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Cognition
Rune Pettersson
2
Cognition
The illustration on the cover is part of an image from my video
program “Life Patterns” presented at the first international ex-
hibition “The Video Show” in London, may 1975. My “multime-
dia project” was one of two invited contributions from Sweden.
Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this
work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee pro-
vided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or com-
mercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full
citation on the first page.
Institute for Infology
ISBN 978-91-85334-30-8
© Rune Pettersson
Sweden, Tullinge 2024
3
Preface
Information design is a multi-dimensional, multi-disciplinary,
and worldwide consideration with influences from areas such as
design disciplines, communication disciplines, information dis-
ciplines, language disciplines, cognitive disciplines, art and aes-
thetic disciplines, business and law, as well as media production
technologies.
In this book, the focus is on the receiver. Cognition is a men-
tal processing model used in cognitive psychology. Our working
memory is limited to five to seven “chunks” of information. Our
attention must frequently be refreshed. Recalling information re-
quires more cognitive effort than recognizing information. We
see, hear, and taste cohesive and unified information. Cognitive
principles denote one of the four groups of message design prin-
ciples: facilitating attention, facilitating perception, facilitating
processing, and facilitating memory. Guidelines based on these
principles will assist the information designer to design infor-
mation and learning materials that are well suited for the in-
tended receivers. Complicated language will impair the under-
standing of any intended message. Information materials provid-
ing the wrong information may actually give a negative result,
and the receiver may end up less competent than before.
Since my retirement I have edited and revised sections of my
earlier books, conference papers and reports about information
design, message design, visual communication and visual liter-
acy.
Previous editions of this book were published every year
2011–2023. When there is no information about the name of a
photographer, an artist, or a draftsman in a caption, that picture
is my own photo, or my own drawing or sketch.
Tullinge, Sweden
Rune Pettersson, Ph.D.
Retired Professor of Information Design
4
Contents
Preface 3!
Contents 4!
Attention 7!
Our senses 8!
Sense organs 8!
Hearing 10!
Vision 13!
Eye movements 19!
Sensory data and information 26!
Attention qualities 30!
Attention time span 30!
Attention to colour 31!
Attention to movement 33!
Attention to novelty 35!
Attention to information sets 36!
Attention to oral communication 41!
Attention theories 43!
Capacity theories 43!
Resource models 45!
Attention and message design 47!
Ecological Interface Design 48!
Facilitating attention to colour 49!
Facilitating attention to layout 50!
Facilitating attention to pictures 51!
Facilitating attention to symbols 52!
Facilitating attention to text 53!
Perception 56!
Perception principles 57!
Selection and order 57!
Surfaces of shapes 58!
Perception is subjective 59!
Perception theories 60!
Clarity theory 60!
Figure and ground theory 61!
Gestalt theories 64!
Affordance theories 73!
5
Neuroscience principles 76!
Perceptual qualities 77!
Four styles of perception 77!
Perception of change 79!
The importance of captions 80!
Perception of straight lines 82!
Perception of size 83!
Perception of depth 85!
Perception of colour 86!
Differences in colour perception 96!
Influence of context 109!
Constancy 110!
Picture perception experiments 114!
Approaches to picture perception 133!
Pictorial style preferences 138!
Illusions 146!
Facilitating perception 152!
Facilitating perception of text 152!
Facilitating perception of pictures 152!
Facilitating perception of layout 153!
Facilitating perception of colour 153!
The brain 155!
Anatomy of the brain 156!
Cognitive levels 160!
Two halves 160!
See–look–read 163!
Mental images 168!
Many definitions 168!
Visual thinking 170!
Creative work 178!
Problem solving 181!
Fantasy images 182!
Self-images 184!
Target images 185!
Dreams 186!
Subliminal reception 187!
Intellectual development 189!
Increasing capacities 189!
Understanding advertising 198!
Basic geometric shapes 199!
6
Details of a picture 200!
Processing 202!
Processing theories 202!
Schema theories 203!
Action theory 205!
Memory models 207!
A controversial issue 207!
Sensory memory 208!
Short-term memory 209!
Long-term memory 211!
Conceptual change theories 213!
Other memory models 216!
Forgetting 219!
Processing and message design 220!
Simplicity in a message 220!
Facilitating processing of colour 221!
Facilitating processing of text 221!
Facilitating processing of pictures 221!
Facilitating processing of layout 222!
Facilitating memory for text 222!
Facilitating memory for pictures 223!
Improve your own learning 223!
Facilitating theory for ID 227!
ID Library 231!
References 232!
Appendix: Main concepts 271!
7
Attention
Among the many thousands of stimuli in the external context we
only see, hear, smell, feel, taste, or “pay attention to” one stimu-
lus at a time. Attention is sudden, direct, and distinct. The se-
quential flow of attention to the parts of a message is determined
by the sequence in which information is presented to us.
Attention, or mental preparedness and receptiveness, can be
considered as the activation of groups of brain cells. Smell, taste
and feeling are very important senses in natural life, but they are
not as yet important factors when we want to use traditional me-
dia. We can pay attention to the content of a message, to the ex-
ecution of that message, to the context in which the message is
presented, and to the actual format or medium that carries the
message.
Some commentators are making bold claims and argue that
access to the Internet is having a detrimental, and a persistent
impact on the brain. In particular, attention has been implicated
as a cognitive function that has been negatively impacted by use
of digital technologies for learning (Lodge and Harrison, 2019).
However, there is much still to be understood.
This chapter includes the following main sections: Our
senses, Attention qualities, Attention theories, and Attention
and message design.
8
Our senses
There are always far more stimuli than we can ever notice at any
given situation. To us most stimuli remain unknown, unseen and
unheard of. This main section includes the following sections:
Sense organs, Hearing, Vision, Eye movements, and Sensory
data and information.
Sense organs
Using our sense organs is the only way that we can record and
observe the world outside our own bodies. If we are aware of the
limitations of our senses we can make better decisions about the
accuracy of what is happening. Natural selection favours quali-
ties that are needed for survival. Thus, our senses operate at the
level of overt behaviour that enables us to avoid predators, find
food, find mates, and move around from one place to another in
our environments.
Smell, taste, and the sense of feeling are important senses in
natural life and often grab and direct our attention. However,
they are not yet especially important factors to be considered
when we want to use information conveyed in messages that are
distributed with traditional media based on sound and vision.
However, some people discuss the introduction of smell sensa-
tions in movie theatres.
A great deal of the experimental work during the early years
of the twentieth century was devoted to determining the impact
of the intensity of a stimulus, such as the loudness of sounds, the
brightness of lights, the strength of pressure, on attentional pro-
cesses. The duration of a stimulus and the concomitant phenom-
ena of adaptation and fatigue were also studied (Urbina, 1994).
We are capable of successfully smelling, tasting, feeling,
hearing and seeing things at the same time. We are also capable
of simultaneously hearing different stimuli in either ear. How-
ever, we are probably incapable of simultaneously perceiving dif-
ferent stimuli aimed at the right and the left eye, respectively. The
9
same kind of stimulus may easily be perceived in different ways
at different times.
Highly developed perceptual abilities are needed to detect
the bounds of a single image within a complex structure. Young
children may choose to pay attention either to the whole picture
or to only specific parts of it. For children until about nine years
of age it might be difficult to switch attention between a specific
part and the whole.
Each eye contains about one million afferent nerve fibres.
Each ear has about 30,000. Thus, the eyes and ears are capable
of receiving vast quantities of information. However, it is impos-
sible (and undesirable) for us to be aware of everything happen-
ing around us. At any given moment, the eye may contain
2 500 000 bits of information. Laboratory studies have shown
that a subject is able to perceive three to six different, simple
graphical symbols per second when the subject's concentration
is devoted solely to this task. It is easier to perceive large and
clear symbols than small, blurred symbols.
The process of attention determines which events we will be-
come conscious of. Attention may be controlled automatically, by
instructions, and by the specific demands of the particular task
at hand. A visual material must constantly redraw the attention
to hold the interest of the viewer. Our perception varies as a re-
sult of a number of factors. Visual information is processed
quickly. Seeing is direct and effortless. We do not become con-
scious of all the stimuli detected by our sensory organs.
The selective process that controls our awareness of events
in the environment is called attention. We may use various de-
sign principles and guidelines in order to facilitate the reader’s
attention processes, and subsequent processes for understand-
ing and learning. We direct our attention to what we happen to
be interested in; to special sounds; to things that move; are large,
bold, and clear; are new; have bright colour, an unusual shape,
or a good contrast; and that deviate from the surroundings or
10
from familiar patterns. We direct our attention to contents that
arouse feelings and needs.
Search (2016, p. 187) concluded that multisensory design
provides opportunities to create interactive designs that channel
our intuitive abilities to use different sensory modalities to syn-
thesize data representations and information. It is possible to de-
velop new perspectives and identify patterns, relationships, and
trends in data sets.
Hearing
Sound is a subjective sensation of hearing. The sensory cells in
the inner ear’s hearing apparatus are stimulated and signals sent
to the brain where they are perceived as sound. In objective
terms, sound consists of longitudinal wave motions capable of
acting on our hearing apparatus and thereby eliciting sound sen-
sations. Man is normally capable of perceiving sound waves at
frequencies from 16–20,000 Hz. Sound waves lower than 16 Hz
are referred to as infrasound, and frequencies higher than
20,000 Hz are referred to as ultrasound.
Sound pressure waves make the eardrum vibrate. The vibra-
tion is passed on to the three small bones in the middle ear. The
movements of the third bone, the stirrup, against the membrane
in the oval window create changes in pressure in a fluid within
the cochlea, the inner ear.
11
Sound waves entering the ear canal (light blue) are transmitted
from the eardrum via three small bones (hammer, anvil, and
stirrup) in the middle ear (dark grey) into the inner ear (light
grey). The three semi-circular canals at the top belong to our
sense of balance.
When the oval window is moving in the round window
bulges outward. The fluid causes a basilar membrane to flex back
and forth. The auditory cells are located on this membrane.
These cells cause the neurones of the auditory nerve to send sig-
nals to the brain for processing. Different frequency sounds are
perceived when different parts of the basilar membrane vibrate
in response to these frequencies.
12
The cochlea in the inner ear is stretched out (bottom). When the
stirrup pushes against the membrane in the oval window the
fluid in the cochlea is moving and the round window bulges out-
ward. Various sound frequencies cause flexing of different por-
tions of a basilar membrane with receptive hair cells (cross sec-
tion). The hair cells send signals to the brain via the auditory
nerve.
Sound intensity, i.e., the average rate of sound energy trans-
mitted per unit of time and unit area that passes a plane perpen-
dicular to the transmission direction, is an objective measure of
sound intensity. It is usually measured in w/m2 (watts per
square meter). However, a psychologically based concept is nec-
essary in order to designate the strength of sound waves striking
our ears. The hearing range is the interval between the lowest
sound intensity we are capable of perceiving, i.e., the auditory
threshold, and the highest level we are able to tolerate, i.e., the
pain threshold.
13
Vision
Natural selection favours qualities that are needed for survival.
Our visual system is remarkable. We are capable of perceiving
objects in bright light from the sun, and in pale light from the
moon. We can also follow rapidly moving objects. Thus, vision
operates at the level of overt behaviour that enables organisms to
avoid predators, find food, find mates, and move around from
one place to another in their environments. In subjective terms
vision is a complex process that elicits a sense of vision, i.e.,
awareness of the stimulation of the eye’s vision perception cells.
In objective terms, light consists of electromagnetic waves (light
“rays”) capable of acting on our eyes and creating sensations of
light and images.
The opponent process theory, and the tri-chromatic theory
are two complementary theories of colour vision. The opponent
process theory, also called the Hering theory, states that the vis-
ual system interprets colour in an antagonistic way: red vs. green,
blue vs. yellow, black vs. white. The tri-chromatic theory, or
Young-Helmholtz theory, states that the retina's three types of
cones are preferentially sensitive to blue, green, and red. These
two theories describe different stages in visual physiology.
Visible light
Human vision is sensitive within a wide wavelength range, from
violet all the way to dark red. Visible light ranges from 3 900
Ångström to 7 700 Ångström (0,00039–0.00077 millimetre).
The wavelengths for violet is 3 800–4 200, for blue 4 200–
4 900, for green 4 900–5 750, for yellow 5 750–5 850, for orange
5,850–6 500, and for red 6 500–7 500. Green–orange is in the
region of the eye’s greatest sensitivity. Sensitivity decreases
markedly toward the red and toward the violet ends of the spec-
trum. See the illustration on next page.
Like sound waves, light waves are propagated in straight
lines from their source. They can also be absorbed, bent, re-
flected, and refracted. The velocity of light in air is nearly
14
300 000 km/s. When light rays (usually parallel) from an object
enter the eye, they are refracted in the cornea and lens and pass
through the vitreous humour until they strike the retina back of
the eye. The retina has 126 million receptors. Of these receptors
120 million are rods and 6 million are cones. The cones are the
receptors that record colours. When the ambient light level is
high, the light rays strike the macula lutea, the fovea, a small area
of the retina that is rich in cones.
This is an illustration of the electromagnetic energy system. The
portion of the spectrum perceived as visible light is enlarged in
the illustration above.
The classical view is that each sensory organ picks up indi-
vidual sensory impressions that are interpreted more or less in-
dividually. The retina’s receptors are excited by light and respond
by chemically converting a pigment, called rhodopsin (visual
purple). This conversion triggers impulses that are transmitted
along the optic nerve and the thalamus to the brain’s primary vis-
ual cortex. This takes only a few milliseconds. In the visual cortex
the impulses are translated into a sensation of vision.
The visual angle is a key concept in defining the properties
of the eye. Visual angles are generally defined in degrees, minutes
and seconds of arc. An object of one cm viewed at a distance of
57 cm has a visual angle of approximately one degree.
Often the lens has a natural shape that is inappropriate for
the length of the eye. Then either near or far stimuli cannot be
15
adequately focused. When the axial length of the eye is too long
for the lens, the light rays reflected by distant objects are always
refracted in such a way that the image of the stimulus is formed
before the retinal plane.
This is a longitudinal section of the human eye.
However, close objects are properly imaged on the retinal
plane. This condition is called near-sightedness or myopia. In
the opposite case, the axial length of the eye is too short for the
lens. Now the light rays reflected by near objects are refracted in
such a way that the image of the stimulus is formed behind the
retinal plane. However, distant objects are always properly im-
aged on the retinal plane. This condition is called farsightedness,
or hypermetropia.
16
The left eye is normal, and light rays focus on the retina. The eye
in the middle shows the conditions of near-sightedness. The eye
to the right show farsightedness. P=plane of focus.
Visual fields
The optic nerve has about one million optic nerve fibres leading
from the ganglion cells. In the fovea there is an almost one-to-
one connection between cones and fibres, whereas as many as
600 rods may be connected to one optic nerve fibre in the outer
periphery of the retina. This helps to explain why visual acuity is
best in the fovea. When light rays from an object are bent in the
cornea and lens, an upside-down image of that object is formed
on the retina.
Very small children view the world as being upside-down.
After a time, however, the brain somehow learns to process reti-
nal images so that they are perceived to be right side up. Accord-
ing to Nakayama, He, and Shimojo (1995) vision is an extremely
complex process. About half of the cerebral cortex may be en-
gaged in processing of visual information. Different parts of the
visual field have their exact counterparts in the visual cortex. Na-
kayama et al. (1995) wrote (p. 4):
By painstakingly recording from one nerve cell at a time,
neurophysiologists have pieced together an unusually de-
tailed account of how neurons respond to visual input at var-
ious stages of the visual pathway—from the photoreceptors,
to the visual cortex, and beyond. Not surprisingly, photore-
ceptors are sensitive to just a small localized part of the
17
visual field, responding only when light is presented in this
very small region.
The primary visual cortex is organized into some 2,500 rectan-
gular areas, called “tiles.” Each tile consists of a block of tissue,
approximately 0.5 x 0.7 mm with some 150,000 neurons (Carl-
son, 1993). Each tile receives information only from a small part
of the retina. In the tiles neural circuits analyse information
about depth, movement, orientation and width of lines and
edges, and also colour. Information from each tile is then sent to
all sub-regions of the first level of the nearby visual association
cortex.
The second level of the visual association cortex in the tem-
poral lobe receives information about orientation and width of
lines and edges as well as colours for perception of three-dimen-
sional shapes and colours of objects. The second level of the vis-
ual association cortex in the parietal lobe receives information
about depth and movement. Here this information is combined
with information about movements of the eyes, the head and the
body for spatial perception of location and movements of objects.
Since we have two eyes, both pointing forward and with par-
tially overlapping visual fields, we can assess the distance, both
forward and laterally, between objects. It takes a certain amount
of time for the eye to record light rays from an object, such as a
painting. And it also takes time before we are capable of perceiv-
ing that object as an image. The eye has inertia. This inertia ena-
bles us to perceive motion. When we look at a person who is walk-
ing or running, the eye records a series of stills that ultimately
blend into one another and form a moving image. This inertia
also enables us to see motion in the stills that comprise a movie
film or a TV image.
18
The left schematic illustration shows the pathways from the
eyes through the optic nerve fibres to the visual cortex. Data
from each eye reaches both halves of the brain. The right sche-
matic illustration shows how our two visual fields are partially
overlapping, and form a common part. The visual fields are
shown here in a horizontal view, rather than in a vertical view.
Nowadays, however, sensory organs are often described as
sensory systems and the total energy flux striking them viewed
as information about the surrounding world and about ourselves.
The individual sensory organs receiving this information are not
merely passive receptors but jointly constitute an active, explor-
atory system in which all the senses intimately interact, supply-
ing us with an undergirded view of the world. So, we are spared
the task of having to consciously translate a myriad of individual
sensory impressions into coherent perception.
According to Gibson (1966) the eye does not really operate
like a camera. We are never conscious of the “stills” formed on
the retina. We only perceive the external world they represent.
The eye and head shift their attention constantly from one point
to another in our surroundings or in a picture. Thus, our vision
is an active, exploratory process. We usually concentrate our at-
tention to interesting events within a narrow segment of our total
field of vision. Bergström (1974) noted that visual information on
our surroundings is conveyed to the eye, a very imperfect optical
system.
19
Eye movements
Our eyes never remain still. They tremble at a frequency of about
30-90 Hz. This serves to shift all new information between the
individual cells in the retina. Thus, our eyes alter the fixation
points constantly. It also makes constant small jumps. We con-
stantly “scan” the things we look at.
By using complex instrumentation that allows the researcher
to record exactly where in a picture, or in a text, a person is look-
ing at any given moment, it is possible to study the way in which
the gaze wanders over a picture, pauses and fixes on certain
points. The gaze never fixes on most parts of a picture. Only cer-
tain image elements capture our attention.
This illustration shows a model of the retina (brown/orange).
There are plenty of sensory cells in the oval fovea (left). When
we look at a picture (middle) we only see some parts of it (right).
Only some of all sensory cells are activated. Eye fixations are
rapid, usually four to six per second. Only certain cells are acti-
vated at any time.
For early research of eye movements see: Berlyn, 1966; Bus-
well, 1925; Faw and Nunnaly, 1967, 1968; Fleming, 1969; Gould,
1967; Guba et al., 1964; Leckhart, 1966; Mackworth and Mo-
randi, 1967; Noton and Stark, 1971a, 1971b; Webb, Matheny, and
Larson, 1963; Yarbus, 1967; Zusne and Michels, 1964.
Eye movements are rapid
Yarbus (1967) found that fixation usually lasts for two to eight
tenths of a second and that eye movements between eye fixations
20
took from one to eight-hundredths of a second. So, we normally
view a picture by means of a large number of eye movements and
eye fixations in rapid succession. The location of each fixation in-
fluences how a picture is interpreted and later remembered (Nel-
son and Loftus, 1980).
Yarbus (1967) found that instructions given prior to viewing
determined what segments of the picture received the most at-
tention. The pattern of eye movements and fixations is entirely
different when our objective is to search for something in a pic-
ture. The things we wish to see in a picture have a major impact
on the location of eye fixations. Where we look and why we look
there determines what we see. Outside of the fovea the number
of sensory cells decline. Here the retina is less sensitive. How-
ever, these sensory cells are important for our “peripheral vi-
sion,” which is especially sensitive to movement and brightness,
both highly relevant to the detection of any approaching danger.
Eye movements on pictures
Faw and Nunnaly (1967, 1968) found that new pictures require
more eye fixations than pictures that subjects were already famil-
iar with. When the learner does not see, read, or hear what she
or he is expected to, or can’t find agreement between verbal and
visual content, the message is likely to be misunderstood. We will
pay attention to very large and to very small objects that are dif-
ferent in size, as well as any object with a special, interesting, or
unusual shape, or an unusual colour in a picture, and in our sur-
roundings.
Human brains are designed to understand images (Medina,
2008). Looking at pictures is a “natural” way of free exploring.
However, reading a text needs to be very structured with several
eye fixations on each line. The time for each fixation varies
among individuals and different texts (Ekwall, 1977), with the av-
erage time for good readers between 1/4–1/6 of a second. It also
takes from 1/25–1/30 of a second for the eye to move from one
21
fixation to the next and sweep from the end of one line to the be-
ginning of the next.
Each fixation takes about 1/5 of a second. In this case subjects
got the instruction: “Tell me what you see!” It takes only a few
seconds for adult subjects to recognize and “label” the content in
a simple picture like this (left). Some parts of a picture are never
“seen.” The green oval is the place for the first fixation (right).
We don’t see the movements (red lines).
Image framing
A frame around an image, or sometimes around an illustration
and text, may have different functions. Image framing can be at-
tentional, and/or functional. A frame will separate the image
from the surrounding context, and draw special attention to in-
formation within the frame. E.g. in a newspaper, framing is a way
of helping the readers to combine the corresponding text and pic-
tures on the page.
Registrations of eye fixations on an image, in one version
with a frame, and in another version without a frame, showed
that a frame was not distracting for adult viewers (Pettersson,
(1983a). Seventeen subjects viewed a drawing of Two flying
House Martins. The recorded fixations were plotted on outlines
of the image versions. Eight subjects viewed the frame version
and made 98 fixations. Nine subjects viewed the version without
22
a frame and made 117 fixations. Some parts of a picture are never
“seen.” All fixations were on the birds.
Subjects looked at this picture (left) of Two flying House Martins,
in this version with a frame, and in another version without the
frame. The results are shown in the two following pictures,
where all fixations from all subjects are noted. Some parts of a
picture are never “seen.” Subjects are aware of the frame (left)
but there are no fixations on it.
