investigation of individual psychopaths, emphasizing the value of a comprehensive review of an individual’s life factors in relation to their criminal behavior.
... By and large, the marker who received the most attention from researchers is cruelty to animals, although firesetting was also considered in multiple studies. Walters (2017) investigated the links between these two markers and two dimensions of temperament, fearlessness, and disinhibition, as well as violent offending, in a sample of 496 sex offenders. The author found that cruelty to animals was significantly associated with fearlessness, whereas firesetting could be considered a manifestation of disinhibition. ...
... While these results may be seen as providing some support for the validity of the triad based on the co-occurrence of the markers in this group, this is perhaps less applicable to enuresis as more than half of offenders in this class did not show this problem, whether in childhood, adolescence, or beyond. This would appear to be consistent with literature suggesting that the relevance of enuresis to the phenomenon underlying the triad is unclear and remains to be established (Parfitt & Alleyne, 2020;Walters, 2017). Nevertheless, latent structure analysis allows for a clearer picture of the inter-relations between the markers and the internal coherency of the triad as a construct. ...
The MacDonald triad is composed of three developmental markers, including cruelty to animals, firesetting, and enuresis after the age of 5. Although there has been considerable interest in this construct initially, research has produced inconsistent results regarding its validity in terms of distinguishing between offender and non‐offender populations, or predicting future offences. The current study investigated the links between the triad, dimensions of psychopathology, and trajectories of aggression in a sample of 254 rapists previously collected from a single forensic mental health institution in the United States. A retrospective temporal design was used to examine associations between variables in a sequence of ten offences. Latent structure analyses yielded a two‐class solution for the triad indicators, a five‐dimensional model for psychopathology and three trajectories for the aggression variables over a sequence of ten offences. Univariate analyses revealed that the class characterized primarily by a high prevalence of cruelty to animals and firesetting was associated with a higher level of antisocial and aggressive traits, as well as with a trajectory of offending featuring higher levels of expressive aggression, at least during the first few offences in the sequence. These associations were large and weak‐to‐moderate in magnitude, respectively. If replicated, these findings may suggest that a particular subgroup of sex offenders showing components of the triad are at particular risk of developing antisocial features, thus impacting the level of risk they pose to potential victims and the community.
... Thirty-nine articles tried to establish whether animal abuse may predict criminal behavior (Arluke et al., 1999;Arluke and Madfis, 2014;Baxendale et al., 2015;Becker et al., 2004;Felthous and Kellert, 1986;Gleyzer et al., 2002;Heller et al., 1984;Hellman and Blackman, 1966;Henderson et al., 2011;Henry, 2004bHenry, , 2004aHensley, 2005;Hensley et al., 2012a, 2012b, 2009, 2009, 2008Kavanagh et al., 2013;Kellert and Felthous, 1985;Levitt et al., 2016;Lucia and Killias, 2011;Miller and Knutson, 1997;Overton et al., 2012;Sanders and Henry, 2007;Sanders et al., 2013;Schwartz et al., 2012;Tallichet and Hensley, 2009, Vaughn et al., 2011, 2009Walters and Noon, 2015;Walters, 2016aWalters, , 2016bWax and Haddox, 1974). Results are contradictory, mainly due to the lack of consensus regarding the definition of animal abuse (Arluke and Madfis, 2014;Gleyzer et al., 2002;Hensley et al., 2012b;Tallichet and Hensley, 2009) and the use of small samples ). ...
... Research has focused on studying the factors related to mistreatment of animals and criminality. With regard to the psychological profile, animal abusers are significantly more likely to display fearlessness (Walters, 2016b) and a strong need to control people and environments, to bully or to be bullied (Sanders and Henry, 2007;Sanders et al., 2013;Schwartz et al., 2012). In addition, they have a significantly higher prevalence of antisocial personality and poly-substance abuse (Gleyzer et al., 2002;Kavanagh et al., 2013;Vaughn et al., 2011Vaughn et al., , 2009. ...
Several studies have reported a connection between animal abuse and interpersonal violence. The importance of veterinarians in recognizing and intervening in the cycle of violence has been debated in different articles. This review outlines the findings about this connection around the world and describes the role veterinarians play in this field. We looked up electronic databases and analyzed articles published between 1960 and 2016. Publications were classified into three categories: area of publication, topic of the study and continent where the study had been conducted. Out of the 96 articles included, 76 (79.2%) were from North America. None were from South America or Africa. Ninety-four articles (97.9%) found some association between animal abuse and violence against people. The rates of co-occurrence between domestic violence and animal abuse reported varied between 25% and 86%. Furthermore, children who were abused, exposed to domestic violence, or animal abuse were at risk of developing criminal behavior. Veterinarians play an important role in public health and animal welfare. Yet, only seven articles (7.3%) were published in the field of veterinary medicine. Studies report that between 42.8% and 86% of veterinarians know about the “Link”. However, most veterinarians not being trained to intervene in cases of animal abuse and human violence. This emphasizes the importance of educating veterinarians about this topic and their participation in this area.
... The literature has produced a number of empirical studies about the relationship between animal abuse and antisocial behavior, the results of which are sometimes controversial. Some studies found that animal abuse is related to other forms of interpersonal violence and antisocial behavior, including bullying, juvenile delinquency, and adult criminality involving both violent and nonviolent actions (e.g., Ascione et al., 1997;Baldry, 2005;Currie, 2006;Gullone & Robertson, 2008;Kellert & Felthous, 1985;Longobardi et al., 2018;Sanders & Henry, 2018); however, other studies did not report this relationship (e.g., Miller & Knutson, 1997;Walters, 2017). Longobardi and Badenes-Ribera (2019) conducted a systematic review of the relationship between animal cruelty and interpersonal violence in 32 studies published between 1995 and 2017, examining the relationship between childhood animal abuse and later interpersonal violence. ...