Later 30 adult subjects were individually shown both image
versions for about three seconds, and then asked if the images
were the same or not. Nine subjects answered that the images
were the same. Twenty-one subjects answered that the images
were different. Nineteen subjects had noticed that one image had
a frame. Many subjects were aware of the frame, which obviously
was not distracting.
Eye movements on text
At normal reading distance the angle of convergence is about 2o.
Then the text within foveal vision is five to seven letter spaces
(one cm). Normal reading speed is five to ten words per second
or 300-600 words per minute. Lawson (1968) has established
the physiological limit of reading as being a maximum of 720
words per minute. Ekwall (1977) calculated the maximum read-
ing speed of the most efficient reader as being 864 words per mi-
nute under ideal conditions.
23
Here are examples of eye fixations when a person read a small
section of a text. We read a text in a structured way with fixa-
tions along the lines, not on every word, and not always on the
actual words (red ovals). Each person will read the text some-
what different. We don’t see the actual movements (red lines).
Outside of the fovea the number of sensory cells decline.
Here the retina is less sensitive. However, these sensory cells are
important for our “peripheral vision,” which is especially sensi-
tive to movement and brightness, both highly relevant to the de-
tection of any approaching danger. The right hemisphere of the
brain is largely processing this fuzzy peripheral vision (Heilman,
Chatterjec and Doty, 1995). Following the initial global surveying
action, the brain identifies areas for more specific sharp focusing.
Eye movements and illustrated text
When reading an illustrated text many readers use the “global to
local scanning” method. Readers first glance briefly at the pic-
ture, read the text, and then return to the picture (Rayner et al.
2001; Underwood, 2005; Eitel, Scheiter, and Schüler, 2010).
However, some studies have shown that readers start finish the
text and then look at the picture (Schmidt-Weigand, 2009).
A number of scientists have found that pictures that are hard
to interpret require more eye fixations than “easy” pictures (Ber-
lyn, 1966; Faw and Nunnaly, 1967, 1968; Hochberg and Brooks,
1978; Leckhart, 1966; Mackworth and Morandi, 1967; Webb,
24
Matheny, and Larsson, 1963; Zusne and Michaels, 1964). Wolf
(1970) determined that “difficult” pictures require more fixations
up to a certain point. When a picture was extremely difficult, sub-
jects tended to avoid looking at it or searched for a visual centre.
However, neither Baron (1980) nor Nesbit (1981) found any cor-
relation between picture type and the number of fixations. But
the two latter scientists did employ a different method in their
studies than the authors mentioned previously.
Behnke (2016, 2017) recorded eye movements when 32 sub-
jects were asked to read five double-page spreads of German ge-
ography textbooks covering an identical topic. In each book the
content was presented with text, graphics, and photos. However,
the books differed with regard to layout and presentation of con-
tent. In many cases information contained in graphics was also
provided in the text. Participants first looked at the entire text-
book spread to determine what was being explained on the pages,
and then solved one of the tasks from the exercise section. The
eye-tracking investigation revealed that subjects mainly focused
on the texts. Subjects often looked rather superficially at the
graphics, and photos. Behnke concluded that graphics should
only contain relevant information related to the task and to the
overall topic of the textbook spread and should not include too
many different aspects of one topic in the same graphic.
Eye movements in visual narratives
In a visual narrative, like a comic strip, the pictures have a coher-
ent sequence. In two experiments, Foulsham, Wybrow, and Cohn
(2016) wanted to investigate how disrupting the visual sequence
of a comic strip would affect attention. There were 16 partici-
pants in experiment 1, and 14 participants in experiment 2. Foul-
sham, Wybrow, and Cohn recorded the fixation patterns of the
eye movements of the participants. Subjects understood pictures
more quickly and with fewer fixations when panels were pre-
sented one at a time rather than when a sequence was presented
all together. When order was randomised, the same pictures
25
required more attention and additional regressions. Fixation dis-
tributions also differed when the narrative was intact, showing
that context affects where we look.
Global to local scanning
Dake (1999) argued that visual literacy begins when the eyes scan
the visual field and make highly selective choices of spatial infor-
mation to construct a stable mental image of the world. One
study discovered that non-professional subjects used almost ex-
clusively small, local scan-paths (Zangemeister, Sherman and
Stark, 1995). Professional subjects, however, made many global
scans and had a large ratio between local to global scan paths.
Global to local scanning means that we notice the overall
structure or figure first and then the details or informative areas
(Antes and Penland, 1981; Biederman, 1981; Navon, 1977;
Printzmetal and Banks, 1977). Thus, we quickly find out which
details of a picture are the most informative ones, and then we
concentrate our attention to those parts. This global to local scan-
ning would seem to indicate that to get maximum impact from a
visual, the writer or the presenter should introduce the image
content before presenting the visual.
Colour blindness
Colour blindness, or better still “anomalies of colour vision,” is a
condition in which certain colour distinctions cannot be made.
Anomalies of colour vision is much more commonly observed
among men than among women, with estimates ranging as high
as 10% of the male population (Hartley, 1987; Ware, 2004).
Only 1% of the female population has anomalous colour vi-
sion. The failure to distinguish between red and green is most
common. Both hues are perceived as grey. Common colours in
graphic symbols are pure yellow, red, blue, green, white and
black, or combinations of these.
Unfortunately, red and green are often used as discriminat-
ing colours in symbols and in warning signs. Since many colour-
blind people perceive red and green as grey, colour can only be
26
used to code the information redundantly. Colour may be com-
bined with shape, and position, or with both, which is often seen
in traffic signs.
Sensory data and information
Pashler (1995) remarked that attention is a common word in or-
dinary language as well as a name of a field of study. This causes
misunderstandings. According to Pashler the concept of atten-
tion is part of what might be called a folk-psychological theory–
that is, an informal set of propositions people rely on to explain
their own and other people’s daily experience and behaviour.
Most present-day attention researchers work in the tradition
sometimes called information-processing psychology. Their goal
is not to characterise conscious experience per se, but rather to
trace the flow of information among different representational
systems in the brain.
Better information materials
However, the objective for this book is to provide a ground for
design of better information materials. Thus, the details of men-
tal information-processing will not be addressed here. This sec-
tion provides an “information design perspective” on attention.
We may help people to notice the important information. One of
the first problems for the information designer is to gain the at-
tention of people, and thereafter she or he has the continuing
problem of holding their attention.
Attention is closely related to the subject of consciousness
and entails selecting parts from all available sensory information,
and from memorised information, for further mental processing.
The process of attention is the control mechanism that deter-
mines which stimuli will be noticed and which will be ignored
(Carlson, 1993). Attention determines which events we become
conscious of. Attention can be considered as the activation of
groups of cells in the reticular activating system in the brain
stem.
27
The brain stem dates back to the reptilian era. It is the seat
of our emotions. It regulates basic life functions, sending us sur-
vival messages in response to danger, out of the range of our ra-
tional understanding. Urbina (1994) defined attention (p. 111):
“as a readiness on the part of the organism to perceive stimuli
that surround it.” Attention is never objective–it is always sub-
jective. We direct our attention to what we happen to be inter-
ested in; to special sounds; to things that move; are large, bold,
and clear; are new; have bright colour, an unusual shape, a dis-
tinct direction, or a good contrast; and that deviate from the sur-
roundings or from familiar patterns.
Feelings and needs
We direct our attention to contents that arouse different feelings
and needs. Pashler (1995) noted that a task that is given full at-
tention is accomplished quickly and efficiently. Ordinarily atten-
tion is under the control of our “will.” However, external stimuli
that are intense, novel, or significant may sometimes grab our
attention and we turn toward the stimulus. If, however, the stim-
ulus is repeated or continuous, the response will diminish. Tasks
that initially required full attention may become so automatic
that they can later be combined with other activities.
Magicians have learned the production of entertaining illu-
sions. Tufte (1997) noted that magic is to engage in disinfor-
mation design. Magicians know how to direct the attention of the
audience away from their conjuring tricks.
In any given situation there are always far more stimuli than
we can ever notice and transfer to the short-term memory. We
have to select the data and the information we want to see or hear
and we ignore the rest. Most stimuli remain unknown, unseen,
and unheard of. Only a small amount of the visual information
available to the retina can be processed. Thus, objects ‘‘compete’’
at a neuronal level for representation and processing (Desimone
and Duncan, 1995). Objects with high contrast are more visually
salient than other objects. The visually salient objects tend to be
28
processed with enhanced signal strength (Serences and Yantis,
2006).
Sensory data become information
For Stern and Robinson (1994) the selection of sensory data is
the first part of perception. However, many researchers see this
selection as attention. Winn (1993a) discussed the problem at
what point sensory data become information. He wrote (p. 58):
At what point do sensory data become information? Opin-
ions on this have varied. On the one hand, Gibson (1979) has
proposed that information exists in the environment, in the
very light that enters our eyes. All humans have to do is pick
it up and use it. Others have claimed that nothing can make
any sense to us at all until it has been processed, top-down,
by conscious attention; even that which we perceive in the
first place is determined by what we know and therefore ex-
pect to perceive (Neisser, 1976). Recent research suggests a
middle ground. While existing knowledge and attentive pro-
cessing are important for recognition, identification, and so
on, a great deal of organizing goes on pre-attentively. This
means that conscious attentional processes are given data to
work with that already have an organization that can predis-
pose the perceiver toward particular interpretations.
For the message designer the main concern may be to find ways
to influence the audience to really attend to their information
materials. The efficacy of the attention process is measured by
the advantage that attended tasks have over unattended tasks. It
is also measured by the ability to resist distraction.
Attention plays an important role in memory. By exerting
control over the information that reaches the short-term
memory, it determines what information ultimately becomes
stored in our explicit memory, or declarative memory (Carlson,
1993; Pines, 1986). This is the memory for facts, the memory of
which we are aware. We know that we have learned something,
29
and we can discuss this with other people. However, the storage
of information in our implicit, or procedural memory does not
require conscious attention. This is the memory for skills. It is
our unconscious memory that is capable of controlling rather
complex behaviours.
There are many different stimuli around us. Among all the
available stimuli we can only attend to a few of them (here red).
We have to ignore most of all the available stimuli.
30
Attention qualities
The literature on attention and perception is vast and it ranges
from fine-grained psycho-physiological work on pre-attentive
processes to the more general study of the perception and inter-
pretation of illustration, text, and speech. One of the first prob-
lems for the information designer is to gain the attention of peo-
ple, and thereafter she or he has the continuing problem of hold-
ing their attention.
This main section includes the following sections: Attention
time span, Attention to colour, Attention to movement, Atten-
tion to novelty, Attention to information sets, and Attention to
oral communication.
Attention time span
An “attention time span” is the length of time a subject can focus
on an object or a topic. Our attention will usually not last for long.
Any information material and any presentation must constantly
redraw the attention to hold the interest of the viewer. A presen-
tation may hold the viewer’s attention when the rhythm, layout,
and pace are not predictable and boring. Ormrod (1989) pointed
out that as children grow, their attention spans grow with them.
They can concentrate on tasks for longer periods of time and can
more easily “block out” objects and events that are irrelevant to
a task at hand. Young children may choose to pay attention either
to a whole picture or to specific parts of it. For children until
about nine years of age it might be difficult to switch attention
between a part and the whole (Pettersson, 1989a).
When people turn on their television set they might not be
interested in the programme. In Japan, television-viewing habits
were recorded for participants in the Hi-OVIS project (Matsu-
shita, 1988). During the first 30 seconds, people sometimes
switched between 15–20 different channels. Thus, people only
spent one to two seconds viewing the television image and decid-
ing if the programme was interesting or not. Viewers did not take
the time to actually listen to the sound. Their decisions were
31
based on the pictorial style and the contents. According to
Biederman (1995) people can usually interpret the meaning of a
novel scene on television from a 100-millisecond exposure to it.
Moving pictures in movies and television can trigger associ-
ations and easily influence emotions and attitudes (Zakia, 1985).
Commissioned by the Director's Guild in honour of its 50th an-
niversary in 1986, the film Precious Images was a gift to the
American movie audiences. This short consists of a 6.5-minute
assemblage of classic moments from 469 favourite movies. Some
moments linger for a few seconds but many are as short as eight
frames (1/3 of a second), averaging 20 frames (less than a sec-
ond). It is a strange experience to see this film. The carefully cho-
sen images retain their meaning and emotional impact, and trig-
ger your memory. However, in my view you need to see the film
several times in order to fully appreciate it.
Contrast, graphics, shading, split screens, text, voiceover
narration and zoom lens movements are tools to emphasize im-
portant details within moving pictures (Leshin, Pollock, and Rei-
geluth, 1992).
When people get new messages they immediately begin to
interpret their meanings (Anderson, 2009). Web designers have
only 50 milliseconds to make a good first impression (Lindgaard
et al., 2006). Thus, it is important how the content is presented.
The length of an educational video is an important factor to
keep students watching it until the end. The optimal length for
videos is six minutes or shorter (Buchner, 2018).
Attention to colour
Colour enhances the attention and perception of a visual mes-
sage. If people like the contents in a picture, they like them even
more when the visual is presented in colour. Although full colour
photographs increase the costs, publishers of textbooks should
make the number of such books more available to primary audi-
ences (Ramsey, 1989).
32
Fleming and Levie (1978) noted that in visual displays con-
taining several figures of one colour or one shape, a figure of a
different colour or a different shape attracts our attention. Ibison
(1952), Rudisill (1952), Dwyer (1971), and Spangenberg (1976) all
claim that even if colour is not adding any important information
to an image, it may still contribute to better learning because the
interest may increase, and learners may pay attention to the im-
age. A black and white picture represents reality in a different
way than colour pictures. In black and white, all colours are
transformed into values of grey. Hue adds the “colour-dimen-
sion.” Hue may also act as a formal element in a composition and
direct the attention of the viewer.
According to Gatto, Porter, and Selleck (2011, p. 72) “colour
appeals directly to our senses and emotions.” Colour is consid-
ered to be an important element that decides the mood of design
(Lohr, 2010). For example, pastel colours convey the feelings of
quietness and peacefulness. In addition, using similar colours
produces the sense of harmony while using contrasting colours
produces the sense of power. Using a blue background increases
the likelihood that the information delivered will be remembered
(Kumi et al., 2013, p. 12).
Warm colours (yellow, orange, red, and brown) are active,
stimulating, and arousing. Warm colours create greater feelings
of arousal than those of cool colours (Bellizzi and Hite, 1992;
Wolfson and Case, 2000).
Cool colours (blue, turquoise, and violet) induce relaxation
and pleasure, and are restful and quiet (Bellizzi and Hite, 1992).
Blue and green colours can be used as background colours. Blue
makes people feel fresh, peaceful, and tranquil, and green make
people feel fresh, peaceful, and tranquil (Su and Ma, 2010). Fur-
thermore, cool colours seem to recede while warm colours seem
to come forward (Gatto et al., 2011).
33
Attention to movement
As previously noted our peripheral vision is especially sensitive
to brightness and movement, both highly relevant to the detec-
tion of any approaching danger. According to Fleming and Levie
(1978) this pre-attentive vision provides a global, holistic view of
the visual field in which figures are separated from each other.
Movement or change in a picture or in an event attracts our at-
tention and therefore causes many eye fixations. Other infor-
mation may be totally unseen and lost.
Hubel and Wiesel (1962) found that many sensory cells in
vision responded only very weakly to uniform light but very vig-
orously to changes in light intensity. This principle also applies
to other sensory cells, i.e., the cells respond primarily to change.
Sensory cells are also quickly exhausted.
There seem to be different degrees of efficiency of attention
in different situations. The context in which a visual message is
presented is important for the way we perceive the message.
When certain elements are in motion and others are stationary,
the moving elements will be perceived as figure elements, and
stationary ones will be perceived as ground elements (Lidwell,
Holden, and Butler, 2010, p. 50). For example, the context may
consist of music, other visuals, sound effects, speech, and often-
printed text.
When we view a film or a television programme our attention
is on either the image or on the sound. Image and sound cannot
be the “figure” at the same time. This is even more obvious when
we look at a multi-image slide and film presentation. As soon as
the film starts, our attention is directed towards the movement
in the film, away from the surrounding stills. The surrounding
stills become the ground. It is impossible for viewers not to be
influenced by the movement. The fact that one must select infor-
mation implies that there are limits to the ability to perceive,
think, or do several things at once.
Acuity falls rapidly outside of the fovea. However, some in-
formation can be processed from our peripheral vision. The gist
34
of a picture or of an event can be understood after only a few eye
fixations. Gibson (1966), Moray (1970), and many of their suc-
cessors (e.g., Edwards and Coolkasian, 1974) feel that move-
ments detected in peripheral parts of our visual field automati-
cally cause the eyeball to shift position to permit fixation and full
attention of these movements. Animation is common in several
media, like video, computer games and on the Internet. The
movement is powerful and attracts our attention (Ormrod,
1989). Other information may be totally unseen and lost. The re-
lation of figure to ground is particularly determinative of motion
perception, which is highly related to our perception of depth.
Perception of motion is influenced by contextual variables.
Many visitors to Science Museums are deaf or hard of hear-
ing. Usually exhibition contents remain out of reach for individ-
uals who communicate in sign language. In one study Vesel and
Robillard (2018) found that visual features available in signing
dictionaries effectively provided deaf or hard of hearing children
with access to exhibit contents.
Sign languages provide unique insights into human language
that cannot be obtained by studying spoken languages alone. Ac-
cording to Emmorey (2023) people need to know the following
ten main facts about sign languages.
1. Sign languages have phonology and poetry.
2. Sign languages vary in their linguistic structure and family
history but share some typological features due to their
shared biology (manual production).
3. Although there are many similarities between perceiving
and producing speech and sign, the biology of language can
impact aspects of processing.
4. Iconicity is pervasive in sign language lexicons and can play
a role in language acquisition and processing.
5. Deaf and hard-of-hearing children are at risk for language
deprivation.
6. Signers gesture when signing.
35
7. Sign language experience enhances some visual-spatial
skills.
8. The same left-hemisphere brain regions support both spo-
ken and sign languages, but some neural regions are specific
to sign language.
9. Bimodal bilinguals can code-blend, rather code-switch,
which alters the nature of language control.
10. The emergence of new sign languages reveals patterns of
language creation and evolution.
Attention to novelty
Fleming and Levie (1978) and Ormrod (1989) noted that novelty
and whatever stands in contrast to immediate past experience or
to life-long experience grab our attention. Something unusual
will capture our attention almost every time. Attention is not nec-
essarily drawn to the excessively loud, bright, or extraordinary,
only to what is quantitatively different from what has been at-
tended to previously. Thus, attention is drawn to changes. Flem-
ing and Levie (1978) argued that in directing our attention, we
seek for a balance between novelty and familiarity, between com-
plexity and simplicity, between uncertainty and certainty. Famil-
iarity in excess produces boredom, while novelty in excess pro-
duces anxiety.
The competition for our attention is usually very fierce in ad-
vertising and in propaganda. In accordance with Key (1977), the
average adult in the USA was exposed to over 500 advertising
messages daily in 1977, of which he or she consciously perceived
around 75. Now, there are even more messages. Weilenman
(1999) reported that every person in Stockholm, Sweden, is ex-
posed to over 2 000 advertising messages daily in 1999. Accord-
ing to Norén (1999) the figure is between 3 000 and 4 000. These
authors did not report on how many messages people actually
pay attention to.
Moriarty (1991, p. 5) sees an advertisement as a conversation
with a customer about a product. “It gets attention, it provides
36
information, it tries to make a point, and it encourages you to
buy, try, or do something. It tries to create some kind of response
or reaction. It speaks to the heart as well as the head.” Advertis-
ing is also a form of mass-communication, which is much more
complex than a regular conversation.
Advertisements in newspapers, and advertising flyers, must
be noticed otherwise they are useless. Here, unusual typefaces
can be useful. In these situations, the graphical form should stim-
ulate attention, entice the reader to look at the headings and pic-
tures and then actually begin reading the text. Since there are
over 60,000 different typefaces (with still more being intro-
duced), it is easy to combine them in many ways (Mijksenaar,
1997). Most of these typefaces are, however, of limited value.
Usually only a very few typefaces are needed in information ma-
terials.
Attention to information sets
The intended message may be hidden within verbal or visual
puns, within metaphors, satires, parodies, or within humour. In
these cases, designers break the traditional rules or guidelines of
instructional message design. It might also be possible to delib-
erately use the unexpected to attract attention to instructional
materials. Mayer (1993a) stated that (p. 258-259):
The first cognitive prerequisite for meaningful learning is
that the learner pay attention to the relevant information. To
accomplish this goal, the text must actually contain poten-
tially relevant information; the instructional designer must
successfully employ a procedure for identifying the relevant
information; and the instructional designer must effectively
draw the learner’s attention to the relevant information.
So, message designers can make important contributions to the
attention of relevant information. Unema et al. (2005) found that
duration of eye fixations tends to be longer on informative visual
elements than on less informative elements.
37
Attention to text
Winn (1993) noted that in text, attention is drawn to words or
passages that stand in contrast to the rest of the body of the text.
Readers rarely, if ever, begin at the beginning and read
straight through a text all the way to the end. Usually we use a
combination of browsing, reading headings, looking at illustra-
tions and captions, reading certain parts carefully, skimming
others, and avoiding some parts completely.
The reading procedure is of great importance to the reader's
capacity for understanding a text (Gunnarsson, 1982). In “nor-
mal reading,” we direct our attention towards how we shall inter-
pret the meaning of a sentence. Studying the syntax becomes
subordinate to orienting our thoughts amid the semantic and
pragmatic relationships that form the text's warp and woof. Text
comprehension is a constructive process, in which the readers
build their perception of the whole by integrating the text with
their own experiences.
Keller and Burkman (1993) noted that it is important to cre-
ate a positive impression and to give courseware a comfortable
image in order to gain and to maintain learner attention and to
build confidence.
The structure of a text should be as clear as possible. Internal
text structure is built into the text itself. External text structure
relates to the embedded strategies that focus a learner’s attention
on particular parts of the text (Jonassen and Kirschener, 1982).
Headings should always be relevant and identify the subject mat-
ter. The purposes of headings are to attract the attention of the
readers, make the subject matter readily apparent, and indicate
the relative importance of items. Jonassen (1982) noted that the
headings on different hierarchic levels will provide the readers
with reference points and help them cognitively organise infor-
mation for better retention and recall.
38
Attention to pictures
Visuals are perceived much more rapidly and readily than text
(Fleming and Levie, 1978, 1993; Sinatra, 1986). Lester (1995, p.
73) noted that: “Visual messages are a powerful form of commu-
nication because they stimulate both intellectual and emotional
responses–they make us think as well as feel.” Many authors
have suggested various roles, functions, objectives and purposes
for the use of illustrations–often without a great deal of evidence
to support their suggestions.
Hannus (1996) used eye-movement equipment and studied
how pupils picked up information while learning from textbooks.
He concluded that the learning effects of textbook illustrations
are slight because not enough attention is paid to the illustrations
in the books. Thus, the learning functions of illustrations were
less than he had expected.
Vogel, Dickson, and Lehman, (1986) showed that visual
presentation support is persuasive. There is a picture facilitating
effect. In one study, presentations using visual aids were 43%
more persuasive than unaided presentations. At the same time,
research in the area of reading indicates that the type of pictures
that are used is an important variable in reading comprehension
(Levin, Anglin, and Carney, 1987). However, unfortunately this
becomes less important in reality since most students do not at-
tend to the visuals at all. Many pictures in textbooks obviously
remain “unseen” (Reinking, 1986; Weidenmann, 1989; Petters-
son, 1990; Peeck, 1993, 1994). Neither teachers, nor students at-
tend to these pictures.
Nelson-Knupfer and Stock-McIsaac (1992) studied the ef-
fects of grey shades in instructional materials. Their results indi-
cated that no group of subjects remembered very much of the
graphics at all. Along with similar reading speed between the
groups, the results supported earlier claims that readers do not
really pay attention to visuals used in text.
With respect to graphic design of statistical graphics Tufte
(1983) concluded that (p. 87):
39
Graphical competence demands three quite different skills:
the substantive, statistical, and artistic. Yet most graphical
work today, particularly in news publications, is under the
direction of but a single expertise–the artistic. Allowing art-
ist-illustrators to control the design and content of statistical
graphics is almost like allowing typographers to control the
content, style, and editing of prose. Substantive and quanti-
tative expertise must also participate in the design of data
graphics, at least if statistical integrity and graphical sophis-
tication are to be achieved.
Later, Tufte argued (1997, p. 48) that good design brings absolute
attention to data. Piqueras-Fiszman et al. (2013) found that
graphics on jam jars attracted more attention than the text on the
package.
Eye movements reflect human thought processes and also
visual attention processes. Thus, they offer a “window to the
mind” (Holsanova 2014, p. 317). The importance of eye move-
ments can be summarized in the following five points:
• Only certain image elements attract our interest.
• The pattern for eye movements and fixations depends on
what we wish to see or are told to see in a picture.
• Informative parts of a picture attract more fixations than less
informative parts.
• Different kinds of pictures give rise to different kinds of fixa-
tions and intelligence and visual learning.
• There is a positive correlation between the number of fixa-
tions and intelligence and visual learning.
Quick vision is when a visual directs the student’s gaze, the move-
ment of the eye that assists the student in quickly finding infor-
mation (Bodén and Stenliden 2019). In opposition, locked vision
is when a visual directs and holds the student’s gaze, supporting
the student in focusing on, holding on to, and following a bar.
40
Accordingly, the interlinked actors are performative as they work
upon and influence each other.
Attention to symbols
Any warning, and any symbol, must attract attention and be
readily understood by the intended audience, the persons who
need the information (Dewar and Arthur, 1999). The message
must be legible at the appropriate distance and must often be leg-
ible when seen for a short period of time under bad lighting con-
ditions. A driver on a highway may only have a second or two to
read a signpost. Then the message in the warning must be men-
tally processed and understood correctly. The action to be taken
should be immediately obvious.
Furthermore, the message in the warning must be able to
motivate the intended receivers to comply with the desired be-
haviour (Wogalter, 1999). Here, colour may be combined with
shape and position.
Attention to instruction
In one study Nuhoğlu Kibar (2023) compared the effect of in-
struction that was enriched either with simple or with complex
graphics on perception, interpretation of visuals in terms of the
visual language used, and on the orientation of attention on vis-
uals during perception and interpretation of visuals.
The study was designed based on the randomised pre-test-
post-test control group experimental research method to explore
the learnable structure of visual literacy skills. The research fo-
cussed on visual language knowledge, one of the basic visual
reading skills. According to the results of the research conducted
at the level of higher education, the use of simple or complex
graphics in teaching did not make a difference in terms of per-
ception of visual language knowledge, but simple graphics had a
significant effect on the interpretation. It appears that the use of
simple graphics is more effective in the development of visual
language knowledge. These findings will make an important con-
tribution to research and practice regarding the improvable
41
structure of visual literacy. In future studies, visual literacy skills
can be examined by adding visual writing as a dimension to ex-
amine the relationship between instruction types.
Attention to layout
See the section Emphasis in the book Image Design for emphasis
in pictures and symbols, and the section Providing emphasis in
the book Graphic Design for ways to create emphasis in text, ty-
pography and layout.
Attention to oral communication
Many teachers spend most of their time in the classrooms talking
to their classes (Ferrington, 1994; Gustafsson, 1980a, 1980b;
Pettersson et al., 1993; Sigurgeirsson, 1990). It appears that
teachers generally teach the way they were taught, following the
traditional approach to education, providing pre-packaged infor-
mation to students. No doubt, the lecture method has been the
most common method of instruction in western education for
centuries. In its early forms, the lecture method was a practised
art form, a form of theatrical performance designed to grab and
to hold the attention of the students.
In this model a presenter attracts attention (1) and holds it (2)
for a while (red). However, another stimulus (3) grabs the at-
tention of the viewer/listener, who is further distracted (4) by
something new. Then it is hard for the presenter to gain the in-
terest of the viewer, who again (5) will attend to something else
than the presentation. It is easy to lose an audience, and hard to
get it back. Unattended stimuli are white in the picture.
42
Until the advent of low-cost books, the lecture method was
actually the most economical method of transmitting infor-
mation. However, modern teachers are usually not selected for
their lecturing and theatrical skills. The lecture method is under
frequent attack.
Cochran (1987) concluded that humans couldn’t transfer
ideas whole and intact from one person to another. Human com-
munication depends upon an interactive series of successive ap-
proximations presented in metaphors. She found “languaging”
useful in directing attention to the actions of people as they share
their own ideas, listen to others, or learn from technologically
produced sights and sounds. An oral presentation may consist
solely of speech, but this is usually not sufficient for achieving the
best possible communications.
Various media may be used in oral communication in order
to improve attention and perception. Here attention can be ap-
pealed to directly through the use of verbal imperatives (look, lis-
ten, notice, observe, see) as well as by asking questions and pos-
ing problems to the audience. Such guides to learner attention
are very useful in increasing the effectiveness of illustrations
(Kahneman, 1973).
43
Attention theories
There are several attention models and attention theories. Clem-
ents (1984) concluded: “the attentional process is relatively dif-
fuse” (p. 146). “Associationists,” behaviourists, Gestalt psycholo-
gists, and psychoanalytic theorists tended to neglect attention in
their postulations. Since the mid-1950s, however, there has been
a lot of interest in attention. Modern Russian psychologists stud-
ied the orienting reflex or orienting response, which consists of a
cluster of physiological changes in the surroundings (Urbina,
1994). This field of knowledge includes two areas of knowledge
called capacity theories, and resource models.
This main section includes the following sections: Capacity
theories, and Resource models.
Capacity theories
Attention makes us receptive to specific data and information in
our environment (external context). Among the thousands of
stimuli in the external context we only feel, hear, see, smell, taste,
or “pay attention to” one stimulus at a time. Attention is direct,
distinct, and sudden. The sequential flow of attention to the parts
of a message is determined by the sequence in which data and
information is presented to us. New impressions are dependent
on and interpreted against the background of our previous expe-
rience, learning, and memory, i.e. our frame of reference.
When we attend to something we select that data or infor-
mation for further processing. Attention can be considered as the
activation of groups of brain cells. In any given situation there
are always far more stimuli than we can ever notice and transfer
to the short-term memory. We have to select the data and the
information we want to see or hear and we ignore the rest. Most
stimuli remain unknown, unseen, and unheard of.
Filter theory
Broadbent (1958) studied selectivity of attention and he pro-
posed a filter theory. According to this theory we are not able to
44
attend to more than one stimulus at a time. Broadbent suggested
that while a large amount of sensory information can be ab-
sorbed at one time, a selective filter (the attention mechanism)
reduces the input from one source while that from another
source is being analysed by the brain. Here attention is a limited
capacity channel that determines the serial processing of the per-
ceptual system.
Pertinent stimuli theory
We can pay attention to the content of a message, to the execu-
tion of that message, to the context in which the message is pre-
sented, and to the actual format or medium that carries the mes-
sage. All of these factors may influence our attention.
The filter theory did not allow for the influence of long-term
memory or the meaning of the stimulus. However, subsequent
experiments showed that the content of an unattended message
might be perceived if it is relevant. Semantic characteristics of
the stimulus affect attention. Deutsch and Deutsch (1963), and
Norman (1967) suggested that we analyse all inputs but only at-
tend to pertinent stimuli.
Pre-attentive processing theory
Certain simple shapes or colours “pop out” from their surround-
ings (Ware, 2000). This is called “pre-attentive processing.”
Ware wrote (p. 163): “In essence, pre-attentive processing deter-
mines what visual objects are offered up to our attention.” The
features that are pre-attentively processed can be organised into
categories based on colour, form, motion, and spatial position.
In information materials graphic form, pictures, sound, and
words compete for our attention. Information materials must get
attention and maintain attention. In order to facilitate attention,
the information designer should use pictures that are interesting
enough for the intended audience. It is a good idea to use differ-
ent types of visuals, and provide pictures of the human figure, in
particular pictures of the face.
45
Resource models
There are several attention resource models, such as a two-pro-
cess theory, a sudden attention theory, an arousal theory, a mul-
tiple resource theory, a misdirecting attention theory, a location
and shape theory, an attention time span theory, a colour atten-
tion theory, a brightness and movement theory, and a novelty at-
tention theory.
Two-process theory
Neisser (1967) outlined a two-process theory that made attention
a matter of degree. Properties of the stimuli as well as properties
of semantic factors play a role in attention. Neisser argued for a
constructive view of cognition in which perception is shaped by
existing knowledge. Thus, attention is influenced by experience
and knowledge.
Sudden attention theory
Kahneman (1973) presented a model of attention with deliberate
allocation of mental resources. In addition to unconscious pro-
cesses, attention can be consciously focused. One example of this
is our sudden attention when you hear someone in a crowd men-
tion your own name. The model also introduced the idea of at-
tention as a skill that can be improved. This skill may be used for
improvement of our learning processes.
Multiple resource theory
Wickens (1980, 1984, 1991), and Klapp and Netick (1988) sug-
gested a multiple resource model of attention and further pro-
cessing. Resource models based on individually allocated pools
of resources have been developed to explain the effects of struc-
tural alteration and time sharing that cannot be effectively ex-
plained by other attention models.
Arousal theory
Eysenck (1982) examined the relationship between attention and
arousal and concluded that there are two types of arousal: one
passive and general system that can raise or lower the overall
46
level of attention, and another specific, compensatory system
that allows attention to be focused on certain tasks.
Misdirecting attention theory
According to Sweller et al. (1990) all cognitive tasks place de-
mands on a pool of limited cognitive resources. When a task im-
poses a heavy load on the cognitive system, it will in turn inter-
fere with learning by misdirecting attention and limiting remain-
ing resources that are necessary for construction of knowledge.
Presentation of content may be designed to avoid cognitive over-
load (Mayer and Moreno, 2003; Sweller, 1994). Harber (1983)
and Rose (1986) found that pictures distracted the attention of
low-ability learners from the text, and as a result the reading
comprehension was low.
Location and shape theory
Carlson (1993) concluded that studies with visually presented in-
formation indicate that attention can focus on location or on
shape. We can pay attention to particular objects or to stimuli
that occur in a particular place. This is especially important for
those who design warnings and symbols. Irregular and unpre-
dictable shapes dominate basic and regular shapes. Such shapes
attract more attention than basic and regular shapes. Most peo-
ple can easily perceive the basic shapes, and there is a large de-
gree of perceptual constancy in the perception of shape.
47
Attention and message design
We are almost always paying attention to something, whether it
is information in our environment or information already in our
heads. Paying attention requires mental effort. Usually we can
only attend to one thing at a time. Fleming and Levie (1978)
stated that one of the message designer’s first problems is to gain
the attention of the audience, and thereafter she or he has the
continuing problem of holding the attention.
A general attending is often insufficient, for attention must
be directed narrowly and as precisely as possible to critical as-
pects of the subject matter. Winn (1993) argued that a great deal
of perceptual organisation occurs pre-attentively, not under cog-
nitive control. The way a message is organised will have an im-
portant effect on the way the perceptual system structures what
it detects and the perceiver will not be aware of how that infor-
mation is interpreted.
Bodén, Stenliden and Nissen (2023) found that image fac-
tors such as use of colour, highlighting, and movement in visuals
at-tract the attention of students. At the same time the written
texts often became subordinate to images, and sometimes even
“invisible”. The authors concluded that it is vital that teachers di-
dactically support the development of students’ visual reading
skills.
This main section includes the following sections: Ecological
Interface Design, Facilitating attention to colour, Facilitating
attention to layout, Facilitating attention to pictures, Facilitat-
ing attention to symbols, and Facilitating attention to text.
48
Ecological Interface Design
Several approaches to Human Machine Interface design, HMI
design, have been proposed in literature. One approach is Eco-
logical Interface Design, EID. Here, the aim is to visualize the
constraints of a work system in a clear way. The operator must
be able to understand the structure of the actual system, and in-
stantly understand when he/she needs to administer any safety
actions.
An introduction of autonomous Small Unmanned Aircraft
Systems (sUAS) into low-altitude urban airspace necessitates
high levels of system safety. Friedrich and Vollrath (2021) based
their “display design concept” that aims to support safety risk
monitoring of multiple sUAS by a human operator. Despite in-
creased system autonomy, humans will most likely remain essen-
tial components in assuring safety.
The authors derives, applies, and evaluates a special display
design concept that aims to support the safety risk monitoring of
multiple sUAS by a human operator. The idea is to: 1) limit the
complexity of the display by visualizing highly abstracted infor-
mation, and 2) hide detailed information of lower abstraction.
Highly abstracted functions are visualized by function-specific
icons. These change hue in accordance to specified system states.
The design concept support the human operator in identifying
off-nominal situations by implementing design properties that
guide visual attention. The display was evaluated in a study with
seven subject matter experts. Preliminary results favour the pro-
posed display design concept. The next steps for further explor-
ing the proposed display design concept are outlined.
49
Facilitating attention to colour
To some extent colour is a language of its own. Colour creates
instant impact and it becomes a vital part of the first impression.
Therefore, colours can be used as effective signals in information
design. In order for colour to be used as efficient cues and attract
attention to, or attract attention within information materials we
can:
• Consider any embedded meanings of different colours when
using colours to accent words in a text (Hartley, 1987).
• Explain and limit the number of colour codes must be limited
and they must always be explained (Pettersson, 1989, 1993).
Improper use of colour can be distracting, fatiguing, and up-
setting and it can actually produce negative results.
• Use bright and bold and bright colours to capture attention
(Ormrod, 1989).
• Use colour and grey scale to influence the perception of size.
Open and light forms are perceived as being larger than
closed and darker forms of the same shape (Winn, 1993a).
• Use colour as an accenting device (Christ, 1975; Dwyer, 1978;
Katzman and Nyenhuis, 1972; Lamberski, 1972; Whiteside
and Blohm, 1985; Winn, 1993a; Wogalter, 1999).
• Use colour coding as an accenting device to improve attention
in documents, in signs and in symbols (Bradshaw, 2003;
Christ, 1975; Dwyer, 1978; Hannafin and Peck, 1988;
Katzman and Nyenhuis, 1972; Lamberski, 1972; Pettersson,
1989a, 1989b, 1993; Whiteside and Blohm, 1985; Winn,
1993a; Wogalter, 1999).
• Use colour to clarify the structure of a text. Certain parts of
the text may be printed with colours or printed on top of back-
grounds in different colours (Pettersson, 1989a, 1993).
• Use colour to enhance attention to a visual message (Dwyer,
1978, 1985).
• Use full colour photographs in textbooks for primary audi-
ences (Ramsey, 1989).
50
Facilitating attention to layout
Graphic design is a tool with which we can manipulate the raw
materials–words, empty space, illustrations, colour, paper and
ink, and the final number of pages–to achieve the best possible
communications between people. Layout and typography should
be transparent and not stick out and cause any specific attention
in information materials. However, sometimes, it may be im-
portant to direct attention to specific parts within information
materials. In such cases we can:
• Always provide a good contrast between figure and ground
(Wileman, 1993)
• Put pictures as close to the relevant text as possible (Benson,
1985; Braden, 1983; Haber and Hershenson, 1980; Hartley
and Burnhill, 1977; MacDonald-Ross, 1977; Mayer, 1993;
Mayer and Sims, 1994; Mayer et al., 1995; Moreno and Mayer,
2000; Pettersson, 1989a, 1989b, 1993; Wright, 1982).
• Put pictures between the appropriate paragraphs in the text
to get maximum impact (Pettersson, 1989a. 1989b, 1993).
• Select font, or fonts, based on the audience and the purpose
of the document (Benson, 1985).
• Set headings in different type versions to aid comprehension
of the text content (Jonassen, 1982; Mayer, 1993a).
• Use “bleed” (covering the entire page, with no margins) crea-
tively to expand the impact of attention-getting images
(White, 1987).
• Use arrows in various colours in order to draw attention to a
picture (Beck, 1984; Goldsmith, 1984; Lamberski and Dwyer,
1983; Pettersson, 1993).
• Use bullets, arrows, icons, underlining, margin notes, repeti-
tion, and/or white space to highlight the relevant information
(Mayer, 1993a).
• Use captions to direct attention and interest within pictures
(Pettersson, 2003).
51
• Use combinations of dark and bright, large and small, round
and square, to sharpen meaning (Pettersson, 1993).
• Use highlighting techniques to enhance relevant information
(Pettersson, 2003).
• Use imbalance within a picture or within a text (Fleming and
Levie, 1978).
• Use lines in various colours in order to draw attention to a
picture or to specific picture elements (Beck 1984; Goldsmith,
1984; Lamberski and Dwyer, 1983; Pettersson, 1993).
• Use pictures that are tilted on the page to attract attention
(White, 1987).
• Use the composition to direct the viewers (Wileman, 1993).
• Use unexpected, irregular, and unstable design to attract at-
tention (Fleming and Levie, 1978, 1993).
Facilitating attention to pictures
A large number of researchers propose that pictures may be used
to attract attention, gain attention, get attention, hold attention
and maintain attention to a given material or a given subject. The
receiver must see or rather “discover” each picture and actually
read the message in an active and selective way. We can:
• Exaggerate the shape of a known person or object, as in cari-
cature or cartoons to draw attention to the whole figure or to
particular relevant features of it (Fleming and Levie, 1978).
• Instruct the readers to really use the pictures (Hannus, 1996;
Peeck, 1993, 1994; Pettersson, 1990, 1993; Reinking, 1986;
Weidenmann, 1989).
• Make pictures in colour so they resemble the real world
(White, 1987).
• Make the most important part of the subject large and clear
(Ormrod, 1989).
• Put pictures on odd-numbered pages. They attract more at-
tention than pictures on even pages (Pettersson, 1989b,
1993).
52
• Use captions to direct attention within pictures (Winn,
1993a).
• Use different types of visuals (Gayer, 1992).
• Use picture elements that are bold enough to see (Wileman,
1993).
• Use pictures of the human figure, in particular the face. Our
faces will get maximum attention in images (Goldsmith,
1984; Pettersson, 2002a).
• Use several kinds of visual types, such as diagrams, drawings,
photos to increase interest in a material (Pettersson, 1989b,
1993).
• Write a caption for each picture (Bernard, 1990; Pettersson,
1993).
Facilitating attention to symbols
The receiver must be able to see or rather “discover” symbols.
This is especially true for different kinds of warning signs. Some-
times we may be able to influence these possibilities:
• According to ANSI (1998) warning signs and labels for haz-
ards should contain a signal word panel that includes the
terms DANGER (in red), WARNING (in orange), or CAU-
TION (in yellow), and an alert symbol (a triangle surrounding
an exclamation point).
• An effective warning must initially attract attention (Conzola
and Wogalter, 2001).
• Combine colour with shape and position (Wogalter, 1999).
• Make warning signs of high contrast relative to their back-
ground (Barlow and Wogalter, 1993).
• Provide warning signs with adequate reflectance and good
lighting (Sanders and McCormick, 1993).
• Provide warning signs with properties that allow them to be
seen in degraded conditions such as low illumination, smoke,
or fog (Lerner and Collins, 1983).
• Put warning signs close to the hazard (Wogalter, 1999).
53
• The choice of colour should also depend on the environment
in which the warning is placed (Young, 1991).
• Use a combination of pictographs and words in complex
warning messages (Dewar and Arthur, 1999).
• Use a signal word such as “Danger”; a description of the haz-
ard such as “Shallow water”; a description of the conse-
quences that could occur; the specific actions that should or
should not be done, such as “No diving” (Wogalter, 1999).
• Use arrows and lines in various colours for wayshowing
(Mollerup, 2005).
• Use arrows and lines in various colours to draw attention
within information materials (Beck, 1984; Lamberski and
Dwyer, 1983; Pettersson, 1993).
• Use clear and distinct symbols for warnings (Dewar and Ar-
thur, 1999).
• Use clear and distinct symbols for wayshowing (Mollerup,
2005).
• Use large, legible bold-faced alphanumeric characters on
warning signs (Wogalter, 1999).
• Use pictograms as guides for directing the users’ attention to
key elements in manuals (Kovačević, Brozović, and Možina,
2016).
Facilitating attention to text
In order to attract and hold attention to texts in information ma-
terials the message designer can:
• Create a positive impression and give courseware a comfort-
able image to gain and maintain learner attention and to build
confidence (Keller and Burkman, 1993).
• Divide the text into sections and subsections to avoid too
large masses of text (Jonassen and Kirschener, 1982).
• Help the reader to control his or her cognitive processes dur-
ing learning to encourage readers to pay attention to relevant
information (Mayer, 1993b).
54
• Make the key words red or underline them (Fleming and
Levie, 1978).
• Make the structure of a text as clear as possible (Jonassen and
Kirschener, 1982).
• Not overuse accenting techniques in text. They may lose their
meanings (Bausell and Jenkins 1987; Benson, 1985; Dwyer,
1978; Hartley, Bartlett and Branthwaite 1980;).
• Set text bold enough (Mayer, 1993a; Wileman, 1993).
• Set text large enough (Ormrod, 1989; Wileman, 1993).
• Use adjunct questions to emphasise relevant information
(Mayer, 1993a).