In recent years school bullying and other forms of aggressive behaviors in children and adolescents have become an issue of great concern among parents, psychologists, and educators. This study examined the relationship between school bullying and animal abuse in a community sample of school-age children. One hundred and seventy-four elementary school students from central Greece participated in the study and filled in self-report questionnaires which examined animal abuse, bullying – victimization, empathy, self-control, and peer interactions. Results showed that bullying behavior and peer victimization are associated with both direct abuse of animals and witnessing violence against animals. Multiple regression analysis indicated that witnessing animal abuse and being victimized by peers are positive predictors of bullying. Empathy, self-control, and peer interactions failed to predict school bullying. We discuss theoretical mechanisms linking bullying/victimization and animal abuse as well as directions for future research.
... A study of 280 people who had committed murder produced evidence that validated an association with McDonald's triad, though it added that physical and psychological abuse by parents was also prevalent in these individuals [27]. Similarly, Walters [139] performed a multiple regression analysis on 496 sex offenders to determine whether animal cruelty and pyromania can be confirmed as markers of fearlessness and disinhibition. He found that animal cruelty is closely related to loss of fear (r = 0.20), while pyromania correlated with disinhibition (r = 0.17). ...
For years now, the importance of animal cruelty has been gaining recognition in the industrialized cities of the West. Animal cruelty encompasses any act that causes a non-human animal unnecessary pain or suffering, including negligence, abandonment, abuse, torture, bestiality, and even theriocide. This represents a red flag for society as a whole because people who commit such acts can escalate violence and direct it to other individuals. Animal cruelty and interpersonal violence—as well as other socially undesirable conduct such as bullying, antisocial personality disorder, rape, and serial murder—are closely related, so timely diagnoses of either one can help prevent acts of aggression. It is necessary, therefore, to analyze and try to understand whether there are early indicators that may help identify potentially violent individuals. It is well known that kids from homes with actual violence in their homes show a high tendency to reproduce such behaviors with both animals and other people. In conclusion, much research and rethinking of the importance of the veterinarian in detecting animal abuse and cruelty is needed to help detect and prevent cases of interpersonal violence that may arise over time.
... A positive relationship has been reported between engagement in childhood firesetting and severe levels of conduct problems (Forehand et al., 1991;Moore et al., 1996), antisocial and criminal behavior (Dadds & Fraser, 2006;Kolko et al., 2001;Lambie et al., 2013), animal cruelty (Baglivio et al., 2017;Sakheim & Osborn, 1999), suicidal ideation and suicide attempt, substance use (MacKay et al., 2009;Tanner et al., 2016). In addition, firesetting has been reported to be a behavioral marker of disinhibition and low self-control (e.g., Walters, 2017), personality traits associated with externalizing behaviors (Campbell et al., 2000). ...
OBJECTIVE Firesetting in children is thought to be an indicator of severe conduct problems in young people. However, no research has examined whether childhood firesetting is also associated with increased risk of externalizing and suicidal behaviors in adulthood.
METHOD Data were obtained from a longitudinal study (n = 1265). Childhood firesetting/conduct problems (7–10 years) were derived from an assessment of antisocial behavior. Externalizing/suicidal behavior was derived from the Composite International Diagnostic Interview and the Self-Report Delinquency Inventory. Generalized estimating equation (GEE) models estimated associations between childhood firesetting and adult substance use disorders, criminal offending, and suicidal ideation, adjusting for childhood conduct problems and other confounding factors. Associations between childhood and adult firesetting (age 18–40 years) were examined using cross-tabulation (χ2).
RESULTS Five percent of children reported firesetting (7–10 years). Childhood firesetting appeared to increase the risk of adult firesetting; however, in most cases adult firesetting was not associated with childhood firesetting (χ2 (1) = 4.15, p = .0417). Childhood firesetting was a risk marker for adult externalizing/suicidal behavior; however, the effect was relatively weak (IRR = 1.51; 95% CI: 1.11–2.05). Children with conduct problems who also engaged in firesetting were found to be at substantially higher risk of later externalizing/suicidal behavior (IRR = 2.84; 95% CI: 1.24–6.49).
CONCLUSION This study found that childhood firesetting is a risk marker for adult externalizing/suicidal behavior, not an independent risk factor. It may be more useful for clinicians to focus on child conduct problems generally, rather than focussing on firesetting behavior.
... Using a sample of adult male sex offenders, Walters (2017) found animal cruelty may serve as a marker for fearlessness and callous-unemotional traits. According to Walters and Noon (2015), animal cruelty may be thought of as a predictor of future criminality by virtue of its association with manipulativeness, hostility, and instrumental criminality and premeditated violence. ...
Despite the widespread belief among the public and an increasing number of law enforcement personnel that individuals who harm animals often harm other people, the subject of animal maltreatment has received little attention from behavioral scientists. Advances in comparative neuroanatomy have highlighted the ability of animals to feel physical and emotional pain, including complex psychological reactions to traumatic events. These advances, and recent studies (however sparse) that support the notion that perpetrators of crimes against animals often commit other crimes, have arguably created an ethical and practical imperative for behavioral scientists to undertake a serious examination of animal maltreatment and potential mechanisms for responding to it. In addition, the close and complex relationships many Americans have with animals and the advancements in animal protection law in the past two decades necessitate expertise on the part of forensic psychologists and psychiatrists, who will increasingly be called upon to evaluate animal maltreatment offenders and consult on related policy and legislation.
... As previously noted, lifestyle theory proposes that LSC and CU traits, as core constructs in the control and moral models of criminal lifestyle development, overlap extensively. Even with a moderately high degree of overlap, CU traits and LSC have been found to form countervailing associations with certain outside criteria, such as child maltreatment [68] and the behavioral markers of firesetting and animal cruelty [66]. Thus, while CU-and LSC-initiated pathways may be more similar than different, it was predicted that CU traits would exert a stronger suppressant effect on the counter-delinquency effects of child self-disclosure than LSC. ...