• Use blinking and flashing text on a computer screen as an ac-
centing technique (Rambally and Rambally, 1987).
• Use bold highlighting of relevant information to facilitate
search for specific information in a manual (Kovačević, Bro-
zović, and Možina, 2016).
• Use graphics to facilitate building external connections be-
tween ideas in the text and the learner’s background
knowledge (Mayer and Gallini, 1990).
• Use graphics to facilitate building internal connections be-
tween ideas in the text (Mayer and Gallini, 1990).
• Use graphics to guide attention to relevant information in the
text (Mayer and Gallini, 1990).
• Use headings to make the subject matter readily apparent and
indicate the relative importance of different items in the doc-
ument (Cisotto and Boscolo, 1995; Jonassen, 1982; Mayer,
1993a).
• Use headings, italics, boldface, or a larger font to highlight the
relevant information (Mayer, 1993a).
• Use relevant headings to identify the subject matter (Jonas-
sen, (1982).
• Use space and the actual placement of a heading to enhance
the hierarchic structure (Jonassen, 1982).
• Use statements of instructional objectives to emphasise rele-
vant information (Mayer, 1993a).
55
• Use the unexpected to attract attention to instructional mate-
rials (Mayer, 1993a).
• Use white space between portions of a text as a cue to the
learners that a new section follows (Waller, 1987).
• Use words or passages that stand in contrast to the rest of the
body of the text (Winn, 1993a).
56
Perception
Traditionally experience is divided into two categories: sensation
and perception. Sensation is thought to be a lower-level function.
It is often defined as the awareness of simple properties of stim-
uli, such as brightness, coldness, colour, sweetness, or warmth.
Perception is thought to be a function of higher-order areas of
the brain. It is awareness of complex characteristics of stimuli.
According to tradition we have five senses, but in fact we
have more. Sensory organs jointly constitute a perceptual system
that, in a natural environment, collects an enormous amount of
superfluous data about our environment. In a natural environ-
ment, the sensory system normally supplies us with exhaustive,
unambiguous data about events occurring there.
The contemporary view of perception maintains that percep-
tual theory requires an understanding of our environment as
well as of the perceiver (Kubovy, Epstein and Gepshtein, 2013).
According to Barry (2020, p. 4) perception is an elaborate sym-
phony played first and foremost through the unconscious emo-
tional system with neural equipment that has evolved over many
millions of years.
This chapter includes the following main sections: Percep-
tion principles, Perception theories, Perceptual qualities, and
Facilitating perception.
57
Perception principles
Fleming and Levie (1978) noted over 50 principles, and Winn
(1993) listed more than 75 principles related to perception. While
intended for the instructional designer, these principles are also
useful to the individual learners. The goal for these lists of prin-
ciples is to create better and more accurate perception, avoid
misperceptions, and help instructional designers to create differ-
ent kinds of messages.
This main section includes the following sections: Selection
and order, Surfaces of shapes, and Perception is subjective.
Selection and order
In view of our limited capacity for handling simultaneous infor-
mation (Miller, 1956), it is important to find out which factors
determine the parts of the available information that will be pro-
cessed. Which stimuli do we select and why? When we first look
at a visual, we only see what is necessary to perceive and identify
objects and events in a reasonable and meaningful manner. This
is Gibson’s “principle of economy” (Gibson, 1966).
We only pay attention to the things that affect us emotionally
(Lanners, 1973). Everything else is ignored. When we look at a
picture, we first discover the cues we already know. We probably
become more easily familiar with simple patterns than with com-
plex patterns. Closed shapes are preferred to open shapes and
fields. Once we have identified a few well-known shapes, we
sometimes feel that we have “seen everything” and may miss
some valuable information.
We have so much information coming from the outside
world that we cannot pay attention to all of it. In the torrent of
information that bombards us, we have to select the information
we want to see or hear and we ignore the rest of the information.
As previously noted Stern and Robinson (1994) regard “selection
of sensory data” as the first step of perception. However, “selec-
tion of data” may also be seen as a part of “attention.” When we
58
attend to something we select that information for further pro-
cessing.
The perception process is often assumed to consist of two
stages. Information processing is automatic, unconscious, tenta-
tive, fast, rough, and parallel in the first stage (Sinatra, 1986). It
comprises all kinds of analysis, from physiological to cognitive
processes. Different properties of a stimulus are identified sim-
ultaneously. Often one analysis is sufficient. The second stage of
the information analysis is conscious, it demands attention, and
it is detailed and sequential. Various hypotheses about a stimulus
are weighed against one another and tested. Information pro-
cessing is more definite at this level.
Surfaces of shapes
According to Nakayama et al. (1995) surfaces of shapes consti-
tute the only visually accessible aspects of our world. We cannot,
for example, obtain visual information from the interior parts of
ordinary objects. However, often object surfaces occlude other
surfaces. Nakayama et al. argued that the visual system must de-
velop an internal representation of the scene as a set of surfaces
as a prerequisite for further mental analysis. They argued that
image-based representations are insufficient bases for higher-
level vision. Nakayama et al. showed that adopting a few simple
rules makes surface representation comprehensible (p. 10).
Rule 1. When image regions corresponding to different surfaces
meet, only one region can “own” the border between them.
Rule 2. Under conditions of surface opacity, the region that is
coded as being in front of the other owns a border.
Rule 3. A region that does not own a border is effectively un-
bounded. Unbounded regions can connect to other unbounded
regions to form larger surfaces completing behind.
59
Perception is subjective
Perception is not an absolute and objective process. It is subjec-
tive and it varies as a result of a number of factors, like the
learner’s current cultural and social status, the time and stage of
his or her development, mood, experience, memory, and other
cognitive processes. All this sets a “frame of reference” for the
perception process. Some of our sensory impressions give rise to
“garbage” and some to learning. The cognitive variables exert an
influence on subsequent perceptions and they may also evoke in-
ner perceptions and inner imagery.
Individuals differ in the ways that they perceive any given
stimulus. One person may perceive a stimulus and quickly assim-
ilate it. Another person may not assimilate that stimulus at all.
Human perception is only sensitive to changes in stimulation.
You actually perceive less than all you see and hear, and much
information is never used. At the same time, you may perceive
more than you see and hear. You may believe that you see and
hear things that are not there. Your brain fills in missing infor-
mation. Accurate identification can be made from the correct
perception of just a few parts. Certain significant graphic ele-
ments can be deleted from images. Missing lines in cartoons can
sometimes be as important as the lines actually used.
The perception system strives to obtain clarity. If the system
arrives at clarity, then clarity serves as reinforcement, a reward.
So, our perception of a text or of any image depends on our pre-
vious experience, our mood, other pictures, texts and sound, as
well as our personal interests. When we look at a visual, we also
“see” different details in the visual on different occasions. Conse-
quently, a highly “saturated,” information-packed message, like
a picture, may have something new to offer even after having
been viewed many times.
60
Perception theories
We live in a tree-dimensional world, full of sounds, fragrances
and odours, light and shadows, events and objects resting on var-
ious surfaces. As visual creatures we rely on reflected light to ob-
tain information from the visual world. The concept “perception”
is a collective designation for the different processes in which an
organism obtains data about the outside world. Perception is the
organizing and analysing of the data that we pay attention to.
The contemporary view of perception maintains that percep-
tual theory requires an understanding of our environment as
well as of the perceiver (Kubovy, Epstein, and Gepshtein, 2013).
This main section includes the following sections: Clarity
theory, Figure and ground theory, Gestalt theories, Affordance
theories, and Neuroscience principles.
Clarity theory
We unconsciously make a constant effort to create some order in
the impulses. We organize and analyse data that we have paid
attention to. Perception of two- or three-dimensional represen-
tations entails fast, holistic, parallel, and simultaneous pro-
cessing (Gazzaniga, 1967; Sperry, 1973, 1982). We rely on our
senses to provide us with data about the outside world. Points,
lines, areas, symbols, colours, tones, noise, heat, cold, touch,
pressure, sound, visuals, text, are integrated in such a way that
they can be interpreted as a meaningful whole.
We do not “see” patches of colours and shades of brightness.
We look for, recognize patterns, and combine them into some-
thing meaningful. We perceive things, like books, cats, dogs,
flowers, houses, people, and trees. We rely on our experiences,
thoughts, and values to interpret, understand, and create mean-
ing from what we hear, taste, touch, see, and smell.
It may take only 2–3 seconds to recognize the content in an
image (Paivio, 1979; Postman, 1979), but 20–30 seconds to read
a verbal description of the same image (Ekwall, 1977; Lawson
1968) and 60–90 seconds to read it aloud (Sinatra, 1986). In
61
verbal and visual languages prior experience and context are very
important to the perception of contents.
The perception system strives to obtain clarity. When the
system arrives at clarity, then clarity serves as reinforcement, a
reward. Thus, an important principle for the designer is to im-
prove clarity of any message (Fleming and Levie, 1978; Winn,
1993a). The main goal in information design and instruction de-
sign should always be clarity of communication (Pettersson,
2002b). We should limit the content to what the intended audi-
ence needs and emphasize what is most important. Pictures
should be well worth reading for the intended audience.
Barry (1998) made a clear distinction between two inde-
pendent mind systems, one that feels and one that thinks. This
explains why images may speak to us emotionally and holisti-
cally. Data about some images are only emotionally processed.
Other images are analysed. In rational theory, people weigh
things equally and then consciously decide on truth or logic. In
reality, however, emotional response comes first. Barry con-
cluded we begin to respond to the visual environment emotion-
ally, below the level of or rational awareness before we can criti-
cally analyse it. This makes it likely that much of cognition is ac-
tually rationalisation to make unconscious emotional response
acceptable to the conscious mind.
I have presented a similar “dual view” (Pettersson, 1987a)
when I found that simple line drawings accompanied by various
assignments caused very different reactions in subjects. It is ob-
vious that the different assignments have caused perception and
image interpretation on different cognitive levels.
Figure and ground theory
Perception is always organized. We perceptually construct rela-
tionships, groupings, objects, events, words, and people. We see
dots, lines, areas, light, dark, etc., in an organized way. We see
the whole images rather than only collections of certain parts.
The whole is different from the sum of the parts. A number of
62
psychologists view our attempts to establish order as an innate
faculty carried out in accordance with certain “laws” or principles
for display of information.
Figure/ground organization
Figure/ground perception is a fundamental aspect of field organ-
ization. The Danish psychologist and phenomenologist Edgar
John Rubin (1886-1951) presented his work on figure/ground
perception 1915/1921 (Palmer, 1999). This was before Max
Wertheimer presented his Gestalt laws in Germany. This work is
also known as figure/ground articulation, figure/ground organi-
zation, figure and background principle, figure and ground prin-
ciple, and as the theory of figure and ground.
According to this organization we select some elements in a
picture as the figure, the object of interest. The remaining parts
constitute the ground on which the figure rests. We perceive
stimuli either as figure elements or as ground elements (Moore
and Fitz, 1993). This is one of the simplest perceptual organiza-
tions. The visual system has a strong preference to ascribe the
contour to just one of its border regions and to perceive the other
side as part of a surface extending behind it (Palmer, 1999).
To the left we recognize a square as a “figure.” The properties of
“figure and background” cannot be sharply distinguished in the
other two illustrations. All the three squares have the same size.
Also, the distances between the squares are the same.
We perceive the figure as being in front of the ground, and
the ground as being behind the figure. We might be tempted to
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view figure and ground as a relationship between just two levels
(Schriver, 1997, p. 307). However, what serves as the ground in
one relationship can serve as the figure in another relationship.
The figure/ground organization is affected and influenced by
several factors, such as: context, convexity, contrast, meaningful-
ness, motion, orientation, parallelism, size, and symmetry.
Reversible figures
Reversible figures lack sufficient cues as to which side of a con-
tour is figure and which is the background. This is often used to
create illusions. We have all seen Rubin’s vase, a reversible figure
that is perceived as a vase or as two heads facing each other.
Sometimes it may be hard to distinguish between figure and
ground. Then some structures will be perceived as reversible. Re-
ality and what we see at any given moment will always be sepa-
rated and different. We will perceive different things at different
occasions, both with respect to reality and with respect to pic-
tures. In some cases, figure–ground articulation has apparently
been based on experience (Peterson and Skow-Grant, 2003).
Camouflage
In their natural environment many animals are camouflaged
with colour, spots, and stripes. Thus, their shapes and bounda-
ries are obscured. As long as these animals remain still they are
well hidden because we cannot distinguish figure from back-
ground. This is especially true for the predators. Once the ani-
mals move their shapes may be perceived. Miller (2007, p. 11)
noted that the animal kingdom is “filled with creatures whose
colours and patterns help conceal and protect them.”
The birth of modern military camouflage was a direct conse-
quence of the invention of the aeroplane (Newark, 2007). Air-
craft were initially used in the First World War for aerial recon-
naissance. Their task was to spot enemy artillery, troops, and ve-
hicles. Their own artillery could then direct their fire at these tar-
gets. All sides formed “camouflage units.” Members of staff
painted bold disruptive patterns on aircrafts, guns, and tanks. In
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France several prominent Cubist artists were working as “cam-
oufleurs” at the front. Information design is the opposite to cam-
ouflage. There must be a good contrast between figure and
ground in information design.
Further see my book Using Images.
Gestalt theories
Early in the 20th century the three psychologists Max Wert-
heimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941) and Wolfgang
Köhler (1887–1967) collaborated on the founding of a new holis-
tic attitude toward psychology called Gestalt psychology, or Ge-
stalt theory. Wertheimer started his research on the gestalt prin-
ciples of perceptual grouping already in 1910 (King, 2005). The
Gestalt principles were introduced by Wertheimer (1922, 1923),
and were further developed by Köhler (1929, 1947), Koffka
(1935), and Metzger (1936/2006).
The German word Gestalt means form, pattern, or shape.
The Gestalt psychologists believe that conscious experience must
be viewed as a “whole,” and cannot be analysed into its parts.
This “whole,” or “Gestalt,” can be an image, a shape, or a thought.
Feeling, hearing, and seeing, must be studied together in order
to understand their relationships. Gestalt theory focuses on the
human mind and perception as a whole. The essential thesis in
Gestalt psychology is that in perception the whole is different
from the sum of its parts (Koffka, 1935; Köhler, 1929; Palmer,
1999; Wertheimer, 1923). (In information design, theory and
practice is an example where the whole is greater than the
parts.)
Gestalt psychology attempts to explain how we organize in-
dividual elements into groups in order to acquire and then to
maintain meaningful perceptions (Nesbitt and Friedrich, 2002).
Each principle is supposed to function, as long as all other things
are constant (Palmer, 1999). The need to process large numbers
of small stimuli is reduced, and perception is faster. Elements
that are far apart are perceived as separate objects. There are
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many Gestalt principles, but there is no definitive list of them
(Todorović, 2008). The observations on which the “Gestalt the-
ory” is based form a basic part of the graphic designer’s craft
knowledge (Waller, 1987).
In literature all the Gestalt principles are often referred to as
Gestalt laws. However, today we should only use the term Ge-
stalt principles of perceptual grouping since they are considera-
bly weaker than one would expect of scientific laws (Palmer,
1999).
Mungan (2020) discussed the contributions of the founders
of Gestalt theory, not only for the high value they carried even
back then, but also for the strong relevance they have today. The
main purpose in this article is to point to the deficient, and even
wrong transmission of this perspective in the past 50 years.
Area principle
According to the principle of area we will interpret a small shape
within a larger shape as the “figure,” and the larger shape as the
ground. Our ability to distinguish the boundaries of an image is
usually very high. All elements in a visual should contribute to
clarity, the visual should be meaningful to the intended audience.
Closure principle
The closure principle (low of closure, natural law, theory of clo-
sure) is based on our tendency to see complete figures even when
the stimuli is incomplete. We fill in the missing parts and “close”
the outline of the structure. There is always a need for our minds
to reach a general understanding, and this is a key factor in cog-
nitive organisation (Luchins and Luchins, 1959). We will extract
meaning and reach conclusions.
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Our minds fill in missing details and make the best possible in-
terpretation of any given stimulus. We perceive these figures
as a square and as a triangle.
Letters printed with damaged or broken type are typically
seen as perfect or whole characters. The use of classical Swiss
grid systems in layout is based on regular rows and columns. If a
figure in an illustration is incomplete, our minds will fill in the
missing parts and “closes” the outline of the figure.
Common fate principle
In accordance with the common fate principle (law of common
fate) elements or objects that move in the same direction belong
together and they are perceived as a collective entity. Objects that
are grouped in a particular way will be expected to change in con-
formance with this grouping. When change does not follow this
pattern, the change is difficult to process. We perceptually group
lines that seem to be moving in the same direction. This is com-
mon in diagrams and in graphs.
In these graphs all the bars have different heights. In the first
case (left) the bars are moving upward, and in the second ex-
ample (right) they are moving downward.
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Common region principle
The principle of common region is based on our tendency to see
elements that are enclosed by a boundary, such as a circle, as sin-
gle units. We group such elements together (Horn, 1998, p. 76).
We have a tendency, to see
elements enclosed by a line as
single units. Here are two units
of blue dots rather than eight
blue dots.
Connectedness principle
A single dot on a paper has strong visual power to attract our at-
tention. Two or more dots connect and are capable of leading the
eye. Dots create the illusion of lines and areas, or sometimes even
volumes. The principle of connectedness, principle of connec-
tion, states that elements that are connected by other elements
tend to be grouped together.
We easily make “wholes of units.” Two dots suggest there is a
line between them. Three dots suggest the existence of a triangle
and four dots suggest a rectangle.
We tend to see connected and uniform regions as single
units. The region may be points, lines, or a more extended area
(Horn, 1998, p. 76; Palmer, 1999, p. 260). This is generally how
we perceive diagrams (Malamed, 2009, p.66). Perception is in-
fluenced by our expectations.
Continuity principle
When lines overlap or compete, emerging figures have good con-
tinuation. The most symmetrical and simplest figures con-
structed will be perceived. The continuity principle (continuity
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law, good continuation, good continuity, theory of direction) re-
fers to simplicity. We perceive a slow and gradual change in an
auditory or in a visual stimulus as one single stimulus. It is easier
to perceive a smooth continuation than an abrupt shift of direc-
tion
We perceive the pattern to the left as two lines crossing in the
middle rather than as two opposing angles joined together at
their apexes. It could also be four independent lines meeting in
the middle. This is also referred to as “line of direction.”
Lines moving in the same direction belong together. Events
that have a simple and natural relationship to one another also
give the impression of being continuous and unbroken. Straight
or curved lines tend to lead the eye along, and even beyond, the
line. An arrow or a finger pointing at something leads your eye to
it. Perception is selective. Elements that are aligned are grouped
together and integrated into perceptual wholes. It is easier for us
to perceive a smooth continuation of a line than an abrupt shift
of direction.
Contrast principle
In accordance with the contrast principle (contrast law) we tend
to array impressions that form natural opposites in groups.
Thereby the impressions are reinforcing one another. Contrast is
the difference between the brightest and the dimmest parts of a
picture, or of a text. Perception is always relative. A specific line
seems to be long when it is compared with a shorter line, but it
seems to be short when it is compared with a longer line. The size
of an individual area is always relative. It depends on our
knowledge of its surroundings. The size of a circle in a picture
means little to us. A hand gives the circle the size of a tennis ball.
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A number of wavy lines going out in all directions from the circle
make it the size of the sun.
A line (A) seems to be long when we compare it with a shorter
line (B), but it seems short when we compare it with a longer
line (C). Perception is relative.
Our perception of one tone of grey will change when it is placed
on a continuous tonal scale. Perception is relative.
Convexity principle
According to the convexity principle convex patterns will be per-
ceived as figures.
Good form principle
“Good figures” are closed and they exhibit a continuous contour.
A given contour can only belong to one of the two areas it en-
closes and shapes. According to the good form principle we tend
to perceptually group elements together if they form a pattern
that is orderly, regular, and also simple to understand by the in-
tended receivers. This principle demonstrates that people elimi-
nate complexity and unfamiliarity.
We see the left pattern as one circle partially overlapping an-
other circle. But there are many possibilities.
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Grouping principle
Most figures are defined by a boundary. However, according to
the principle of grouping (law of grouping) we do not need a
boundary for the perception of form or shape. When small ele-
ments are arranged in groups, we tend to perceive them as larger
forms. This is similar to “closure.” By grouping headings, para-
graphs, illustrations, and captions the designer aids communica-
tion. The principles of common region, connectedness, proxim-
ity, similarity, symmetry all work together to evoke grouping.
Groups of smaller elements may be perceived as larger figures.
Here small dots form a triangle, a circle, and a square.
Objective set principle
According to the objective set principle some phenomena are
perceived more strongly than others. For example, two lines that
almost form a right angle are perceived as a right angle. This re-
fers to our perception tendency towards a stable group. Once per-
ceptual units are seen as a group, perception will try to retain this
group.
We may easily perceive two lines that almost form a right angle
(left) as a correct right angle (right).
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Past experience principle
According to the past experience principle (previous experience
principle) all of our new impressions are dependent on, and in-
terpreted against the background of our previous experience,
learning and knowledge. Our assessments and our experiences
change over time and affect our way of associating. We some-
times only perceive what we want to perceive. It is easy to jump
to the wrong conclusions. Messages that are contradictory often
create more confusion than they provide help. A torrent of infor-
mation bombards us from the outside world.
Proximity principle
Spatial proximity is one of the most powerful organizing princi-
ples and one of the most useful in information design for percep-
tual organisation of data. In accordance with the proximity prin-
ciple (law of nearness, law of proximity) we see individual ele-
ments but we will perceptually group events, objects, and units
on the basis of their proximity to one another. Such elements “be-
long together” and they are processed together.
Spatial proximity is a powerful cue for perceptual organisation
of data. There are eight individual black squares in this illustra-
tion, but we perceive them as four pairs of black squares. Spa-
tial proximity was one of the first observations made by the Ge-
stalt psychologists.
The eye tends to be attracted to groups or clusters rather
than to isolates. We can use space to group graphic components.
Proximity decreases complexity in the design and strengthens
the connection between the elements. Related data and elements
should be put in close proximity to each other.
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Similarity principle
According to the similarity principle (law of similarity, theory
of similarity) we tend to perceive and group our impressions on
the basis of their similarity. Events, objects, and units that re-
semble each other, and share similar characteristics and proper-
ties belong together. It can be qualities like brightness, colour
(both hue and intensity), darkness, orientation, pattern, shape,
size, texture, value, or other qualities. Similar elements fit to-
gether (Graham, 2008).
Here we see two groups of dots, one with red, and one with
blue dots. In each group the dots have the same shape, size,
and about the same distance from each other.
One black sheep in a flock of white sheep tends to be noticed.
The similarity principle is one of the most powerful organizing
principles and one of the most useful in information design for
facilitating perceptual organisation of data. We perceive ele-
ments that have the same typeface as being part of the same
group. This principle can be used to signal a particular kind of
graphic component in a consistent way and it can be used for em-
phasis of specific parts in a message. Similarity in a message will
result in perception of that message.
Simplicity principle
Since our mind perceives everything in its simplest form we bet-
ter interpret abstract and complex information when it is pre-
sented in the simplest form possible. The principle of simplicity
is about helping the eye find “comfortable” figures.
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Spatial concentration principle
Proximity is not the only factor in predicting perceived groups.
In accordance with the spatial concentration principle (density
principle) we perceptually group regions of similar element den-
sity. Thus, a visual element may belong to one group even if it is
as close to another group.
We perceptually group regions of similar element density. The
x-dot is a bit closer to the a-group, but it may still be perceived
as a part of the b-group.
Symmetry principle
According to symmetry principle we tend to group symmetrical
components together. Our minds perceptually connect uncon-
nected elements to form coherent shapes. Regions that are en-
closed by symmetrical borders tend to be perceived as coherent
figures.
Synchrony principle
The synchrony principle states that visual events that occur at the
same time will tend to be perceived together (Palmer, 1999, p.
259).
Affordance theories
According to Gibson (1977, 1979) we perceive the word both in
terms of shapes and spatial relations of objects, as well as possi-
bilities for action. Clues and stimuli in objects, and qualities of
our environment, may potentially generate different actions in a
direct and immediate way without any sensory processing.
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Perception can directly result in an action. The action is always
within the physical capabilities of the actor. The actor can be a
person, and also an animal. Gibson called this affordance in his
theory of affordances. He coined the term affordances in order
to describe how an animal perceives its environment. The af-
fordances of the environment are what it offers to the animal.
Gibson’s description involved the interaction between the
animal and the environment. This is also how it has been used in
education, emphasising active learning. Educational technolo-
gies offer learning activities, to be enacted by the learner in order
to achieve learning goals. The term “affordances” appears in
slightly different contexts in the education literature (e.g. Collins,
Neville and Bielaczye, 2000; Bower, 2008). In order to compare
different media Koumi (2006, p. 65–66) identified fifteen attrib-
utes of media that can facilitate learning. Koumi used the term
“characteristics” rather than the term “affordances.”
Norman (1988a, 1988b) borrowed the term affordance from
cognitive psychology and he applied it to the design of physical
as well as virtual environments and products. Norman made the
concept dependent not only on the physical capabilities of an ac-
tor, but also dependent on the actor's own beliefs, experiences,
goals, plans, and values. The designer of virtual environments
and virtual products cares about perceived affordances, whether
the user perceives that some action actually is possible or not. In
product design, where one deals with real, physical objects, there
can be both real and perceived affordances.
Some familiar everyday examples of affordance include our
natural understanding that buttons are for pushing, cords and
handles are for pulling, cylinders are for rolling, knobs are for
turning, and switches are for flipping. All these designed objects
invite us to act in the intended way. Here action and perception
are linked together through real-world objects that provide ac-
tion possibilities.
The concept affordance has rapidly spread within the fields
of human–machine interaction, and interaction design. In
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graphical, screen-based interfaces, all that the designer has avail-
able is control over perceived affordances. In effect Norman's af-
fordances “suggest” how the user may interact with an object.
Day and Lloyd (2007) argued that concepts derived from af-
fordance theories are highly useful in understanding the role of
online technologies in learning. They suggested that the value of
this approach is maximised when the focus is moved away from
the inherent properties of the technologies to the opportunities
for learning provided by the total context in which the technolo-
gies are embedded.
Dalgarno and Lee (2010) explored the potential learning
benefits of 3-D virtual learning environments. They identified a
series of learning affordances of such environments. These af-
fordances include the facilitation of tasks that lead to enhanced
spatial knowledge representation, greater opportunities for ex-
periential learning, increased motivation/engagement, impro-
ved contextualisation of learning and richer/more effective col-
laborative learning as compared to tasks made possible by tradi-
tional 2-D alternatives.
Waller (2011) discussed affordance qualities in documents
and graphic design. In graphic design affordance may be check-
lists that afford the correct returning of key documents, contact
information that affords the use of the right channels for cus-
tomer queries, and print summaries that encourage previewing
of key contents. In a document we tend to see significance in the
way things are aligned, and in their relative prominence.
Today affordance theory has practical implications in a num-
ber of fields such as: artificial intelligence, cognitive psychology,
design, distributed cognition, environmental psychology, ergo-
nomics, gaming design, graphic design, human-computer inter-
action, industrial design, information design, interaction design,
instructional design, intelligent learning environments, learning
technologies, perceptual psychology, robot technology, science,
technology, user-centred design, visualisation, and visual liter-
acy. Chemero (2003) discussed several theories of animal
76
affordances. In his view animal affordances are relations be-
tween the abilities of animals and the features of their environ-
ments.
Neuroscience principles
Barry (2020, p. 3) defined perception theory as “the application
of cognitive neuroscience principles to understanding visual
communication: how the brain derives meaning from what it
sees, the impact that visual images have on us personally and as
a culture, and how visual images ca be manipulated to achieve
desired outcomes.
The mind is still mostly uncharted territory, but every piece
of the emerging map has broad implications not only for what it
means to “see” but also for what it means to “watch” in a society
dominated by visual culture (Barry, 2020, p. 3). As the visual sys-
tem seeks and acts on information from the environment, retinal
inputs lead to ocular adjustments and then to altered rental in-
puts as the eyes actively engage the environment. Receptors in
the retina then transform and reduce information from light into
electrical impulses, which are then transmitted by the optic nerve
from each eye to the brain's visual thalamus and on the visual
cortex, where vision is actually composed (Barry, 2020, p. 7):
In the thalamus, before conscious recognition of the object
is achieved, the message is split into two processing routes,
which are key to the understanding of how perception works
in the service of survival. The first route, the fastest and ear-
liest to develop, keeps alert and ready. Known as the thal-
ami-amygdala pathway, it is a crude network, described by
LeDoux as “quick and dirty,” that sends signals directly to
the amygdala, the emotional center of the brain. In this part
of perceptual process, the gist of the situation is quickly
grasped and matched to others stored in emotional memory.
An emotional respons of “fight or flight” is then framed in
keeping with past positive or negative experience (LeDoux,
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1994, 1996, 2000, 20002; Johansen, Cain, Ostroff, & Le-
Doux, 2011). In non-survival situations, too, this emotional
platform unconsciously sets up our cognitive thinking, skew-
ing it automatically toward acceptance or rejection.
Perceptual qualities
Our perception varies as a result of a number of factors, such as
cultural and social status, the time and stage of our development,
our mood, experience, memory, and other cognitive processes.
This main section includes the following sections: Four styles of
perception, Perception of change, The importance of captions,
Perception of straight lines, Perception of size, Perception of
depth, Perception of colour, Differences in colour perception, In-
fluence of context, Constancy, Picture perception experiments,
Approaches to picture perception, Pictorial style preferences,
and Illusions.
Four styles of perception
Bertin (1983, 1989) provided a survey of “retinal variables” that
are suggested to be perceived immediately and effortlessly
“above” the picture plane and across the entire visual field. Ac-
cording to Bertin visual contrasts must be established by manip-
ulating the perceptual qualities of hue, orientation, position,
shape, size, texture, and value. Perceptual variables can all be
manipulated to structure and enhance the experience of an im-
age, a package, an environment, and a man-machine graphical
user interface. There are four simple examples of visual con-
trasts of a few perceptual qualities of letters on the next page.
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V N W M M V N W N V M W V M W N W M V N
In this first example all the 20 letters have the same colour, size,
and value. Here it is rather difficult to locate, for example, the
five letters “N” among all the 20 letters. Here the perceptual
qualities of letters are not good enough.
W V W M N M V N V M N W M M V N V N W W
In this second example all the 20 letters have the same colour
and size. Here it is rather easy to locate the five bold letters
“N” among the other standard letters. Here the perceptual qual-
ities for the letter N are rather good.
M W V M W N W M V N V N W M M V N W N V
In this third example all the 20 letters have the same size. Here
it is easy to locate the five bold and red letters “N” among the
other letters. Here the perceptual qualities for the letter N are
very good.
M N V W N M W N W M V N V V M W M N W V
In this fourth example there are two very different kinds of let-
ters. Here it is very easy to locate the five bold, oversized and
red letters N among the other letters. Here the perceptual qual-
ities for the letter N are quite disturbing.
Bertin’s taxonomy considers four different styles of percep-
tion. These are called Associative perception, Selective percep-
tion, Ordered perception, and Quantitative perception.
In associative perception the reader ignores variation on one
visual dimension when reading a picture. A visual variable is as-
sociative when it does not influence our perception of other di-
mensions in the visual variables. A visual variable is dissociative
when it severely influences our perception dimensions in the vis-
ual variables.
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In selective perception the reader isolates instances of a spe-
cific category from other visual elements. This is the opposite to
the principle of similarity. The task is to ignore everything but
one specific value of one specific dimension.
In ordered perception the reader must see the relative order-
ing of values along a perceptual dimension. Size, position and
value are variables that are ordered. Objects can easily be ar-
ranged objectively from the least to the greatest. This is often
used in diagrams.
In quantitative perception the reader must be able to deter-
mine the amount of difference between ordered visual elements.
It is easy to estimate the difference in length between lines. How-
ever, it is hard to compare areas and even more difficult to com-
pare volumes.
Perception of change
The least possible difference that can be detected between two
similar stimuli is called the just noticeable difference, or the dif-
ferential threshold.
Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795–1878), a German professor of
anatomy at Leipzig University, was one of the founders of exper-
imental psychology (Wikipedia, 2012). When Weber studied our
tactile senses and how they reacted to change he discovered that
the just noticeable difference between two stimuli was an amount
relative to the intensity of the first stimulus rather than an abso-
lute amount. The stronger a stimulus is the stronger the increase
needs to be.
Gustav Fechner (1801–1887), who was a professor of physics
at Leipzig University, named Weber’s results as “Weber’s Law.”
Fechner further explored the just-noticeable difference and he
argued for a logarithmic relation between physical and perceived
magnitudes. This new law is known as “Fechner’s Law” (1860).
It is also known as the Weber–Fechner Law (Wikipedia, 2012):
“In order that the intensity of a sensation may increase in
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arithmetical progression, the stimulus must increase in geomet-
rical progression.” This law formed the basis of “psychophysics.”
The “Weber–Fechner Law” has been useful within certain limits.
In modern psychology the just noticeable difference (JND) is de-
fined as “the minimum level of stimulation that a person can de-
tect 50-percent of the time” (Cherry, 2012).
In modern marketing consumer tests can lead to early con-
sumer acceptance and lower production costs (Nordmeyer,
2012). Manufacturers do threshold tests when they want to in-
troduce new products or change ingredients in order to decrease
production costs.
Visual elements have a conceptual relationship. Preble and
Preble (1989) noted that “everyday visual perception” is a con-
tinuous flow of complex interrelations. Organizing a message can
make perception much easier and learning more efficient. The
message should have a moderate degree of complexity. However,
complexity without order produces confusion, and order without
complexity may produce boredom. Inappropriate use of graph-
ical elements may direct learner attention away from essential
learning cues and depress subsequent achievement.
The importance of captions
For many years, I have been interested in how words and visuals
interact in different kinds of messages, in different media. The
conditions for e.g. whether a school age child is able to under-
stand the essence of a message in a textbook depends on many
aspects, such as the child’s mental and physical development, the
teacher’s commitment, interest, and teaching methods. It is also
important how well graphic form, images and words interact
with each other into “unified messages” that are both interesting
and optimal for the child.
In traditional graphic media, visuals and words are printed
and later bound into books, booklets, magazines etcetera. There
are very limited opportunities to visually describe and explain
“the sounds of spoken words” in printed messages. To some
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extent we can vary the design of texts in order to highlight emo-
tions, as well as volumes of some sounds.
In a still picture the impression of sound is most readily con-
veyed with onomatopoetic combinations of letters combined
with graphical symbols and captions. In audio-visual produc-
tions, words and sound effects can enhance perception of the vis-
ual stimuli. However, there should be a redundant relationship
between these different stimuli. This is often made clear and ob-
vious in many cartoons. Even young children often learn to cor-
rectly interpret visual signals of various sounds. In a TV-show, or
a video-show, it’s much easier to let the spoken words describe
all of this. In these media, many words are often–at the same
time–spoken as well as displayed on a screen.
In June 2024 I viewed an interesting television program. A
Finnish journalist was travelling in France, following some steps
of the Roman invaders. These invaders inspired the locals to
build many new “Roman style buildings”. Since the journalist
was talking Finnish, French, and Italian, people like me had con-
tinuous access to Swedish translations, displayed at the bottom
of the screen. When I viewed this program the text lines suddenly
disappeared. After a while these text lines returned. I thought it
was something wrong with the broadcasting. However, a week
later the same kind of problem occurred again in the next epi-
sode.
A few days later, I had a planned meeting with my ophthal-
mologist, because of my problems with Glaucoma. While I was
waiting for my turn I noticed an important message consisting of
a few words “Obehörig personal äga ej tillträde” (Unauthorized
personnel do not have access) and a prohibition sign on a door to
an operation room. Suddenly the text, but not the prohibition
sign, “disappeared in my eyes”. After a few minutes, I could see
this text again.
I asked the doctor if there was any medical explanation for
my “sudden loss of vision”. I was very confused when she told me
that I probably had some new problems with my heart, which had
82
caused high blood pressure, which then actually had caused these
problems in my eyes. In fact, in each of these situations I had
probably had a TIA, a Transient Ischemic Attack. Often a TIA
involves a temporary lack of oxygen in one of the many blood
vessels in the brain. This is due to a small clot forming in one of
the blood vessels in the brain. In the best case, such a clot will be
completely dissolved after a while. My ophthalmologist sent me
to my health centre, where a general practitioner did a really
thorough examination, and she sent me to further examinations
by experts. I was well taken care of.
It was very interesting to experience how a medical issue
strongly influenced my strange experiences of two TV-programs
and a sign on a door. These events showed and proved to me how
important well-formulated captions really are. We should al-
ways put enough effort into writing good captions that will help
readers understand the importance and uniqueness of each se-
lected image.
Perception of straight lines
Already around 1510 the Italian mathematician and Franciscan
friar Fra Luca Bartolomeo de Pacioli (1445–1517), “father of ac-
counting,” showed that horizontal lines seem to be shorter to us
than vertical lines. He showed this in his T-illusion. Pacioli wrote
the famous book De Divina Proportione (About the divine pro-
portions) on artistic and mathematical proportions, especially in
architecture. The book has illustrations in woodcuts made after
drawings by Leonardo da Vinci.
Horizontal lines are perceived as being shorter than equally
long vertical lines (Thurstone and Carraher, 1966, p. 27; Sarcone
and Waeber, 2011). According to Lanners (1973, p. 66) horizontal
lines seem shorter to us than vertical lines because the eye move-
ments required scanning horizontal lines are easier to execute
than up-and-down eye movements.
When relationships between variables are to be presented,
comparisons of lengths in bar charts give the best results
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(Vinberg, 1981). When parts of a whole are to be presented, circle
charts and pie charts may be used.
Perception of size
The perception of the size of a picture or of a book page is very
much influenced by contextual variables. There can be no large
without small, and no small without large. In message design the
most important part of a subject must be large and clear, take up
a large proportion of the image area, and be perceivable as an
entirety. Large individual visual elements in a picture attract the
attention of the reader.
Lanners (1973, p. 66) noted that most people that are asked
to draw a square with a side of about eight inches or larger free-
hand will produce something that is 1/30 to 1/40 wider than it
should be. Many artists take this into consideration when they
make illustrations to be published in books or magazines.
A correct square (middle) seems to be too high since we judge
vertical lines as longer than horizontal lines. We judge a slightly
shorter rectangle (left) as a correct square. We judge the square
(middle) as smaller than an equally large tilted square (right).
It is not easy to interpret differences between areas. Croxton
and Stein (1932) tested the ability of 550 subjects to judge the
relative size of bars, circles, squares and cubes. They found that
comparisons based on bar charts were more accurate than com-
parisons based on circles or squares. Furthermore, comparisons
based on circles or squares were more accurate than comparisons
based on cubes.
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Pettersson and Carlsson (1985) asked 40 randomly selected
student subjects to assess the size of pairs of geometrical figures,
randomly shown on a computer screen. The seven figure pairs
consisted of: 1) Two vertical lines, 2) Two horizontal lines, 3) One
vertical and one horizontal line, 4) Two circles, 5) Two squares,
6) One square and one circle, and 7) Two circles with two pie-
chart segments.
Each figure pair was shown in five variants. The size of the
left figure, A, in each pair was constant during the experiment,
whereas the size of the right figure, B, were selected at random in
the interval from 50 to 150 percent of the size of A. For one-di-
mensional figures, the size was defined as the length of the line,
and for two-dimensional figures, as the area of the figure.
There was no time limit in this experiment. To input their
assessments the subjects used an “answer tool.” This was a verti-
cal scale, going from zero to 200 percent.
With the exception of horizontal lines not being better than
vertical lines, the results confirmed knowledge from print media
(Pettersson, 1983b, p. 227). The mean errors amounted to about
five percent for vertical lines and horizontal lines respectively.
However, the error in comparisons between vertical lines and
horizontal lines was on the average ten percent. The errors in as-
sessing 4) circles, 5) squares, and 7) pie-chart segments also were
about ten percent. As expected, the greatest errors concerned
comparisons between 6) circles and squares. Here the mean er-
ror was as high as twelve percent. These results, based on a total
of 1,400 assessments, clearly show that comparisons of areas
cannot be recommended for general use, For example, in the
presentation of business graphics. Most likely comparisons of
volumes are even worse.
A correct square seems to be too tall since we judge vertical
lines as longer than horizontal lines. We judge a slightly shorter
rectangle as a square. A correct square seems to be too small if
we compare it with a diamond with the same area (Thurstone and
Carraher, 1966, p. 115).
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According to McCleary (1983) it is known in cartography
that in most contexts the differences in the perceived sizes of cir-
cles, diamonds, ellipses, squares, triangles, and a host of other
two-dimensional symbols are underestimated.
Perception of depth
We have two eyes, and we naturally see in three dimensions ra-
ther than in one or two dimensions. The illusion of depth is cre-
ated when our brains interpret the slightly different views from
our two eyes. Convergence also provides important information
about depth. When the eyes converge on a nearby object, the an-
gle between them is greater than when the eyes converge on a
distant object. Based on the angle the brain calculates the dis-
tances to the objects.
Viewmaster
The stereoscope, and the Viewmaster, presents two slightly dif-
ferent two-dimensional photographs. When the eyes view the
photographs simultaneously, the brain merges the two images to
one combined three-dimensional image. The stereoscope was
very popular during the latter half of the last century as a source
for education and entertainment. Stereo cards viewed through
stereoscopes were the main source of pictorial news.
A third dimension
Even though most pictures are presented on a two-dimensional
plane or flat surface with a length and width, we expect them to
have the illusion of depth, a third dimension. When we look at a
still picture, or view a motion picture, time can be seen as a fourth
dimension. People will employ their individual viewing behav-
iour and see and interpret different messages in the same picture.
Depth is related to size, volume, weight, and mass. Spatial
perception is not the perception of space as such but of the
learned meaning of the relationship between different objects
seen in space. The perception of depth is related to the relative
size of known objects, to lighting conditions, to illumination and
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shadows, to judicious cropping, to linear perspective, to change
of line weight, to texture gradients in the picture, to upward an-
gular location of grounded objects, to interposition and overlap
of picture elements, and to filled and empty space.
Image elements conveying a sense of depth should be clear
and easy to comprehend. Depth perception is also based on the
different colours of varying wavelengths. Warmer colours em-
phasize a foreground. Cooler colours emphasize a background.
The spatial perspectives are important for our perception of
depth. Compared with visual language factors like space, size,
colour, lighting, and texture, the spatial perspectives are usually
complex depth cues. A person’s specific cultural heritage and so-
cial situation is always of vital importance for the perception of
the depth cues.
Strong perspective
According to Freeman (1988) a heightened sense of depth
through strong perspective tends to improve the realism in a
photograph. It makes more of the representational qualities of
the subject, and less of the graphic structure. Painters and pho-
tographers often use several different types of perspectives to en-
hance the effect of depth in their pictures. Line perspectives, aer-
ial perspectives, colour perspectives, and overlapping perspec-
tives may well be used at the same time to interact with each
other and create lifelike pictures that are good representations of
reality. However, for schematic pictures that are meant to show
three-dimensionality, it is usually more appropriate to use only
one of the different line perspectives at the same time.
Perception of colour
Hue, value, and saturation describe what we see when we look at
pictures as well as the real world.
Hue
When we talk about the colour of an object we usually refer to the
hue of that object. Most people are familiar with hue through our
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labelling of colours such as red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and
violet. Different wavelengths of light reflected off an object are
responsible for the hues. All of the colours in the rainbow are
hues in the visible spectrum of light. It is possible for us to see
the difference between several millions of colour stimuli at sim-
ultaneous viewing (Evans, 1974). However, if not being seen sim-
ultaneously, the number we can identify is much smaller, maybe
10,000–20,000 hues (Hård and Sivik, 1981).
Our perception of one colour (here red), can change when it is
placed on different background colours.
The eye discriminates differences between shades of grey in
terms of relative brightness. Although the grey rectangles are
identical they appear to be different.
It has been assumed that our perception of colours is a two-
sided phenomenon. The discrimination capability represents our
possibility to differentiate a figure from its background. It is
strongly influenced by and dependent on contextual variables
such as lighting conditions and other surrounding colours. The
colour identification capacity makes us capable of interpreting
“the quality” of the object we perceive.
Yellow, orange, and red hues are perceived as warm and ac-
tive colours. Red evokes feelings of strong emotions. Violet, blue,
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and blue-green are perceived as cool and passive hues. Blue is
often used to represent truth and honesty. White is often associ-
ated with innocence and purity, and black often represents evil
and darkness. However, it should be noted that certain colours
have different meanings in different societies (Zimmermann and
Perkin, 1982). The first three colours young children learn are
red, blue, and yellow (Blood, 2003). So far, no real explanation
has been made to explain how the human eye perceives colour.
Gardner and Martinson (2005) found that the binding of
naturally coloured objects is stronger than the binding of unnat-
urally coloured objects. Subjects dislike the use of more than
three or four text colours on the same page, screen, or slide (Pet-
tersson, 1989a). Colour coding is a good way to show that some-
thing is especially important and interesting. When text is shown
on a visual display, there is no easily read colour combination.