Purpose
Using a mediation methodology and three waves of data, the current study sought to determine whether callous-unemotional (CU) traits were capable of suppressing the inhibitory effect of child self-disclosure on delinquency in line with predictions from criminal lifestyle theory. The results were then compared to the suppressant effect of low self-control (LSC) on the child self-disclosure–delinquency relationship.
Methods
Participants for this study were 2586 (1290 boys, 1296 girls) members of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth–Child (NLSY-C). CU traits and LSC were measured when participants were 9 to 10 years of age, child self-disclosure was measured when participants were 11 to 12 years of age, and delinquency was measured when participants were 13 to 14 years of age.
Results
Consistent with predictions, the pathway running from CU traits to child self-disclosure to delinquency was significant whereas the pathway running from LSC to child self-disclosure to delinquency was non-significant. Contrary to predictions, the two pathways were not significantly different from one another.
Conclusions
Moderate support was found for the hypothesis that one way CU traits encourage delinquency is by inhibiting the child’s willingness to disclose information to parents. This, in turn, may limit a parent’s knowledge of a child’s friendship networks and routine activities and/or reduce parental monitoring activities.
The current study provides a test of the antisocial spectrum by asking whether firesetting serves as a developmental antecedent to future offending through the intervening influence of a cognitive impulsivity mediator. It was hypothesized that cognitive impulsivity, but not cognitive insensitivity, would mediate the relationship between firesetting and offense variety. This hypothesis was tested in 1,354 seriously delinquent youth (1170 males, 184 females) from the Pathways to Desistance study. Results were consistent with all three parts of the research hypothesis: (1) cognitive impulsivity mediated the relationship between firesetting and offense variety; (2) cognitive insensitivity did not mediate the relationship between firesetting and offense variety; (3) the total indirect effect was significantly stronger in the impulsivity-mediated pathway than in the insensitivity-mediated pathway. These findings support firesetting as a developmental antecedent to delinquency and crime in a manner congruent with theory and suggest that firesetting may belong on the antisocial spectrum.
Animal Cruelty regularly happened during childhood that indicates beyond cruelty to humans. Cruelty to animals distinguishes some steps: curiosity, exploration, imitates or even the aggressive act refers to animal cruelty. The ignorance toward these aggressive acts led to Conduct Disorder or even Antisocial Personality Disorder. Animal Cruelty reached an agreement as to the unethical act with intentional tortures, unintentionally suffering causes death. Cruelty is done on purpose and with intentional time. This research aims as a reference for animal cruelty in childhood by proposing some research summary in (1) Animal Cruelty framework, (2) Animal Cruelty relation among child abuse and domestic violence; (3) Developmental Psychology reference: Children aggressive acts toward animal; (4) animal cruelty and psychology disorder and (5) clinical pathway childhood cruelty to animals. The research conducts a literature review by describing a theory, discussion, and results from textbooks, articles, and journals. The researcher analyzed, compared the results taken from some literature, identifies the pros and cons, and proposing findings and discussions. In conclusion, animal cruelty defines as a crucial marker for mental health that relates to Conduct Disorder to Antisocial Personality Disorder. The role of adults is vital in minimizing children's acts for committing animal cruelty by nurturing empathy. Adults with its role particularly required during the early stages of a child's development when adults' affirmation related to behavioral aspects of morality is necessary for children. Furthermore, character education for children consider as broad topics that not only about the animals, but the most important thing is for animals when children would learn justice, and ethics to treat animals generously. Keywords: Animal Cruelty, Childhood, Conduct Disorder, Antisocial Personality Disorder
Assessing the risk for animal cruelty is imperative, yet understudied and problematic due to the sensitivity of the topic. Early prevention is critical, yet very little research examines cruelty when it first appears in childhood. The aim of this study was to explore children’s attitudes towards types of animal cruelty, to investigate potential demographic differences, and to examine potential associations between acceptance of cruelty and cognitive and affective factors that place children ‘at-risk’ for cruelty perpetration. Questionnaire data was collected from 1127 children in schools. The results indicate that cruelty attitudes are predicted by some demographic variables such as urban living, being male, younger age and not having pets, but depend on the type of animal cruelty. Acceptance of cruelty predicted low compassion and low reported humane behaviour towards animals. Acceptance of cruelty was predicted by negative attitudes towards animals, lower beliefs in animal minds and low attachment to pets, signifying the importance of targeting such variables in future prevention programmes. This study is an original contribution to research into childhood animal cruelty in the general population, with implications for designing and implementing early prevention programmes that tackle problematic attitudes to cruelty.
This chapter offers an inside look into the psychological assessment process. Markers of biologically based constructs, such as temperament, are examined first. This is followed by a review of static risk factors, obtained through behavioral observation, official records, and self-reports of prior behavioral outcomes. The third section of this chapter is devoted to a discussion of needs assessment and the measurement of dynamic risk factors that have been found useful in planning and implementing treatment and prevention programs.
Associations between specific motivations for animal cruelty, particular methods of animal cruelty and different facets of impulsivity were explored among 130 undergraduate students. Participants completed an adapted version of the Boat Inventory on Animal-Related Experiences (BIARE) which asked participants to state whether they had intentionally harmed or killed an animal, the species of animal(s) involved, their motivations for harming or killing the animal(s) and the method(s) used. Participants also completed the Impulsive Behavior scale (UPPS-P) which assesses five facets of impulsivity. Over half of the sample (55%) reported committing at least one act of animal cruelty, and dogs were the most commonly abused species of animal. The most frequently reported motivations were Prejudice, Amusement, Control (of an animal), and Retaliation (against an animal), and the most frequently reported methods were Beating/Kicking, Squashing, Throwing an object at an animal, Shooting, Drowning and Burning. Significant associations were found between particular motivations and methods, as well as between particular methods of animal cruelty and facets of impulsivity. Findings have implications for theoretical models of animal cruelty perpetration as well as offender assessment and treatment.