A colour coding process may enable people to retain critical
information and disregard redundant and irrelevant infor-
mation. It is, however, known that extensively trained viewers
can reliably recognize only about 50 colour codes. An effective
and systematic colour code with a maximum of four to six colours
in information material assists the viewer in categorising and or-
ganising stimuli into meaningful patterns.
Value
Value (sometimes called tone) is the apparent lightness or dark-
ness in anything that is visible. It ranges from white to black. In
nature, there are hundreds of steps in value. However, we can
only distinguish between a limited number of levels of value. Pic-
tures derive a simulated natural tone from pigment, paint, or ni-
trate of silver. There is an element of value in colour pictures, as
well as in black and white pictures.
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There are hundreds of steps in value from white to black.
Higher value (darkness or lightness of a colour) influence ex-
citement and relaxation, creating a positive attitude (Gorn et al.,
Dahl, 1997; Thompson, Palacios, and Varela, 1992). In colour de-
scription systems values are usually placed on a vertical scale,
from white to black. It is not at all easy to distinguish between
more than ten shades of grey. In printed materials grey is a com-
bination of black ink and white paper, measured as a percentage
of full black. Bertin (1989) recommended the following steps in
scales, with three to ten steps, from white (W) to black (B):
W 49 B
W 30 73 B
W 20 50 82 B
W 16 38 66 86 B
W 14 31 51 74 88 B
W 11 25 42 61 78 89 B
W 10 21 35 52 68 81 90 B
W 9 19 31 45 60 74 84 91 B
According to Dondis (1973) the broadest range of distinctly
different grey tones in pigment is about thirty-five. Without light
upon it, the whitest of whites will not be seen at all. It is also hard
to distinguish between very dark grey and black. A “high key” pic-
ture is composed with mainly light values, and a “low key” picture
has mainly dark values. Value may be used to express emotions,
form, space, and movements as well as to give the illusion of
light. Each colour has its own tonal value. Our perception of one
specific tone of grey, or any colour, can change when it is placed
on a tonal scale.
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Saturation
Saturation is the apparent purity or lack of greyness of a colour.
A bright and pure colour is saturated and has no grey at all. A
colour with some grey is less saturated. A lot of grey gives an un-
saturated colour. A black and white picture is an example of total
un-saturation. The amount of saturation does not influence the
basic hue of a colour, and it is not related to the value. Saturation
steps run out in horizontal rows, from the vertical value-scale in
colour description systems.
Higher saturation influence excitement and relaxation, cre-
ating a positive attitude (Gorn et al., Dahl, 1997; Thompson, Pa-
lacios, and Varela, 1992). Sometimes saturation is called chroma,
or intensity. However, sometimes chroma is said to be the com-
bination of hue and saturation.)
Colour saturation influences our perception of shapes and
objects. When colours of equal intensity are compared, the most
visible hues are white, yellow, and green–in that order. The least
visible hues are red, blue, and violet. Yellow is a powerful colour
because of its luminosity. It is especially powerful when com-
bined with black. Red is often seen as aggressive. In information
graphics and statistical presentations, the most important ele-
ments should have the brightest colours, with the best contrasts
to the background.
In multi-colour map design, the contrast effect of different
hues provides the most dominating visual clue in differentiating
different symbols. The most legible combination of print colours
is black or dark brown text on a light-yellow background. Other
combinations may attract more attention but are less legible and,
thus, require bigger letters.
For discriminating of colours on maps, Keates (1982) found
that three factors are important. In the first place, for hues that
have a high lightness value (such as yellow) only a few differences
in saturation are apparent. Conversely, for a dark blue or red, a
larger number of perceptible differences can be made between
maximum saturation and a neutral grey of the same value.
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Second, the perceptible differences in value (lightness) and
chroma (saturation) are not symmetrical for different hues. In
the third place, the ability to discriminate between different sat-
urations of the same hue is strongly affected by the area of the
image and by spatial separation.
Fine discriminations in saturation and lightness are only
possible if there are no other colour distractions. If other colour
elements, such as lines crossing the areas, are introduced, then
the ability to distinguish slight differences in saturation or light-
ness is decreased.
Saturated colours are often considered to be aggressive,
bold, daring, vibrant, and they may grab our attention. Colours
that are unsaturated may be perceived as boring, dull, peaceful,
restful, soft, weak, and they may sometimes be depressing. Un-
saturated black and white pictures are often used to represent the
past. Highly saturated colours are frequently used to depict the
future. Boldly coloured objects seem closer to us than unsatu-
rated colours. Colour variations take the natural form of a trian-
gle, a “colour-triangle.” At the top corner is white. Black is at the
bottom corner. At the third corner is the pure colour of hue. A
mix of a pure hue and white gives a tint. A mix of a pure hue and
black gives a shade. A mix of white and black gives grey. A mix of
all three colours gives a tone.
Colour and shape
Many researchers have studied the relationship between colour
and shape as stimuli. Otto and Askov (1968) found that the im-
portance of these stimuli is related to the respective subject’s
level of development. For small children (three to six years), “col-
our stimuli” will have greater impact than “shape stimuli”. How-
ever, the reverse is true for older children i.e., shape becomes
more important than colour. Modreski and Gross (1972) found
that four-year-olds were better at pairing objects by shape than
by colour.
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Ward and Naus (1973) studied pre-school children and
found that they were also better at identifying objects by their
shape than by their colour. MacBeth (1974) found that children
from three to eight emphatically tended to sort coloured paper
by shape rather than by colour, so shape is often more important
to children than colour. According to Keates (1982) the term
shape is reserved for the spatial arrangement of geographical fea-
tures. The apparently equivalent term form can only be applied
directly to point or line symbols on maps. Form is an element in
identification, whereas shape leads to recognition.
Itten (1971) maintained that shapes, like colours, have their
own sensual, expressive value. The expressive qualities of shape
and form must provide mutual support. All shapes characterized
by horizontal and vertical lines belong to the “square shape cate-
gory” i.e., even the cross, rectangle, and similar shapes. The
square is equivalent to the colour red. The weight and opaque-
ness of red is related to the static, heavy shape of the square.
The triangle’s pointed vertices suggest aggression and bellig-
erence. All diagonal shapes in nature, such as the rhombus, par-
allel trapezoid, zigzag lines, and similar shapes, are counted as
triangles. The triangle is the symbol of thought. Its chromatic
equivalent is yellow. Shapes circular in nature, such as the el-
lipse, oval, waves, parabola, and similar shapes, belong to the
same category as circles. The chromatic equivalent of the unceas-
ingly restless circle is blue.
In his comprehensive “symbols dictionary,” Symbol Source-
book, Dreyfuss (1972) described many meanings for different,
basic geometric shapes. These meanings varied from one field to
another. As far as the correlation between colour and shape is
concerned, Dreyfuss pointed out that the following tradition pre-
vails:
• Black–parallel trapezoid
• Blue–circle
• Brown–rhombus
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• Gold–bi-convex
• Green–regular hexagon
• Grey–hourglass
• Orange–rectangle
• Purple–ellipse
• Red–square
• Silver–bi-concave
• White–semicircle
• Yellow–triangle
One might well ask if there is any correlation between traditional
perceptions and “natural” or spontaneous views of matches be-
tween shape and colour. In order to shed some light on this mat-
ter, we performed two empirical studies, one devoted to the col-
our-shape relationship and the other devoted to the shape-colour
relationship.
One special case of shape recognition is face recognition. In-
fants are born with a preference for gazing at faces rather than at
other objects. At just thirty minutes of age, they will track a mov-
ing face farther than other moving patterns of comparable con-
trast, complexity, and so on. Farah (1995) showed that face
recognition and common object recognition depend on different
systems that are anatomically separate, functionally independ-
ent, and differ according to the degree of part decomposition
used in representing shape.
A colour-shape experiment
In one study (Pettersson, 1989a) total of 118 upper-level compre-
hensive school students and 12 adults took part in a colour-shape
experiment. They were given an A4-sized sheet of paper on which
the names of six colours, yellow, red, blue, green, white, and
black, were printed in a random sequence. The subjects were
asked to: “Draw the shape that you feel best matches the respec-
tive name of a colour.” The subjects had 15 minutes to complete
this assignment.
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Subjects also supplied information on their age and sex.
They produced a total of 780 visual statements on the correlation
between colour and shape. The results clearly showed that there
was no natural, spontaneous, and unambiguous correlation be-
tween colour and shape. The colour names used all gave rise to
many different geometric shapes. In no instance did an antici-
pated, traditional shape predominate over other shapes. In three
instances, the anticipated shape was not drawn at all. In the other
three instances, the anticipated shape was only drawn in 2–3%
of the visual statements.
Here are examples of the most typical figures that the subjects
made associations to when they were given each colour name
as a stimulus.
The study disclosed a considerable spread in the way sub-
jects develop associations with different natural phenomena, dif-
ferent objects, and different geometric figures. One or more sub-
jects predominated for each colour. Subjects related yellow pri-
marily to the sun and other heavenly bodies, red to love and
blood, blue to water and clouds, green to various kinds of plants,
and white to clouds or snow and even, like black, to various geo-
metric figures.
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Geometric figures delineated by straight lines were more
common for white and black than was the case for different “soft”
figures. Rectangles, squares, and triangles were particularly
common. The study also showed that there is no real difference
between boys and girls, regarding associations between colour
and shape. Intra-group variations were greater than inter-group
variations.
One interesting finding was that subject’s perceived shape as
a coloured area, only infrequently delineated by a line. Thus, yel-
low is a yellow area, red is a red area, blue is a blue area, green is
a green area, and black is a black area. White is a white area de-
lineated by a thin line (on white paper). Several subjects probably
did not regard white as a colour. Colour was divorced from shape
for subjects in the adult group. Thin lines delineated all colours
in this group (pencil, ball point, India ink).
A shape-colour experiment
A total of 157 upper-level comprehensive school students (not the
same as those who participated in the colour-shape experiment)
were each given an A4-sized sheet of paper on which six shapes,
i.e., a square, star, “jigsaw puzzle piece,” circle, triangle, and rec-
tangle, were printed (Pettersson, 1989b). Their task was: “Colour
the shapes on this page. Select the colours you feel are best suited
to the respective shape.” They had 15 minutes to complete this
assignment. Subjects also supplied information on their age and
sex. They produced a total of 942 visual statements on the corre-
lation between shape and colour.
The results clearly showed that there was no natural, spon-
taneous, and unambiguous correlation between shape and col-
our. We sorted the visual statements on each page into the fol-
lowing colour categories: yellow, orange, red, purple, blue, green-
ish blue, green, yellowish green, brown, black, white, grey, and
“multiple simultaneous colours.” No form had less than 11 of the
13 colour categories. The most common colours were as follows:
1. Triangle: purple (14%), orange, blue, and green (each 13%).
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2. Star: yellow (34%), orange (22%), and red: (12%);
3. Square: blue (32%), red (15%), and purple (14%);
4. Rectangle: green (16%), purple, blue, and brown (each 13%);
5. Circle: red (22%), purple and blue (both 15%);
6. “Jigsaw puzzle piece”: red (22%), purple (20%), and green
(16%).
In total, the most popular colours were blue (16%), red (15%),
and purple (14%), followed by green (12%), yellow (11%), and or-
ange (10%). The colours used least were brown (6%), black, and
greenish blue (4% each), “multiple simultaneous colours” and
grey (both 3%), yellowish green (2%), and white (0%). This col-
our scale is in rather close agreement with previous studies of
colour preferences.
Eysenck (1959) tabulated the results of experiments on col-
our preferences. The results of evaluations made by more than
21,000 subjects produced the following ranking: 1) Blue, 2) Red,
3) Green, 4) Purple, 5) Orange, and 6) Yellow.
Differences in colour perception
Man’s colour perception and discrimination vary in varying
lighting conditions. However, certain differences in the use of
colour by different cultures may have an ecological basis.
The earth is round and rotates on its own axis in such a way
that light rays from the sun are almost perpendicular when they
strike the surface of the earth in areas near the equator. To the
north and south, the angle of incidence changes so that each ray
of light illuminates an increasingly larger area. The light’s angle
of incidence has a major influence on climate and even on reflec-
tance and illumination. Normal variations in terrestrial surface
illumination–depending on the time of day, location, and
weather–are sufficient to cause an object to display objective var-
iations in colour.
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Separate evolutionary pathways
On the basis of experience and learning, Western adults know,
for example, that a house standing partly in shade and partly in
direct sunlight probably has the same colour on all its exterior
walls since this is common practice in the Western world. How-
ever, the perception of shape, size, and colour constancy com-
mon to Western societies is not necessarily valid in all other so-
cieties. In fact, considerable evidence suggests that perception of
these factors differ in equatorial regions.
The ancestors of man, the hominids, evolved in Africa. Ac-
cording to Kurtén (1971), the hominids on the one hand, and the
apes on the other, branched off on separate evolutionary path-
ways more than 35 million years ago. Vast migrations took place
during the Miocene epoch, from 25 to 10 million years ago, and
the Pliocene epoch, from 10 to 3 million years ago. The anthro-
poid apes, and subsequently lower apes and hominids, migrated
from Africa and settled in Europe and Asia. Some of the homi-
nids remained in Africa.
The various hominids evolved in partially different ways. All
were forced to adapt to the prevailing environment and its de-
mands. Only those capable of adapting survived. As Kurtén
(1971) put it:
When climate or other environmental influences are ex-
treme, man’s physical characteristics are still governed by
natural selection, even though we now do our best to cir-
cumvent these influences by means of air conditioning,
double-glazed windows, etc.
Kurtén also remarked:
So, in a hot climate, it is still advantageous to have a lanky
build, dark skin, wooly hair and effective sweat glands. Be-
ing short may also be an advantage since the ratio between
the body’s area and volume increases. And if you need body
fat as an energy depot, it is better to have that fat
98
concentrated at a limited number of sites so it does not hin-
der heat exchange.
In a cold climate, on the other hand, it is better to be light-
skinned so you can make the most of what sunlight there is.
Being large or at least stocky with a short neck is also an ad-
vantage. Body fat should be evenly distributed as insulation
against the cold, especially chilling of the face, a part of the
body otherwise difficult to protect.
Equatorial people, for example, those living in central Africa, are
ecologically adapted to life in a climate characterized by bright
sunlight, extremely bright days, and dark nights. In bright light
all colours and contrasts decline in intensity. It then becomes
more difficult to distinguish one colour from another. This also
is the case on dark nights. The landscape and environment are
then almost monochromatic black and white. Bright sun high in
the sky casts dark shadows.
Many animals have adapted to these conditions by acquiring
protective colouring. For people evolving in such an environ-
ment, highly developed black/white vision (i.e., a large number
of efficient rods in their retinas) should be advantageous to sur-
vival. This would enhance their ability to see well in darkness and
shadow, to avoid danger and enemies, to discover game, and so
on. Good black/white vision is also indispensable in bright light.
Equatorial Africans do indeed have exceptional vision. For exam-
ple, they are often able to see immobile animals at great dis-
tances, long before non-African, particularly European, mem-
bers of a safari party detect these animals.
Various conditions
As latitude increases in the colder climates to the north and
south, light from the sun strikes the earth at an increasingly
smaller angle of incidence. Large parts of the day consist of vari-
ous phases of dawn or dusk. In the summer half of the year, it
never gets really dark, and in the far north it stays light through-
out the night. There is an almost endless array of colour nuances
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in environments such as these. Here, highly developed colour vi-
sion is ecologically important for the same reason as those previ-
ously cited for well-developed black/white vision near the equa-
tor. Well-developed colour vision offers greater opportunities for
survival than does poor colour vision where the environment is
rich in colours. It seems likely that the peoples who settled to the
far north and far south gradually developed more refined colour
vision and a considerable ability to perceive colours, perhaps at
the expense of black/white vision.
It is possible to use various aspects of vision in different ways
at different times. The sensitivity range of the rods and cones var-
ies considerably in various lighting conditions. Smith (1969)
claims “a normal eye is capable of increasing its light sensitivity
75,000 times during one hour of vision in darkness.” He also
maintains “all people are colour-blind in weak light. In the even-
ing, red is the first colour whose discrimination becomes impos-
sible, followed by other colours in the same sequence as the spec-
trum. Blue is the first detectable colour in the morning”.
According to eight different papers cited by Bornstein
(1973), several parts of the eye, such as the sclera, cornea, iris,
lens, and retina have been shown to vary in degree in regard to
pigmentation. Wald (1945) isolated retinal macular pigmenta-
tion and identified it as xanthophyll, a carotenoid that absorbs
heavily in the blue part of the spectrum. Even direct ophthal-mo-
logic investigations have shown that yellow pigmentation in the
eye co-varies positively with skin pigmentation (Silvar and Pol-
lack, 1967). The yellow pigmentation increases as the amount of
exposure to ultraviolet radiation increases.
People living in higher altitudes or nearer the equator are
likely to have more yellow intraocular pigmentation. Bornstein
(1973) also reviewed six different studies showing that people
having more ocular pigmentation display reduced sensitivity at
the short wavelength side, particularly in the blue area. From
these different findings Bornstein concluded that physiological
differences, that is, “yellow intraocular filters,” may selectively
100
reduce the amount of short-wavelength visible radiation reach-
ing the photoreceptive cells in the retina, resulting in:
1) a depression in the phototopic luminosity function at the
short wavelength end and 2) a reduction in the perception of
“blueness.” The latter effect may be likened to a greying or
darkening of the short wavelength end of the spectrum re-
sembling blue weakness or, in extreme cases, tritanopia.
According to Bornstein, this explains the cross-cultural differ-
ences in the use of colour naming. As discussed later, however,
this does not appear to be a sufficient explanation in itself. Born-
stein also cited several studies that give evidence that “yellow in-
traocular filters,” also have the effect of increasing visual acuity.
Since eye pigmentation is correlated with both visual acuity and
skin pigmentation, it follows that dark-skinned people would
generally have better visual acuity than light-skinned people.
Learning, though, also plays a major role in perception. It is con-
ceivable, for example, that the non-African safari members men-
tioned earlier could learn to detect distant, immobile animals.
Colour preferences
Various studies, including my own (Pettersson, 1981), indicate a
general tendency for people to prefer colour pictures to black-
and-white renditions of the same subjects. But within this gen-
eral tendency, myriad variations in colour preferences have been
identified; many of these variations seem to be correlated with
cultural factors.
Colour ratings
Eysenck (1959) tabulated the ratings of various colours by 21,000
American subjects. There was no difference in the average rank-
ings according to the assessments of the 12,175 whites and 8,885
blacks. Both groups ranked the colours as follows: blue, white,
green, violet, orange, and yellow. On the average, though, the
black subjects liked blue and violet better than the white subjects.
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White subjects tended to like white, green, orange, and yellow
better than did black subjects.
Colour preferences
Stewig (1974) studied the preferences of 1,000 American chil-
dren for various components in a pictorial presentation. Four in-
dependent variables–school grade level, sex, socioeconomic
background, and race–and five dependent variables–colour,
shape, size, richness of detail, and three-dimensionality–were
examined. The results of the study disclosed no significant over-
all differences, but white subjects selected realistic colours sig-
nificantly more often than did black subjects.
In a comparison of the ratings by Swedes and Greeks of col-
ours according to 26 different colour scales, Sivik (1979) found
no general differences. However, Swedes rated bright colours as
more “clashing” than the Greeks. By the same token, Swedes re-
garded the weak colours as more “discrete.”
Colour of objects
A study of clothing, textiles, religious symbols, tools, weapons,
works of art, and other objects on display at such museums as the
Museum of Natural History (New York), the British Museum
(London), the Louvre (Paris), the National Museum of Natural
History (Washington D.C.), and the Royal Ontario Museum (To-
ronto) has been both useful and interesting. I have studied thou-
sands of such articles and found that articles from older cultures
in Europe, North America, Greenland, China, Japan, and the So-
viet Union were frequently made in many different colours with
a wide range of hues. In contrast, objects from cultures in Africa,
Central America, South America, and Indonesia featured only a
few bright colours; white, black, red, yellow, green, and blue were
common colours for these objects.
These observations suggest that dark-skinned people who
have not been too greatly influenced by European culture tend,
for example, to prefer very brightly coloured apparel. Such a pref-
erence might be explained by physiological differences in the eye
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that lead to a need for greater chromatic stimulation to facilitate
perception of colours. Indeed, patterns in locally woven cloth and
paintings are often marked by clear, sharp colours. In a book on
Gambia, Berglund (1975) noted that:
The dazzling nature of the woman’s clothing is virtually un-
surpassed in Africa, even if things have been toned down
since the advent of tourism. Many girls have begun wearing
European clothing. But the dress of the frequently beautiful
Wolof women can still be seen in a cascade of brilliant emer-
ald green, indigo, ruby and gold, the proud heads of the
women topped by high multi-coloured turbans.
A first impression gained by many foreigners visiting Japan is
that “all” Japanese men dress in identical, dark-blue suits. How-
ever, a closer look would reveal that many of the suits differ con-
siderably. They differ by means of slight variations in colour and
by variations and details in patterns. The Japanese pride them-
selves on making subtle combinations of colours and textures.
This art form is referred to as “Shibui.” Japanese art is not as
wide-ranging as European art, but it attains greater perfection
within its chosen framework. Its limitations are attributable to
the fact that Japanese artists historically have had fewer methods
and opportunities for expression than their counterparts in the
Western cultures.
Colour arouses emotions
According to Hillier (1975), Japanese art uses lines and nuances
to arouse emotions. This can be equated with the way a word or
turn of phrase is employed to evoke emotions in Western poetry.
In the 17th century, Japanese artists and printers would some-
times use more than 10 different blocks in making one of their
exquisite woodcuts. “They were able to attain an amazingly broad
scale of colours when they printed block impressions one on top
of another.”
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Black and green are both associated with sadness (Dzulkifli
and Mustafar, 2013). Blue “seems to create feelings of relaxation,
reduce arousal, and calm emotions” (Kumi et al., p. 6). A blue
background resulted in an affective reaction generating a higher
recall of information from a presentation than that with a yellow
background (Kumi et al., 2013). Yellow has a great negative ef-
fect, it is an upsetting colour that demands attention forcibly
(Kumi et al., 2013, p. 6).
Colour in art
Hultén (1978) has studied African art and found that organic as-
pects predominate, with man and concepts dealing with man as
central themes:
On a number of occasions and in different places, paintings
have been made identical to European abstract art. But by
artists unaware of this art. Most of the image forms domi-
nating Western art in this century can be found in folk art.