Children )Ounger chan I B seE app-roximate!) 60% of tht incendiary fires in large citils. The authors
reww tht hisrary of ps)chological explanations far firesetring and examine tht. cll!Tem researc.h regarding ~ phenomenon.
The authors also review treatment approach for juvernile firesetters, including behavior modification, psychodynamic therapy, family approaches, cognitive therapy, and groupwork. Critical considerations for effective treatment , including bereavement and disfigurement, are presented. Clinical examples are provided throughout the article.
The current study aimed to identify heterogeneous groups of adolescents differing on their levels of conduct problems (CP) and callous-unemotional (CU) traits, and compare them on startle reactivity to emotional videos (violent/ erotic) during young adulthood. A Latent Profile Analysis, conducted among a longitudinal sample of 2306 adolescents, provided evidence for the existence of heterogeneous CP and CU subgroups (i.e., CP-only, CU-only, and CP+CU groups). Three years later, 82 young adults (Mage=19.95), randomly selected from the identified groups, participated in an experiment assessing their startle eye-blink responses during violent, erotic and neutral video scenes. Self-report ratings of fear, valence and arousal to affective scenes were also collected. Findings suggested that adolescents high on CP and low on CU traits showed high startle potentiation when viewing violent scenes during young adulthood, while those high on both CP and CU traits showed diminished startle reactivity to violent stimuli. Individuals high on CU traits without CP showed similar startle reactivity to controls. Further, the findings indicate that startle potentiation to violent stimuli can be a reliable physiological marker to distinguish antisocial individuals with and without CU traits. The finding that the CU only group was not differentiated from the control group on startle reactivity when viewing violent stimuli might explain their lower likelihood of engaging in antisocial behavior.
This article addresses the challenges of defining and assessing animal abuse, the relation between animal abuse and childhood mental health, the extensive research on animal abuse and intimate partner violence, and the implication of these empirical findings for programs to enhance human and animal welfare. Highlighted are recent developments and advances in research and policy issues on animal abuse. The reader is directed to existing reviews of research and areas of focus on the expanding horizon of empirical analyses and programmatic innovations addressing animal abuse. Following a discussion of forensic and veterinary issues related to animal abuse, we discuss policy issues including how the status of animals as human companions at times may place animals at risk. We also review developments in the field of human–animal relations and apply the primary–secondary–tertiary prevention public health model to prevention and treatment of animal abuse. We close with a description of community networks addressing animal abuse, interagency collaborations, and new developments in animal-related law.
Results from this study challenge the assumption that animal abusers commonly “graduate” from violence against animals to violence against humans. The criminal records of 153 animal abusers and 153 control participants were tracked and compared. Animal abusers were more likely than control participants to be interpersonally violent, but they also were more likely to commit property offenses, drug offenses, and public disorder offenses. Thus, there was an association between animal abuse and a variety of antisocial behaviors, but not violence alone. Moreover, when the time order between official records of animal abuse and interpersonal violence was examined, animal abuse was no more likely to precede than follow violent offenses. Although these findings dispute the assumption that animal abuse inevitably leads to violence toward humans, they point to an association between animal abuse and a host of antisocial behaviors, including violence. Also discussed are the methodological problems of demonstrating sequential temporal relations between animal abuse and other antisocial behaviors.
one of the major goals of our research program at the Massachusetts Treatment Center during the 1980s has been addressing these critical taxonomic problems by systematically applying this approach to the study of sexual offenders / it is the intent of this chapter to give an overview of this programmatic approach and to summarize some of the taxonomic structures that have emerged from our research (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Previous research has focused upon classifying motives for firesetting into discrete categories such as revenge and excitement. This process of classification has been criticized for its failure to reflect the heterogeneity of firesetting. For the present study, 17 young firesetters were interviewed about their firesetting. In keeping with previous studies, six distinct groups of firesetters emerged from the information gathered. The implications for future understanding, including classification systems, of firesetting are discussed.
There is clear evidence that cruelty to animals may co-occur with other violent behaviors, such as assault. Animal cruelty, particularly towards domestic pets, tends to occur disproportionately within the wider context of intimate partner violence. A factor that may contribute to the associations between interpersonal violence and animal cruelty is a compromised ability to experience feelings of empathy. The current paper sought to provide an overview of empathy and its relationship to violence, with particular emphasis on attitudes towards animals.
The purpose of this study was to test whether prior conduct disorder increased deviance in persons diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder. One hundred and three male inmates satisfying adult antisocial and conduct disorder criteria for antisocial personality disorder achieved significantly higher scores on self-report measures of criminal thinking and antisocial attitudes than 137 male inmates satisfying only the adult criteria for antisocial personality disorder and 87 male nonantisocial inmates. Inmates satisfying adult antisocial and conduct disorder criteria for antisocial personality disorder were also more likely to receive disciplinary infractions for misconduct than inmates in the other two conditions. The theoretical, diagnostic, and practical implications of these results are discussed.
The present study investigated the incidence of the childhood symptoms of cruelty to animals, firesetting , and enuresis in the case reports of 1935 offenders evaluated at a court psychiatric clinic. The presence of all or part of this triad of symptoms was more common in those found competent to stand trial than in those found incompetent. However, no association was found between the presence of the triad of symptoms in those charged with violent crimes and those charged with nonviolent crimes.
The hypothesis tested in this study was that the presence of enuresis and cruelty to animals in juvenile firesetters would be significantly related to recidivistic firesetting. This hypothesis was related to Yarnell's belief in an ego triad among juvenile firesetters, which linked the occurrence of enuresis, cruelty to animals and others, and firesetting. No relationship was found between groups for firesetting recidivism and enuresis. However, juveniles who were identified as being cruel to animals were more likely than those who were not cruel to animals to engage in recidivistic firesetting behaviors.
A useful tool for practitioners, researchers, theorists, and advanced students, Handbook of Sexual Assault analyzes the nature and extent of the problem of sexual offending and classifies the types of offenders according to an empirically developed system. In addition, contributors present the theories of the etiology and maintenance of sexual offending; offer various perspectives and factors relevant to accurate assessment; and detail contemporary treatment procedures.
In a variety of situations in psychological research, it is desirable to be able to make statistical comparisons between correlation coefficients measured on the same individuals. For example, an experimenter may wish to assess whether two predictors correlate equally with a criterion variable. In another situation, the experimenter may wish to test the hypothesis that an entire matrix of correlations has remained stable over time. The present article reviews the literature on such tests, points out some statistics that should be avoided, and presents a variety of techniques that can be used safely with medium to large samples. Several illustrative numerical examples are provided.
This engaging book presents a contextual psychological interpretation of crime. It covers essential topics including psychopathy, antisocial personality disorder, and criminal lifestyle. The author’s compelling analysis explains criminal behavior, by showing how the criminal lifestyle is capable of integrating two seemingly incompatible crime paradigms: the career criminal paradigm and the criminal career paradigm. Starting with a context for criminality, and then moving from particular conceptions of crime to more evidence-based theories, this volume challenges students to think in a different way about crime and criminal behavior.
Impulsivity is a core feature of antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) associated with abnormal brain function and neurochemical alterations. The ventral striatum (VS) is a key region of the neural circuitry mediating impulsive behavior, and low monoamine oxidase-A (MAO-A) level in the VS has shown a specific relationship to the impulsivity of ASPD. Because it is currently unknown whether phenotypic MAO-A markers can influence brain function in ASPD, we investigated VS MAO-A level and the functional connectivity (FC) of two seed regions, superior and inferior VS (VSs, VSi). Nineteen impulsive ASPD males underwent [11C] harmine positron emission tomography scanning to measure VS MAO-A VT, an index of MAO-A density, and resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging that assessed the FC of bilateral seed regions in the VSi and VSs. Subjects also completed self-report impulsivity measures. Results revealed functional coupling of the VSs with bilateral dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (DMPFC) that was correlated with VS MAO-A VT (r=0.47, p=0.04), and functional coupling of the VSi with right hippocampus that was anti-correlated with VS MAO-A VT (r=-0.55, p=0.01). Additionally, VSs-DMPFC FC was negatively correlated with NEO PI-R impulsivity (r=-0.49, p=0.03), as was VSi-Hippocampus FC with BIS-11 motor impulsiveness (r=-0.50, p=0.03). These preliminary results highlight an association of VS MAO-A level with the FC of striatal regions linked to impulsive behavior in ASPD and suggest that phenotype-based brain markers of ASPD have relevance to understanding brain function.
The purpose of this study was to determine whether scores on two temperament dimensions (fearlessness and disinhibition) correlated differentially with gray matter volumes in two limbic regions (amygdala and hippocampus). It was predicted that the fearlessness dimension would correlate with low gray matter volumes in the amygdala and the disinhibition dimension would correlate with low gray matter volumes in the hippocampus after controlling for age, IQ, regular substance use, and total brain volume. Participants were 191 male adolescents (age range=13-19 years) incarcerated in a maximum-security juvenile facility. Structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) analysis of the limbic and paralimbic regions of the brain was conducted. The temperament dimensions were estimated with items from the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL: YV: Forth et al., 2003). Analyses showed that the fearlessness dimension correlated negatively with gray matter volumes in the amygdala and the disinhibition dimension correlated negatively with gray matter volumes in the hippocampus but not vice versa. These findings provide preliminary support for the construct validity of the fearlessness and disinhibition temperament dimensions and offer confirmatory evidence for involvement of the amygdala and hippocampus in fear conditioning and behavioral inhibition, respectively.
The purpose of this study was to determine whether a subset of items from the 20-item Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) could be used to construct a two-dimensional model (fearlessness, disinhibition) of adult temperament relevant to psychopathy and antisocial behavior. This theory-guided model was created by combining six items from the interpersonal and affective facets of the PCL-R into a single dimension (fearlessness) and taking four items from the lifestyle facet and forming a second dimension (disinhibition). A confirmatory factor analysis performed on a sample of 2753 adult offenders and forensic patients was used to compare the two-dimensional model to several alternate models. The results indicated that the two-dimensional model achieved a significantly better fit than a one-dimensional model and demonstrated better absolute fit than the traditional two-, three-, and four-factor models and the recently proposed triarchic model of psychopathy. In addition, latent factor scores derived from both dimensions of the two-dimensional model displayed incremental validity relative to Facet 4 (antisocial) of the PCL-R in predicting subsequent offending. These findings indicate that a theoretically derived two-dimensional model of temperament may be of assistance in clarifying psychopathy and other crime-related constructs.