Abstract shapes and symbols and symbolic concepts are all
much more common in folk art than realistic depictions. The
African is closer to sources than European artists.
Hultén further noted: “An African ceremony is an incredibly col-
ourful experience. Colours are employed to symbolize the spirits
of the dead, a totemic animal, menstruation, the sun, etc. Une-
quivocal messages–communication by means of colour.”
The exhibition “Modern Art in Africa” on display at the
Liljevalchs Gallery in Stockholm January 18 to February 24,
1980, and previously shown in Berlin and Bremen, with about
400 works from 16 countries, provided a good overview of Afri-
can art of the past 40 years. Characteristic of all the works were
extremely bright and distinct colours using a striking colour scale
in which yellow, red, and blue were common, in addition to black
and white. But to Swedish eyes, the pictures frequently looked
flat, lacking a sense of depth.
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Colour in textbooks
In October 1980 I conducted a series of interviews with repre-
sentatives of African publishing companies at the international
book-fair in Frankfurt, Germany. The publishers, from Ghana,
Nigeria, and Ivory Coast, lamented that European textbooks and
children’s books were not suitable in their countries although ed-
ucators in those countries had been using such textbooks for
many years out of economic necessity. In lengthy discussions of
the pictorial elements of European textbooks, the African book
people typically made comments such as these:
“European books are so colourless.”
“Our children prefer pictures with bright, lively colours.”
“We prefer drawings to colour photographs. Photographs
have too little colour. The colours are almost invisible.
Drawings are better. Then we can have the colours we
want.”
“We like bright colours in both pictures and clothing, for
example. In Scandinavia, you always use such pale colours.
Your colours are so indistinct.”
These publishers highlighted the practical educational conse-
quences of cross-cultural differences in colour preferences.
Summary
It seems that generally speaking people prefer surface colour
hues according to this ranking: 1) Blue, 2) Red, 3) Green, 4) Vio-
let, 5) Orange, and 6) Yellow. However, blue, red, and green do
not improve our possibility of reading the message accurately.
Children prefer colour hues that are light, distinct, and shining
better than colours that are dark and gloomy. Colour intensity
should be strong and colour contrast should be clear. People in
different cultures and in different socio-economic groups use col-
ours in different ways and with different meanings. In cultures in
Africa, Central and South America, and Indonesia, bright colours
and high contrast are common in illustrations.
105
Colour naming
There are many different systems for naming colours in different
parts of the world, and in different languages, explored by cul-
tural anthropologists. Bornstein (1973) discussed in great detail
the cultural differences in colour naming and illusion suscep-
tibility. He analysed approximately 200 ethnographies or lan-
guage sources, and derived a number of general conclusions.
Dark and light
Dani, a language of New Guinea, has only two expressions for
colours, roughly equivalent to “dark” and “light.” (Heider, 1972).
Mangan (1978) noted a similar situation in many African lan-
guages. According to Bornstein (1973) people all over the world
distinguish semantically between black and white (or light and
dark).
White, black, and red
The traditional cultures in the whole of central, eastern, and
southern Africa have names only for white, black, and red (Ja-
cobson-Widding, 1979). These colours are employed in ritual art
and magic, as well as in secular ceremonies and metaphors.
White, black, red, and yellow
Some cultures have names for four, five, or six colours. When a
culture has a name for a fourth colour (in addition to white,
black, and red), it tends to be yellow; the fifth tends to be green,
the sixth, blue, and the seventh, brown. It is noteworthy that this
sequence of preferences corresponds closely to the series of col-
ours in the visible light spectrum, taken in descending order of
wavelength.
Some cultures subsume red and yellow under the same name
(Bornstein, 1973). The Wanyashimo language of Tanzania had
words for white, red, green, and dark, but no word for blue (Ko-
kuhirwa, 1977). Speakers of that language use “light” or “white”
for pink; dark blue is always “dark” or “light”.
106
Eleven focal colours
Berlin and Kay (1969) studied the way colours are depicted in 98
different languages. Their results provided strong support for the
existence of about eleven “focal colours,” that is, colours readily
perceived by all ethnic groups. The focal colours are believed to
be red, yellow, green, brown, blue, orange, pink, purple, black,
white, and grey.
Basic colour designations
When only a limited number of colours are used in ritualistic art
in cultures, only these colours are assigned names of their own.
These are the “basic colour designations” in the respective lan-
guage. Languages with more than eight colour designations are
found, for instance in China, Europe, Greenland, and India.
Rich terminology
Hunting societies in arctic areas had a very rich and extensive
colour language, both in terms of terminology and in the use of
colours in daily life (Jacobson-Widding, 1980). “The Eskimoes
have at least a dozen basic terms for different colours in addition
to an apparently infinite number of secondary colour terms.”
In their discussion of American Indian languages, Englund
and Svenström (1974) pointed out that:
It would be incorrect to believe that the Indian languages
were primitive and poorly developed. They were quite the
opposite and highly specialized for the environments and so-
cieties in which they were spoken. The Comanche Indians
have no less than seventeen different designations for the
colours of a horse, equivalent to “bay,” “roan,” “paint,” etc.
in English.
The Comanche also have a large number of designations in their
language for colours other than those describing horses.
Many languages fail to distinguish between green and blue,
or between blue and black, or among green, blue, and black
(Bornstein, 1973). The absence of words for colours is not in itself
107
sufficient evidence to prove the inability of a people to distin-
guish between different colours. It is, however, an indication that
colours other than those assigned names are not regarded as lin-
guistically important. Given the interaction between language
and perception, one could hypothesize that the greater the num-
ber of linguistic concepts related to colour in a language, the
greater the subtlety of colour perception in that culture.
Summary
In summary, it is clear that there are major differences in the per-
ception, naming, and use of colours in different cultures. To date
no satisfactory theory has been found to explain causal relation-
ships. Some evidence suggests that these differences may be re-
lated to latitude and lighting conditions, but convincing direct
evidence is still lacking. I believe that these differences in colour
use may originally have been based on each group’s ability to see
or experience various colours, with this in turn based on illumi-
nation and reflectance conditions at the respective latitudes and
in the respective environments.
A suggested model for sensitivity of vision
In the Natural Colour System, developed by the Scandinavian
Colour Institute, different colours have their specific positions in
a double cone according to whiteness, blackness, colour, and
chromatic amount of colour.
I believe it is also possible to describe, in a similar three-di-
mensional figure, a model of the sensitivity range of human vi-
sion during different lighting conditions. When the light is right,
it will be easy to perceive different colour tones. However, when
the light becomes lighter or darker, it will be harder to see and to
perceive colour tones. The range of sensitivity shrinks. The size
and shape of the sensitivity range will, of course, be different for
different cross-sections of the double cone because different cuts
will hit different colours.
108
This is my model to depict the sensitivity range of human vision
during different lighting conditions. During ideal conditions
(dotted red line) we will perceive many hues. The sensitivity
range shrinks when the light becomes lighter or darker.
W=whiteness, B=blackness, C= chromatic amount of colour.
This model should be regarded only as a declaration of a
principle. The causal factor being proposed here is the presence
of “yellow intraocular filters” in the eyes of dark-skinned people.
Such a physiological feature makes sense from an ecological
point of view. The filters act, in effect, as built-in sunglasses, pro-
tecting the retinas from too much light on sunny days. The filters
happen to make it easier for people having them to distinguish
between different colours, except blue. It is quite possible that
blue colours are less important to humans than other colours;
Thus, it would be sufficient in an actual life situation to perceive
blue tones as shades of grey. In addition, the increased visual
acuity is a great asset, especially during bad lighting conditions.
In theory, the presence of “yellow intraocular filters” would
mean that the size and shape of the sensitivity range, represent-
ing human visual perception, would be somewhat different
among people whose ancestors originated at different latitudes.
109
Influence of context
The context of an image may influence our perception of the im-
age. Vernon (1962) noted that the perceived size of an object is
relative to the size of other objects. The size of an unfamiliar ob-
ject is perceived as relative to the size of familiar objects (Pick
and Ryan, 1971).
Grey levels
Open and light forms are perceived as being larger than closed
and darker forms of the same shape in the same size (Thurstone
and Carraher, 1966, p.118). According to Lanners (1973, p. 59)
“bright figures seem larger than dim ones.”
These rectangles have the same size but we may easily perceive
them as different in sizes because of the different grey levels.
The Ponzo illusion
Mario Ponzo (1882–1960) was an Italian psychologist. He sug-
gested that the human mind judges the size of an object based on
its background. In 1911 Ponzo draw two identical horizontal lines
across a pair of converging lines, similar to railway tracks reced-
ing into the distance. The upper line looks longer because we in-
terpret the converging sides according to linear perspective. This
optical illusion is known as the Ponzo illusion (Sarcone and Wae-
ber, 2011).
The two red, horizontal lines have
the same length, but the upper line
appears to be longer.
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The Ebbinghaus illusion
The German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850 —1909)
pioneered the experimental study of memory. He discovered an
optical illusion (1901), which is known as the Ebbinghaus illu-
sion, or the Titchener circles (Roberts, Harris, and Yates, 2005).
Two circles of identical size are placed near to each other. Large
circles surround one circle, while small circles surround the
other. The first central circle appears smaller than the second
central circle.
The two red circles are
equal in size, but the left red
circle appears to be smaller
than the right red circle.
Constancy
We interpret the data from our sense organs with a bias towards
constancy. Usually, there is a constancy of brightness, colour,
contrast, shape and size in the perception of known objects. This
is regardless of distance, angle, and illumination. We need to
show the scale and the contrast within an illustration. It is usually
a good idea to include some familiar object, like a person, a tree,
or a car to supply the scale for judging the size of an unfamiliar
object. In order to experience different aspects of constancy it is
a good idea to study a sculpture from different angles, distances
and lighting conditions. How does the colour, shape and size of
the sculpture appear to change?
111
Henry Moore was the most important British sculptor of the
20th century. He made this sculpture 1956–1957. It was cast in
bronze in 1962 and is now placed in The Hirshhorn Sculpture
Gardens in Washington DC, USA. How does the colour, shape
and size of the sculpture appear to change when we view it from
different angles, distances and lighting conditions?
Brightness constancy is our tendency to judge the brightness
of objects to be constant, even though changes in illumination
make the objects appear brighter or darker.
Colour constancy is our tendency to judge the colour of an
object as the same despite changes in distance, viewing angle,
and illumination.
112
Colour constancy is our tendency to judge colours as the same
despite all the changes in distance, viewing angle, and illumi-
nation.
Contrast constancy is our tendency to judge contrasts as the
same despite changes in distance, viewing angle, and illumina-
tion.
Loudness constancy is our tendency to judge the loudness of
a sound as constant, even though changes in distance make the
sound seem louder or softer.
Shape constancy is our tendency to judge shapes as the same
despite changes in distance, viewing angle, and illumination.
This is one of the reasons that the circle, the oval, the triangle,
the square, the rectangle, and the rhombus often are used in sym-
bols and icons. Perception of a text is always relative. Therefore,
people will perceive a text in different ways. However, there is a
large degree of perceptual constancy. We can view a text and read
it from various distances and various angles and still get the same
understanding of the text content.
113
Size constancy is our tendency to judge the size of an object as
the same despite changes in distance, viewing angle, and illumi-
nation. The perception of distance is related to the perceived size,
and the perception of size is reciprocally related to the perceived
distance.
Distant objects appear to be smaller than objects that are close.
When a car is approaching it seems to grow larger. However,
we learn that the car will maintain its size. Regardless of dis-
tance there is constancy in the perception of the size of known
objects. This is called size constancy.
We will recognize our national flag from any distance and from
any angle and still get the same perception. This is perceptual
constancy. In the picture to the right we have a combination of
colour constancy, contrast constancy, shape constancy and size
constancy.
114
Picture perception experiments
In several experiments, subjects have been asked to name image
contents, to assess, describe and index image contents, to write
captions, to create images, to complete a story, to illustrate a
story, to produce informative materials and to produce infor-
mation graphics. Results from these experiments, based on more
than 77,000 verbal and visual statements from 2,500 subjects,
confirm the theory of a dual stage perception. Different assign-
ments cause perception and image interpretation on different
cognitive levels.
Object recognition
According to Dake (1999) human perception has a tendency for
immediate object recognition. The left hemisphere of the brain
exercises inhibitory control over the right hemisphere and sub-
stitutes the recognition and naming of visible forms in the visual
field. The mechanism for this quick initial classification and
naming is the perception of primitive geometric components
called Geons (Biederman, 1987). The 36 identified Geons are
analogous to the 55 phonemes that are the components of all spo-
ken languages. This powerful mental ability for recognition of
patterns and objects limits immediate perception to the most ob-
vious meanings in pictures.
To name image contents
Snodgrass and Vanderwart (1980) asked 219 subjects to name
260 simple line drawings with concrete image contents such as
a doll and a finger. In this study 80% of the pictures were given
the anticipated answers.
In one study (Pettersson, 1986a), 80 adult subjects were
shown five illustrations, intended to convey concrete image con-
tents: two house martins in flight, a young tadpole, a squirrel
with a nut between its front paws, a gnawed spruce cone, and a
bird nesting box. All five illustrations are simple drawings, easy
to handle in the computer and easy to copy. At that time, it was
very complicated to handle illustrations in full colour.
115
I have used these images, “Two house martins in flight” and “A
squirrel with a nut between its front paws,” in many of my
early experiments. Here the images are reduced in size.
In the following pages, these drawings will be referred to as
“the five illustrations.” Subjects, at Stockholm University were
asked to describe the content of each image. All subjects an-
swered with concrete and directly content-related, descriptive
words. Subjects used a total of 400 words, usually two or three
for each picture.
The image “Two house martins in flight” had been used in a
previous study of eye-movements (Pettersson, 1983d). Within
one or two seconds, subjects recognized the concrete image con-
tent (birds) in the picture. This had also been true of other eye-
movement experiments with concrete image contents, for exam-
ple, Potter and Levy (1969). These results all indicate that there
is an image interpretation mode in which the “whole” and “im-
mediate” concrete contents of an image are perceived.
Intended and perceived meaning of icons
In 1988 one group with 48 subjects were asked to describe 38
icons in commercially available computer programs for the Mac-
intosh computer. Another group with 48 subjects listened to
116
definitions read aloud from the program manual, and then asked
to point to the icons on the screen. The 3,648 statements showed
a considerable difference between the interpretations and the in-
tended meanings. The subjects did not correctly interpret any
one of the 38 icons. Only four icons were correctly interpreted by
75% of the subjects, and nine icons by 50% of the subjects. As
expected, results were better when the task was to relate icons to
their verbal definitions. 75% of the subjects interpreted 18 icons,
and 50% interpreted 24 icons. When verbal descriptions were
available the range of association options was greatly restricted.
Griffin and Gibbs (1992) asked U.S. and Jamaican subjects
to identify 48 symbols. They expected that subjects would easily
recognize and identify the symbols. However, this was not the
case. A “difficulty index” of .45 showed that the U.S. subjects rec-
ognized less than half of the symbols correctly. Only one of four
of the Jamaican subjects recognized the symbols correctly.
People don’t always identify intended meanings of icons.
To describe image contents
Students have made many descriptions of the contents of images
(Pettersson, 1985, 1986a). In one case, 80 subjects (other than
those mentioned above) made brief descriptions of ten pictures.
These pictures were intended to convey abstract image contents:
aggressiveness, courage, credibility, suspiciousness, and to-
getherness. There were one drawing and one photograph for
each subject.
Only some (12.5%) of these 800 descriptions contained the
anticipated key words. Each picture was described with several
different descriptive words. When subject descriptions were
compared to their synonyms, near-synonyms and related words,
the number of “hits” increased, but only to an average of 20.1%.
The 80 subjects utilized 1,406 words that can be regarded as
“key” or “index” words.” For each picture the number of different
key words ranged from 31 to 51, with a mean value of 37.6. The
four most common key words for each picture accounted for half
117
of all the key word designations. Most of the designations were
only mentioned once, or a couple of times.
In subsequent experiments, 80 subjects have made detailed
descriptions of “the five illustrations.” This time the descriptions
were to be devised in a manner making it possible for one or more
artists to recreate the pictures. Descriptions of the respective pic-
tures turned out to be strikingly different in execution and de-
tails. These descriptions comprised 15 to 300 words. Here too,
subjects used a large variety of descriptive words. Mean values
ranged from 59 to 119 words.
Picture perception is relative. Different people perceive and
describe one and the same picture in different ways. Pictures
with abstract contents can be perceived in more ways than pic-
tures with concrete execution. People use many different de-
scriptive words to describe abstract image contents.
To index image contents
Copies of “the five illustrations” were also subsequently given to
125 other subjects. Subjects were given the following task: “These
five pictures are to be filed in a picture archive. Write one or more
index words for each picture.” In this case, subjects answered
with 40 to 51 different index words for each picture with a mean
value of 43.6. Subjects used a total of 1,034. The words expressed
in the first study were always also the most common in this test.
On average they account for about half of all index words. The
three most common index words for each picture accounted for
half of all designations. Concrete, descriptive designations dom-
inated. Abstract terms were only used a few times.
This study confirmed the findings from the previous study
with brief descriptions. All results indicated that there is an im-
age interpretation mode in which abstract contents and details
in an image are perceived.
To write captions
Five pictures with abstract contents and five pictures with con-
crete contents were shown to 80 students taking a course in
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visual communication. The students were asked to write cap-
tions: 1) Positive captions that reinforced image contents, 2) Neg-
ative captions that weakened image contents, and 3) Neutral cap-
tions that neither reinforced nor weakened the image contents.
Subsequent reviews of 2,100 captions and discussions in class
showed that captions clearly affect our perception of the image
content. Readers are influenced to see what they are told to see.
This is also shown in eye-movement studies (Pettersson, 1986b).
Informative pictures can seldom be clear and unambiguous with-
out captions.
To rank and rate images
A realistic black-and-white drawing (on a grey background) of
“Two house martins in flight,” was reproduced in eight different
shape versions. The shapes were horizontal rectangle, oval,
round, square, triangle, vertical rectangle, and video format. In
one version there was no grey background, the drawing was a
“free shape” on white paper.
All versions had the main subject at the centre and all had
the same image area (69 cm2). The 28 possible image pairs were
mounted and numbered at random. A total of 30 girls and 35
boys, 10–12 years, viewed all image pairs and told an interviewer
which image in each pair they liked best. The 1,764 choices were
analysed with the aid of a binomial normal distribution test and
disclosed a significant preference for the “soft” image shapes. On
the whole, the following ranking was obtained: 1) Oval, 2–3)
Video format and “free” shape, 4–5) Round and square, 6) Low
rectangle, and 7–8) High rectangle and triangle.
On another occasion 36 girls and 39 boys, 8–12 years,
ranked how they liked five shape versions of a picture placed at
random on a table. This picture was a realistic drawing in colour
depicting oyster catchers in a lake-shore meadow. Each version
had a different cropping i.e., oval, rectangular, round, square,
and video format. All versions had the main subject at the centre
and all had the same image area (69 cm2). Statistical analysis
119
(homogeneity test, utilizing the hypothesis that rankings of dif-
ferent image shapes are equally distributed) of the children’s
rankings of image shapes showed that they displayed a signifi-
cant preference for the “soft” image shapes.
Both tests clearly showed that children, on these occasions
and with these pictures, preferred “soft” image shapes to images
with rectilinear framing. The results suggest that it might be jus-
tified to use more soft image shapes in our textbooks.
At a media conference, 79 participants rated the two image
subjects in all the versions except for the “free” shape. The pic-
tures were projected on a screen in the conference room. Each
picture was displayed to all participants for 12 seconds. Ratings
were made on a scale 1–5 (very poor–very good). The “soft” im-
age shapes were always rated higher than the images framed by
straight lines (p < 0.05). However, the differences were not as
pronounced as with the children.
Experiments with rankings and ratings of pictures (Petters-
son, 1983c) showed that picture readability is positively corre-
lated with both aesthetic ratings and assessed usefulness in
teaching.
To assess image contents
In one study (Pettersson, 1985) 46 “senders” as well as 80 “re-
ceivers” assessed image contents. Results showed that for seven
out of ten pictures there was a significant difference between the
intended and the perceived image contents. These pictures were
all mounted on cardboard paper in the A3 format (29.7 x 42.1
centimetres). In a follow-up study, slides were made of the five
drawings. These slides were then shown to and rated by 113 adult
subjects at the UREX image laboratory in Finland.
In the first study we used a semantic differential scale. The
verbal ratings “very poor,” “rather poor,” “neither poor nor
good,” “rather good,” and “very good” were supplemented with a
numerical value from zero to one hundred. For practical reasons,
a Likert scale (“very poor,” “rather poor,” “rather good,” and
120
“very good”) had to be used in the second study. The results from
the two studies are not immediately comparable. However, in
both cases pictures were rated very much the same. Here content
was more important than format.
McDougall and Hampton (1990, p. ix) noted that photog-
raphy, despite common belief, is not at all a universal language.
Viewers react to photographs very personally. They interpret
them in terms of their cultural heritage and environment. A pho-
tograph will not communicate the same message to all viewers.
Weidenmann (1989) divided 206 male undergraduates in
five groups. Each group rated “perceived quality” of their mate-
rial on leadership. The groups had:
• Plain text.
• Text with “imagination instructions.”
• Text with pictures and no instructions.
• Text with pictures and picture-oriented instructions.
• Text with pictures and imagination instructions.
The three groups with instructions in their texts each rated the
material lower in scientific “seriousness” than did the two other
groups. The group “Text with pictures and picture-oriented in-
structions” rated the material more positively with respect to the
following dimensions: Attractiveness, Comprehensibility, Con-
creteness, and Memorability.
After two weeks 159 subjects received a questionnaire con-
cerning main ideas and details of the text. Results showed that
the “Text with pictures and text with picture-oriented instruc-
tions”-group recalled significantly more main ideas and details
of the text than did all other groups. The differences among the
other four groups were statistically equivalent.
Weidenmann concluded that an under-evaluation of pic-
tures can be compensated for by explicit picture-oriented in-
structions. Pictures need captions.
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Where do we look?
In one opinion poll 93 information design students in Sweden
were asked to look at pictures of two food packages, and then
draw circles on a reply form, with images of the packages, to show
were they first had looked at each package (Pettersson, 2001).
The two packages each displayed four information elements, one
was pictorial and three were verbal. The pictorial information el-
ement was a picture of the contents. The verbal information ele-
ments were a title with the name of the product, the trademark,
and the amount of contents in the package. Only one of three
subjects first looked at the pictures on the packages. Two of three
subjects first looked at some verbal information. Most of the 186
observations (42%) were on the name of the product. The picture
of the contents was the second group (33%). The trademark was
the third group (23%), followed by the amount of contents in the
package (2%).