The purpose of this study was to determine whether childhood animal cruelty is primarily a feature of family context or of externalizing behavior. Twenty measures of family context and proactive (fearlessness) and reactive (disinhibition) externalizing behavior were correlated with the retrospective accounts of childhood animal cruelty provided by 1,354 adjudicated delinquents. A cross-sectional analysis revealed that all 20 family context, proactive externalizing, and reactive externalizing variables correlated significantly with animal cruelty. Prospective analyses showed that when the animal cruelty variable was included in a regression equation with the 10 family context variables (parental arguing and fighting, parental drug use, parental hostility, and parental knowledge and monitoring of offspring behavior) or in a regression equation with the five reactive externalizing variables (interpersonal hostility, secondary psychopathy, weak impulse control, weak suppression of aggression, and short time horizon), it continued to predict future violent and income (property + drug) offending. The animal cruelty variable no longer predicted offending, however, when included in a regression equation with the five proactive externalizing variables (early onset behavioral problems, primary psychopathy, moral disengagement, positive outcome expectancies for crime, and lack of consideration for others). These findings suggest that while animal cruelty correlates with a wide range of family context and externalizing variables, it may serve as a marker of violent and nonviolent offending by virtue of its position on the proactive subdimension of the externalizing spectrum.
Temporal discounting is an indicator of impulsivity that has consistently been found to be associated with risky behaviors such as substance abuse and compulsive gambling. Yet, although criminal acts are clearly risky choice behaviors, no study has examined temporal discounting in the criminal attitudes and behaviors of adult offenders. Yet, such investigations have potential to understand the cognitive processes that underlie various criminal patterns of thinking and may help distinguish between high and low risk offenders. Therefore, the current study endeavored to fill this gap in the literature using 146 male inmates within 5 months of release. Results found that temporal discounting is correlated with reactive criminal thinking but was not correlated with proactive criminal thinking. In addition, inmates with higher rates of incarceration were also more likely to have higher rates of temporal discounting. Results shed light on the different cognitive processes that may underlie different styles of criminal thinking as well as potential differences in the discounting rates depending on history of incarcerations. This finding has implications for service delivery in criminal justice settings as those with reactive criminal thinking may benefit from specialized treatments for temporal discounting. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
The violence graduation hypothesis assumes a direct causal link between animal cruelty and interpersonal aggression. This hypothesis is based on two postulates: (1) that animal cruelty precedes interpersonal aggression, and (2) that the effect is specific to violent forms of antisocial behavior. The current study was designed to test the second of these two postulates: i.e., specificity. Comparing reports of prior animal cruelty in violent and non-violent prisoners and patients, a 14-study meta-analysis revealed that the violent group was significantly more likely to have a history of animal cruelty than the non-violent group. Although this seemed to support the violence graduation hypothesis, uncontrolled differences between the violent and non-violent groups provide an alternative explanation of these results. In a second meta-analysis using a different set of studies (k = 5), animal cruelty was found to correlate as well with non-violent offending as it did with violent offending in male and mixed gender samples. These latter results suggest that at least in males, the animal cruelty–offending relationship is not specific to violence and that theories other than the violence graduation hypothesis may be required to explain the modest association that exists between animal cruelty and violent offending.
The relationship between childhood cruelty toward animals and subsequent aggressive offending was explored in 1,336 (1,154 male, 182 female) participants from the 11-wave Pathways to Desistance study (Mulvey, 2013). Aggressive and income offending at Waves 1 through 10 were regressed onto a dichotomous measure of prior involvement in animal cruelty and four control variables (age, race, sex, early onset behavior problems) assessed at Wave 0 (baseline). Results indicated that childhood animal cruelty was equally predictive of aggressive and non-aggressive (income) offending, a finding inconsistent with the hypothesis that cruelty toward animals desensitizes a person to future interpersonal aggression or in some way prepares the individual for interpersonal violence toward humans. Whereas a significant sex by animal cruelty interaction was predicted, there was no evidence that sex or any of the other demographic variables included in this study (age, race) consistently moderated the animal cruelty-subsequent offending relationship. On the other hand, two cognitive-personality measures (interpersonal hostility, callousness/unemotionality) were found to successfully mediate the animal cruelty-subsequent offending relationship. Outcomes from this study imply that a causal nexus-partially or fully mediated by hostility, callousness/unemotionality, and other cognitive-personality variables-may exist between childhood animal cruelty and subsequent offending, although the effect is not specific to violence. Aggr. Behav. 9999:XX-XX, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Although descriptive studies have demonstrated that child molesters are heterogeneous on numerous variables (Knight, Rosenberg, & Schneider, 1985), no classification systems have been constructed that divide child molesters into reliable, cohesive subgroups. This critical gap in our knowledge hampers the efficacy of clinical decisions about the treatment, management, and disposition of these offenders. The child molester typology presented here has been developed to fulfill the need for a clearly operationalized, reliable, valid system to address the problem of the manifest diversity of these offenders. This typology is the product of a research program that has integrated both deductive/rational and inductive/empirical strategies for generating and testing taxonomic systems (Knight, 1988; Knight & Prentky, in press). We present here the criteria for applying this system and the interrater reliability coefficients for assigning a sample of committed offenders to these proposed types.
Recently, researchers have focused on a group of children and youth who are at high risk for developing a lifelong pernicious pattern of antisocial and delinquent behavior.These children exhibit a behavior pattern characterized by hyperactivity-impulsivity-inattention coupled with conduct problems such as fighting, stealing, truancy, noncompliance, and arguing. These students have been referred to as "fledgling psychopaths" and appear to be highly resistant to interventions. In this article we review the literature on this group of students in terms of epidemiology and prognosis. Procedures for early identification of these students will be described and discussed. Key themes surrounding this early identification process are its proactive nature and resistance to intervention as bases for decision making concerning these students.
Recent studies have begun to establish an association between childhood acts of animal cruelty and later violence against humans. Even so, research has failed to establish a strong correlation between the two, perhaps because previous studies have failed to examine the commission of violence against animals and humans in terms of their frequencies. In a replication of Tallichet and Hensley (2004) and based on survey data from 180 inmates at a medium- and maximum-security prison in a Southern state, the present study examines the relationship between the demographic characteristics of race, level of education, the residential location of an offender's formative years, and recurrent acts of childhood cruelty and their impact on later repeated acts of interpersonal violence. Only repeated acts of animal cruelty during childhood was predictive of later recurrent acts of violence toward humans, showing a possible relationship between the two.
Recent studies have offered compelling evidence supporting a relationship between childhood cruelty to animals and later violence against humans. This study investigated whether violent offenders were significantly more likely than nonviolent offenders to have abused animals of various types during childhood. Interviews were conducted with 45 violent and 45 nonviolent offenders incarcerated in a maximum-security prison and randomly selected for this study by institutional staff members. Two data collection instruments were used. The first extracted demographic and social history from the participants. The second was used to gather information regarding cruelty to animals as categorized into four types (wild, farm, pet, and stray). Results indicated that a statistically significant relationship existed between childhood cruelty to animals and later violence against humans. Furthermore, the study found, consistent with prior research, that violent offenders were significantly more likely than nonviolent offenders to have committed acts of cruelty toward pet animals as children.
While there seems to be general agreement among members of contemporary American society about the value of reducing threats to individual well-being, there are may who actively seek experiences that involve a high potential for personal injury or death. High-risk sports such as hang gliding, skydiving, scuba diving, rock climbing, and the like have enjoyed unprecedented growth in the past several decades even as political institutions in Western societies have sought to reduce the risks of injury in the workplace and elsewhere. The contradiction between the public agenda to reduce the risk of injury and death and the private agenda to increase such risks deserves th attention of sociologists. A literature review is presented that points to a number of shortcomings in existing studies, most of which are associated with the psychological reductionism that predominates in this area of study. An effort is made to provide a sociological account of voluntary risk taking by (1) introducing a new classifying concept- edgework-based on numerous themes emerging from primary and secondary data on risk taking and (2) explaining edgework in terms of the newly emerging social psychological perspective produced from the synthesis of the Marxian and Meadian frameworks. The concept of edgework highlights the most sociologically relevant features of voluntary risk taking, while the connections between various aspects of risk-taking behaviour and structural characteristic of modern American society at both the micro and macro levels. This approach ties together such factors as political economic variables, at one end of the continuum, and individual sensations and feelings, at the other end.
Extends prior work documenting a relationship between childhood firesetting and heightened aggression, psychopathology, and social skills deficits in an inpatient sample. Children recruited from nonpatient, outpatient, and inpatient samples were classified into firesetter (n = 133), matchplayer (n = 34), or no-fire (n = 140) groups. Measures were based on parent or child reports. Multivariate and univariate analyses revealed higher levels of behavioral dysfunction, overt and covert antisocial behavior, hostility, emotionality and impulsivity, anti lower levels of assertiveness, sociability, and social skill in firesetters. The findings were not accounted for by the child's patient status or diagnosis of conduct disorder. Regression analyses revealed four predictors of firesetting status.
In psychological research, it is desirable to be able to make statistical comparisons between correlation coefficients measured on the same individuals. For example, an experimenter (E) may wish to assess whether 2 predictors correlate equally with a criterion variable. In another situation, the E may wish to test the hypothesis that an entire matrix of correlations has remained stable over time. The present article reviews the literature on such tests, points out some statistics that should be avoided, and presents a variety of techniques that can be used safely with medium to large samples. Several numerical examples are provided. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Aggression and other moral transgressions, such as cheating, lying, and stealing, are by their basic nature emotionally charged. Whether the transgression involves a preschooler taking another child’s toy, a middle school child lying about a peer to stay out of trouble, or an adolescent involved in an armed robbery, victimizers are likely to feel a range of intense emotions, whereas their victims will feel different, but no less intense, emotions. But how and why do these acts of victimization become charged with emotions? And what do these emotions tell us about both those who become routine victimizers and those who learn to inhibit victimizing behaviors? Finally, is victimization primarily a matter of affective influences, or do cognitive abilities also play an important role? The chapters included in this volume share a unifying theme: the need to understand how children and adolescents’ emotions, moods, and other affective processes interact with their social cognitions to influence moral and aggressive tendencies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The full childhood triad of enuresis, firesetting, and cruelty to animals is seldom reported by patients in acute care psychiatric facilities. Two of the three elements have been reported with greater frequency and constitute useful diagnostic information. Literature on the triad has been reviewed and data from three studies have been presented. The authors concluded that a history of two thirds of the triad is significantly associated with aggressive behaviours directed against people.
This two-part study explores the potential for assaultive behavior in females. The first part compares assaultive and nonassaultive female offenders for the presence of specific historical variables, and finds several significant differences. In the second part, the total female offender sample is compared with a male offender sample for presence of the same variables. The nearly equal incidence of several variables in both samples, such as persistent enuresis and firesetting, suggests a need for reassessment of some traditional theoretical formulations.
Short-term outcomes were evaluated for 65 children who were followed for 2, 4, or 6 months after psychiatric hospitalization. Child (e.g., aggression), parent (e.g., depression), family dysfunction (caretaker inconsistencies), and the modalities of treatment (e.g., point system) are described. Analyses of variance revealed no effects of follow-up interval or length of stay. A regression analysis revealed that low improvement was predicted by child attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity and depressive symptoms, older age, neurological dysfunction, and history of physical abuse. High improvement compared with low improvement children had a more successful adjustment in several critical roles and exhibited fewer individual problem behaviors.
Results of a replication study of juvenile firesetters confirms, in general, findings of the earlier study: juveniles who feel unwanted or abused or who become aroused by watching or setting fires are most likely to be firesetters. There were, however, significant differences in certain results of the first and second studies, which indicate a need for further research.
Psychological test data of 30 known juvenile and adolescent firesetters were compared with those of a matched control group, within a residential treatment center, to distinguish the identifying characteristics of each group. Hypotheses based on 80 variables found in the literature on firesetting were treated by using a standard test equivalent for each variable. Of the hypotheses, 14 were found to differentiate significantly the two groups, but not all in the predicted direction. Four characteristics were found to be sufficient to discriminate between the groups with greater efficiency than any other combination of variables. A predictor equation is set forth.
Current shifts in corrective and rehabilitation planning result in an emphasis upon primary prevention efforts involving early identification and intervention with vulnerable children who run high risk of serious adolescent and adult delinquency. A variety of observers have argued that the presence of a combination of observable problem behaviors documented in childhood is related to ego weakness and may have value as a predictor of explosive acting out in later life. The present study examines a number of institutionalized adolescent male delinquents whose recent history contains reference to a triad of behaviors (persistent enuresis, fire setting, and animal cruelty). Not only does the predictive validity of the triad appear to be supported, but the cases cited rank highest among overtly dangerous assaultive youth seen in the Southern California Youth Authority during the 12-month observation period. Presented is a summary of case history data supporting the hypothesis that the triad is a useful clinical tool in the prediction of violent behavior.
The authors believe that the German and Mexican Spanish proverb 'He who lights a fire during the day will wet his bed that night' carries an additional connotation. They have in the past understood this to suggest a consistently observed relationship between fire setting and enuresis. However, in the light of this discussion it may have a more universal application concerning elements of excitement and subsequent regressive loss of control. They attempted to illustrate the developmentally regressive aspects of sexual aberrance principally by examination of such material observed in 6 cases of violently aggressive adolescent and young adult males. In the discussion they illustrate both the range and scope of human sexuality and its expression, particularly in those areas considered by society to be deviant. The implications of this psychologic psychiatric point of view for legal judicial action and penal correctional treatment of such offenders is clearly a topic for future presentations and discussion.
A study of 84 prisoners shows that out of the 31 charged with aggressive crimes against the person, three-fourths had the triad of enuresis, firesetting and cruelty to animals whereas in the 53 subjects accused of a nonaggressive crime only 15 had either the triad or a partial triad. It is postulated that the presence of the triad in the child may be of pathognomonic importance in predicting violent antisocial behavior. The relationship of the triad with early rejection or severe deprivation by parental figures is discussed. The importance of early detection of the triad and serious attention toward resolving the tensions that precipitated it is stressed.
Administered a parent–child relations (PCR) questionnaire to 109 killers, 38 nonviolent offenders, and 54 normal controls and obtained medical record information on Ss. Results show that killers had disturbed PCR but they did not differ from nonviolent offenders. The extreme violence reported in uncontrolled homicide research was not supported in the present study. Killers differed from nonviolent offenders in less often being adopted or fostered, less often running away from home, but in more often stealing as a child. The triad of enuresis, fire setting, and cruelty to animals was not significant and had little predictive value. However, the killers may not have recognized the violence in their background. Inadequate parenting may serve as a precondition for antisocial acts in general but it cannot accurately predict violent behavior. Some other factors may be operative. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The psychopathology of 29 delinquent and 25 nondelinquent psychiatrically hospitalized adolescent boys was similarly severe. Similar proportions had hallucinations, delusions, learning disabilities, and evidence of neurological impairment, and over half in each group had been diagnosed as being psychotic. Fire-setting, enuresis, and cruelty to animals did not distinguish the two groups. Significantly more of the delinquents had been psychiatrically hospitalized previously, and significantly more of the delinquents had engaged in violently aggressive acts. The household composition of both groups was similar, but more mothers of delinquents than of nondelinquents had been psychiatrically hospitalized. The authors discuss the issue of the treatment of psychiatrically ill violent adolescents.
Conduct disorder (CD) affects 2-9% of children in this country and has been found to be relatively stable through childhood, adolescence, and into adulthood. Although many behaviors that comprise CD have been studied, there has been a lack of research on cruelty to animals. It has been suggested that animal cruelty may be exhibited by 25% of CD children and that animal abuse may be the earliest symptom evident in CD children. In addition, several studies have found a significant relationship between childhood cruelty to animals and violence toward people. Available research is reviewed in this report, including early studies on the relationship between animal cruelty and interpersonal violence, recent assessment attempts, and intervention techniques. Future research needs are also outlined and discussed.
Although serial murder has been recorded for centuries, limited academic attention has been given to this important topic. Scholars have attempted to examine the causality and motivations behind the rare phenomenon of serial murder. However, scant research exists which delves into the childhood characteristics of serial murderers. Using social learning theory, some of these studies present supporting evidence for a link between childhood animal cruelty and adult aggression toward humans. Based on five case studies of serial murderers, we contribute to the existing literature by exploring the possible link between childhood cruelty toward animals and serial murder with the application of the graduation hypothesis.
Thirty-three sex killers were compared to 80 sexual aggressives, 23 sadists, and 611 general sex offenders on sexual history and preferences, substance abuse crime, violence, mental illness, personality, neurological and endocrine abnormalities. Compared to other groups, sex killers started their criminal careers earlier, more often had been to reform school, were members of criminal gangs, set fires, and were cruel to animals. They tended so show more sadism, fetishism, and voyeurism. They more often collected pornography, but they did not use it in their offenses. They more often abused drugs and some suffered from drug induced psychoses. Their most common diagnosis was antisocial personality disorder, but only 15.2% met criteria for psychopathy. Sex killers showed most signs of neuropsychological impairment, grades failure, and learning disabilities. Results suggest that greater emphasis be placed on studying adolescent sex offenders and conduct disordered children which may help identify potential sex killers.
As compared with 15 normal controls, " 'primary' sociopaths showed significantly less 'anxiety' on a questionnaire device, less GSR reactivity to a 'conditioned' stimulus associated with shock, and less avoidance of punished responses on a test of avoidance learning. The 'neurotic' sociopaths scored significantly higher on the Taylor Anxiety Scale and on the Welsh Anxiety Index." Cleckley's descriptive criteria were used. 24 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).