When subjects looked at pictures of packaging most of the ob-
servations were on the name of the product, followed by the pic-
ture of the contents.
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Kovačević and Brozović (2018) used an eye tracking device
in order to assess how 130 subjects payed attention to the five
major visual elements in an image of a package. The analysis of
the eye movements showed that subjects first noticed the me-
dium sized product name. The large illustration had the longest
total fixation time. Three smaller objects, a logo at top of the
package, a safety pictogram, and a text with quantity infor-
mation at the bottom of the package, were less noticeable. Many
subjects recalled the large illustration (80%) and the medium
sized product name (59%). Fewer participants recalled any of the
smaller elements, the safety pictogram (18%), the logo (18%),
and the quantity information (12%).
To create images
In four different experiments, art and design students in Sweden
have been assigned the task of making pictures according to var-
ious instructions (Pettersson, 1984, 1985, and 1986a). These ex-
periments resulted in a variety of pictures (almost 600). There is
no doubt that an intended content can be expressed using many
different images. It is also quite clear that different people per-
ceive and depict a given text in widely differing ways. Content is
more important than format.
In visual language, non-meaningful basic elements (dots,
lines, and areas) are put together into shapes that are combined
into syntagms, or sub-meanings (Pettersson, 1987b). Syntagms
can be part of complete meanings that in turn can be sub-mean-
ings to other complete meanings. The basic elements can be put
together in different ways, Thus, forming different images.
Subjects were given three sets of basic elements. They were
given the assignment “Combine the basic elements on each piece
of paper into an image.” The efforts resulted in 165 pictures. Ac-
cording to image contents, the pictures were grouped in various
categories. Contents comprised groups like eye, cat, bird, face,
animal, person, and also abstract ones. The basic elements had
been produced by taking original pictures apart electronically.
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The elements were mixed in a new way and some got new orien-
tations before they were printed out in hard-copy formats. It was
concluded that a given set of basic elements can be combined to
form various completely different images.
The same subjects were also given a picture in which they
were asked to use white ink and eliminate one hundred dots
without changing the image contents. They all succeeded. Re-
sults fully confirmed earlier findings (Pettersson, 1986c). We can
add, delete, or shift data in an image without drastically affect-
ing perception of image contents.
One experiment showed that a given set of basic elements (right
box) taken from a simple picture (left box) was combined to
form many new images. Here are some examples. All images
are much reduced in size.
Informative descriptions
In one study, 50 students at the Umeå Art Teacher Training De-
partment were asked to produce five pictures on the basis of de-
tailed, informative verbal descriptions of the experimental pic-
tures previously used (Pettersson, 1986b). A teacher read the de-
scriptions aloud, one after another. Students made their draw-
ings at the same time using a pen on white A4-sized paper. About
ten minutes were allotted for each subject. The 250 illustrations
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were subsequently analyzed with respect to “size,” the “number
of picture elements” and “agreement between description and
image.” As was the case in the previous shift between image and
words, also the shift between words and image displayed wide
individual variations.
More than half of the drawings occupied less than one-fourth
of the paper surface. One-fourth utilized from one-fourth to one-
half of the paper. Less than one-sixth of the illustrations occupied
more than half of the paper. One-fifth of the drawings utilized
“few picture elements,” one-third utilized “neither few nor many
picture elements” and about half utilized “many picture ele-
ments.” Ratings of the degree of agreement between the descrip-
tions and the respective pictures were distributed relatively
evenly between the three categories “good,” “fair” and “poor.”
This illustration shows the picture “A young tadpole” (left), a
poor (middle) and a good agreement (right) between descrip-
tion and drawing. All pictures are reduced in size.
This is the verbal description: “A tadpole only six days old.
The tadpole is swimming to the left. Its eye is a black dot on a
head comprising about a third of the animal’s length. Five, fin-
ger-like protuberances represent the tadpole’s external gills.
They point obliquely to the rear in a white field. There is a hint of
a mouth at the far left of the nearly round, slightly oval head.
Shadowing, in the form of a pattern of dots, starts in the middle
of the area between the eye and gills and extends obliquely to the
rear and up to the top of the head. There is also light shadowing
below the gills. It extends along the tadpole’s body to the tail
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where shadowing broadens, merges with upper shadowing and
proceeds to the middle of the tail.”
The experiment in Umeå was repeated at the RMI-Bergh
school of design in Stockholm. Here, the verbal descriptions were
replaced by printed versions given to each student and were ac-
cessible throughout the exercise. A description read aloud disap-
pears rapidly, and remembering details in it may be difficult.
Here measurement of the size of the individual pictures disclosed
the same distribution as before. There were fewer illustrations
with “few picture elements” and more illustrations with “many
picture elements.” As expected, the printed text resulted in a
smaller proportion of illustrations with “poor” agreement than
the descriptions read aloud (15 — 29%), and a larger proportion
of illustrations with “good” agreement (48 — 34%).
These two experiments showed that an intended content can
be depicted with many different pictures. Perception of text is
relative. Different people perceive a text in widely differing ways.
Perception of verbal content is apparently easier when a text is
read rather than heard.
To illustrate a story
It is interesting to study the pictures in different editions of fairy-
tale books (or movies). Different artists all have their individual
styles of work. They also have their own ideas of what to select
and how to emphasize interesting contents. It is obvious that our
perception of a story is very much dependent on the illustrations
that are selected. In one experiment an organization, Illustratör-
centrum, for illustrators in Sweden, gave their members a short
story by a well-known author (Illustratörcentrum, 1990). A total
of 57 artists created illustrations to the text. All the pictures were
quite unique. In fact, there were almost no similarities at all be-
tween the different images.
To produce informative materials
Groups of students at the University of Stockholm were assigned
the task of producing informative materials in different versions
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(Hellspong et al., 1987). After production, senders as well as re-
ceivers assessed all the 29 versions of information materials ac-
cording to a 0–100 semantic differential scale. Results showed
that there were major differences between intended and per-
ceived levels of quality for the four examined variables “text,”
“visuals,” “graphic design,” and “total impression.” The average
level of intended quality was higher than the perceived levels (m
= 22.5), i.e., the senders rated their material more favourably
than the receivers. Perceived quality was better than intended
quality only in about 15 percent of all 116 group assessments.
To produce information graphics
IFRA Institute (in Darmstadt, West Germany) organized a work-
shop “Infographics” (1988). Twenty artists, graphic designers
and journalists from different newspapers participated. They
worked in eight groups with two to three persons. All groups had
computer equipment and they worked with the same theme. The
workshop was concluded with evaluations of the information
graphics that had been produced. Copies of all graphics were dis-
tributed to all groups together with evaluation forms.
Each graphic was assessed according to ten different criteria.
A combined five grade numeric and verbal scale was used: 1 = not
satisfactory, 2 = satisfactory, 3 = rather good, 4 = good, and 5 =
very good. The ten criteria were: 1 = legibility of text, 2 = legibility
of image, 3 = foreground (should be clear and distinct), 4 = back-
ground (should not be disturbing), 5 = text-image connections
(should be clear), 6 = location of places and/or events, 7 = docu-
mentation of facts and/or explanations, 8 = presentation of sta-
tistics, 9 = editorial comment/s, and 10 = overall aesthetic value.
Results showed that all criteria were assessed in a subjective
way. In fact, most of the grades were used for all criteria. This
was true for all graphics. The eight graphics formed three cate-
gories. One graphic had a concentration at the high end with 80
percent of ratings good and very good. The contrary was true for
two graphics. They have a concentration at the low grades with
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80 percent of ratings not satisfactory and satisfactory. The re-
maining five graphics had an even distribution of grades or a
week concentration at the middle of the scale. It was concluded
that subjects had different opinions about information graphics.
Describing picture context
In communications, the sender is anxious for different receivers
to perceive her/his message in the same, or at least in similar
ways. But this is seldom the case. Major discrepancy between the
sender’s perception and the individual receiver’s perception is
very common (Pettersson, 1989b). A picture always represents a
choice among several alternatives. A picture represents a “fro-
zen” slice of time. Something is always going on around, before,
and after a depicted event.
In one experiment (Pettersson, 1989b), adult subjects were
asked to draw pictures depicting events in the enclosed field
around six small and simple illustrations. They were also asked
to draw pictures depicting the events they considered to take
place “before” two, and “after” two pictures. Subjects also wrote
explanatory captions. The subjects drew a total of 378 pictures
and wrote the same number of captions.
We are apparently capable of sensing far more information
than is explicitly displayed in any given picture. Adult perception
tends to be holistic rather than detail-oriented. No one, except
the original picture creator (me), can state with certainty what is
really going on around the events in a particular picture, or what
happened before, or after the situation depicted in any selected
picture. As expected, subjects had very definite and differing
opinions about what was probably going on around particular
pictures and about events prior to or after a depicted situation.
Many subjects said: “I am right!” Some subjects asked: “Am I
right?” All subjects really wanted to know “the correct answer”
but there never were any correct answer.
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Here is one example of the result of “around the dog image” as-
signment (left). The dog is completed outside of the frame and
given a hind part with legs and tail, and a ball to play with. The
pictures are reduced in size.
Here is one example of the result of “around the cat image” as-
signment (left). The cat is completed outside of the frame and
given three kittens, and a background. The pictures are reduced
in size.
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Here are examples of four answers to the question: “What hap-
pened before?” (In this case we may see a boat sailing.) Here,
the pictures are reduced in size. Most subjects did not use colour.
Here are examples of four answers to the question: “What hap-
pened after?” (In this case most subjects saw a cloud in the sky.)
Most subjects did not use colour, but some did. Here, the pic-
tures are reduced in size.
This experiment has been repeated (Pettersson, 1992) with
four of the original pictures (cat, dog, boat, and cloud). The first
130
two of these experiment pictures refer to the question of around.
The other two refer to the questions of before and after respec-
tively. The results of this experiment confirmed the results from
the first study.
For the first assignment, 120 subjects drew an average of 49
different depictions of the picture’s contextual events. The most
common motif was selected by an average of 16 persons. Most
subjects (71%) ignored the inner frame when depicting context.
However, the inner frame was utilized as a significant image ele-
ment in the composition of 69 pictures. The inner frame was then
incorporated as, e.g., an aquarium, a book page, a cinema screen,
a painting, a poster, or a window, to mention just a few. Context
therefore governed the size of the original motif.
Regarding the second assignment, 120 subjects produced an
average of 29 depictions of events preceding and following each
stimulus picture. On average more than one subject draw 18 dif-
ferent motifs. 18 individuals selected the most common motif.
The results showed far closer agreement between the subjects’
perception of events “before-after” than of events “around.” The
latter produced fewer motifs (29 vs. 49). In addition, the most
common motif was represented in more pictures (24 vs. 18).
However, the number of motifs drawn by more than one subject
was about the same for both assignments (16 vs. 18).
The results showed that the subjects had treated the visual
information in an analytical and conscious manner. The results
suggested that each subject placed available information in a
wider, expanded, “personal” context. All the interpretations were
realistic and about equally credible. We are apparently capable
of sensing far more information than is explicitly displayed in a
given picture. Adult perception tends to be holistic rather than
detail-oriented. No one, except the original picture creator, can
state with absolute certainty what is really going on around a par-
ticular picture’s events or what really happened before or after
the situation depicted in a selected picture. All the subjects still
expressed opinions about circumfluous events on their drawings.
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They also tended to feel that their particular interpretations were
the correct ones. Many subjects asked: “Am I right?”
Two examples of test pictures for the study of how children de-
pict events in the field “around” simple illustrations.
Image-enhancement graphics
Vogel et al. (1986) showed that image-enhancement intended to
improve interpretation of image content sometimes got in the
way of the message. They concluded that image-enhancement
graphics should be used selectively and carefully. When in doubt,
they recommended, plain text should be used.
To understand diagrams
Lowe (1992) studied how experts and non-experts processed in-
formation provided in weather maps. The results indicated fun-
damental differences between how experts and non-experts rep-
resented diagrams mentally. The nature and extent of these dif-
ferences indicated that the non-experts lacked a suitable basis for
processing the diagrams in a way that would help them learn
about the discipline. Their mental representation was impover-
ished, fragmentary, and mainly based upon superficial visuo-
spatial characteristics of weather map diagrams’ pictorial con-
stituents. The non-expert’s mental representation was limited to
the particular diagram under consideration and lacked the scien-
tists’ highly interrelated and hierarchical structure between dif-
ferent types of information.
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The research showed that the task of processing diagrams
may not be as different from the task of processing other types of
presentation as might be supposed. Individuals lacking experi-
ence in a discipline will have a limited capacity to make effective
use of diagrammatic presentation. Diagrams cannot be regarded
simply as an alternative form of presentation that is easier to pro-
cess than drawings and photographs.
Our perception and interpretation of flow diagrams can be
influenced by the type of graphic elements used to compose the
diagrams (Branch, Rezabek, and Cochenour, 1998). The subjects
described a rectilinear diagram as organized and simple. They
described a curvilinear diagram as confusing and circular. The
subjects described a diagram composed of mixed element types
as confusing, complex and complicated.
Perceptual constancy
A country’s flag is often its most prominent national symbol. The
flag is devised according to a specific pattern with colours and
proportions. There are usually very strict rules about the times
when the flag may be hoisted and lowered. Children quickly learn
to recognize their country’s flag. This is evident in the spontane-
ous drawings made by children in different countries.
Yet even though most people learn to recognize their coun-
try’s flag at an early age, they would probably still be incapable of
supplying an exact description of the flag’s appearance. But we
are still capable of recognizing our own flag when we see it, irre-
spective of the way wind may change its shape or weather condi-
tions alter its apparent colours. Perceptual constancy generally
prevails for flags and many other symbols. In our mind’s eye, ob-
jects tend to retain their shape, size, brightness, and colours irre-
spective of the distance, angle, or lighting conditions from/in
that we view them.
In one experiment, Paukstadt (unpublished) used an A4-
sized paper to which a blue-yellow-blue strip was glued. The strip
had the same colours and width proportions (5:2:9) as the
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Swedish flag and was equivalent to less than 4% of the area of a
normal flag. The blue-yellow-blue strip inspired 91 students
(65%) to think of the Swedish flag. The other 50 students in the
study (35%) thought of no less than 27 different subjects. The re-
sults showed very clearly that even a highly deformed flag symbol
was often capable of generating associations with the national
symbol. There is a large degree of perceptual constancy.
Approaches to picture perception
There are many approaches to picture perception. Based on the
theory of linear perspective, invented during the Renaissance,
Gibson (1971) defined picture perception as a stimulus-driven
process in which information is picked up from optical arrays.
Gombrich (1969) and Gregory (1978) held the opposite view.
While seeing a picture the viewer constructs a meaning based on
experience and expectations. From this receptionist position nei-
ther the readers nor the message remains the same. Meaning ex-
ists only for a moment within each individual reader.
Gombrich (1969) argued that no pictorial image gains the
status of a “statement,” unless an explicit reference is made to
what it is supposed to represent. Barthes (1977) used the term
“anchorage” to describe the relationship of pictures to captions
or other accompanying verbal language. Most pictures are capa-
ble of several interpretations until anchored to one by a caption.
Valkola (2004) argued that people feel, perceive, interpret,
think, and apply their own knowledge of the world when they
view and make sense of works of art. He integrates aesthetical,
and psychological approaches, in order to understand our com-
plex mental processes when we interpret art. Through different
cinematic examples it is possible to study artistic originality, and
they are cognitively interesting examples of pictorial orchestra-
tion of images and sounds in a creative way.
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More approaches
Another approach to picture perception is based on semiotics
and symbol theory (Goodman, 1976). Intentionalism suggests
that a producer, leaving the reader to discover and unfold it, em-
beds meaning in the message. Here meaning exists independent
from the reader. For an intentionalist a painting means what the
artist says it does. For a receptionist the painting does not mean
anything until the reader says it does (Muffoletto, 1987).
Boeckman (1987) made a clear distinction between drawings
and paintings that have “signs,” and photographs that have “rec-
orded perceptional stimuli.” “Before photography was invented
there were two modes to learn about reality. Perception is pro-
cessing stimuli of the surrounding reality on the one hand and
communication is processing signs on the other. Now we have
something in between: “Recorded perception stimuli which are
not reality but not signs either.” For Arnheim (1974) picture per-
ception is a matter of responding to basic forms such as gestalt
laws. An important point of Arnheim’s is that visual perception
includes the same behaviours that we commonly consider only
as matters of cognition or thinking. A “percept” is a building
block of visual thinking and as such is analogous to the cognitive
function of a concept.
Lowe (1992) used weather maps in a series of experiments
and found that experts formed resident mental representations
different from non-experts. Resident mental representations are
considered to be the overall outcome of a person's experience
with subject matter that is relevant to a task to be performed. The
non-experts used a largely data-driven approach, relying primar-
ily upon the obvious visuo-spatial properties of the graphic ele-
ments comprising the display. In contrast, the experts went be-
yond the literal characteristics of material given explicitly in the
display and used a domain-specific, representation-driven ap-
proach. These fundamental differences in approach were inter-
preted as evidence for the dominance of a visuo-spatial based
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mental representation for the non-experts and meteorologically
based semantic mental representation for the experts.
Overview and analysis
Some researchers suggest that information is represented solely
in the form of propositions. Images are said to be recorded into
propositional format by a series of transformations (Pylyshyn,
1973, 1979). Others suggest more complex systems in which a va-
riety of storage formats co-exist in an interlinked manner (An-
derson, 1978, 1983; Wender, 1989). The perception process is of-
ten assumed to consist of two stages. A fast overview is followed
by a conscious analysis. When we first look at an image we only
see that which is necessary to perceive and identify objects and
events in a reasonable and meaningful manner. This is Gibson’s
“principle of economy” (Gibson, 1966).
As previously noted Barry (1998) makes a clear distinction
between two independent mind systems, one that feels and one
that thinks. This explains why images may speak to us holistically
and emotionally. Data about some images are only emotionally
processed. Other images are analysed. In rational theory, people
weigh things equally and then consciously decide on truth or
logic. In reality, however, emotional response comes first. Barrry
concluded we begin to respond to the visual environment emo-
tionally, below the level of or rational awareness before we can
critically analyse it. This makes it likely that much of cognition is
actually rationalisation to make unconscious emotional response
acceptable to the conscious mind.
I have presented a similar “dual view” (Pettersson, 1987a)
when I found that simple line drawings accompanied by various
assignments caused very different reactions in subjects (see fig-
ure). It is obvious that the different assignments have caused per-
ception and image interpretation on different cognitive levels. I
suggested that image interpretation on low cognitive levels fol-
lows these steps:
136
1. The subject looks at the image. A few rapid eye fixations are
made.
2. The information is handled as a “whole” in parallel, simulta-
neous, tentative, rough, holistic, and fast processing.
3. A “wholeness interpretation” occurs, recognition, and mean-
ing of the image content is formed very quickly–“immedi-
ately.”
4. This interpretation is expressed by the use of a very limited
number of words.
I further suggested that image interpretation on high cognitive
levels follows these steps:
1. The subject looks at the image. A few rapid eye fixations are
made.
2. The information is handled as a “whole” in parallel, simulta-
neous, tentative, rough, holistic, and fast processing.
3. A “wholeness interpretation” occurs, recognition and mean-
ing of the image content is formed very quickly–“immedi-
ately.”
4. Certain details in the image attract more eye fixations.
5. The information is processed again, maybe several times, de-
tail by detail. The process demands attention and is sequen-
tial.
6. Our verbal memory is activated in a search for suitable ex-
pressions. Various hypotheses about the image content are
weighed against one another and tested. Segmented codes
have to pass through several levels of recognition and inter-
pretations before meaning occurs.
7. The interpretation of the image contents is expressed by the
use of a large number of different words.
In both cases, I believe, both halves of the brain are involved in
the interpretation of image contents. In the first case there might
be a dominance of right brain activity. However, in the other case
there might be a dominance of left-brain activity. Interpretation
137
of verbal visual information such as a television-program is likely
to take place simultaneously in both parts of the brain.
An image is interpreted in different ways depending on the as-
signment (Pettersson, 1987a). An immediate image interpreta-
tion is handled on a low cognitive level. An analytic image in-
terpretation needs high cognitive level activities.
Picture perception conclusions
How we actually create meaning is an area where much research
still is needed. It can be concluded that:
• A given set of basic elements can be combined to form com-
pletely different images.
• All visual experience is subject to individual interpretation.
• Captions should be written with great care. They heavily in-
fluence our interpretation of image content.
• Content is more important than execution and form.
• Different assignments may cause different interpretations of
image contents.
• Each receiver will place available information in a wider, ex-
panded, “personal” context.
138
• Even simple pictures may cause many different associations.
• Guidelines to visual artists will usually not lead to destruction
of creativity.
• How we actually create meaning is an area where much re-
search still is needed.
• Most subjects have their own ideas on how to finish a story.
• Perceived image content is different from intended image
content.
• Picture readability is positively correlated with both aesthetic
ratings and assessed usefulness in teaching.
• Some assignments cause interpretation of image contents on
a high cognitive level.
• Some assignments cause interpretation of image contents on
a low cognitive level.
• Students display poor pictorial capabilities.
• The design of a picture can be changed a great deal without
any major impact on the perception of the image contents.
• There are major differences between intended and perceived
levels of quality in informative materials.
• There seems to be no major difference between gender in in-
terpretation of image contents.
• To a large degree, readers see what they are told to see in an
image.
• We must learn to read image content.
Pictorial style preferences
Many observers have noted differences in visual perception and
pictorial conventions between people in less technologically de-
veloped countries and those in the industrialized, European cul-
tural sphere. On closer examination these differences appear to
be related to cultural factors rooted in geographic location as well
as in level of technological development. These perceptual differ-
ences have educational implications, as Arnheim (1974), Chaplin
(1971), Duncan, Gourlay, and Hudson (1973), Stacey (1969), and
others have pointed out.
139
Like a text, a picture can be produced in various styles. Illus-
trative or artistic pictorial style can be defined as the mode of ex-
pression employed by an artist in interpreting pictorial content.
Sloan (1971) discussed four pictorial artistic styles: photographic,
representational, expressionistic, and cartoon. Photographic
style was defined as a coloured photograph of the subject. Rep-
resentational style was defined as an artist’s rendition of the sub-
ject that conforms to the subject in its true form. Expressionistic
style was defined as an artist’s rendition of the subject that leans
heavily towards abstraction. Cartoon style was defined as an an-
imated caricature of the subject. These four artistic styles form a
realistic to an abstract continuum.
Literature on preferences for pictorial artistic styles fall into
three primary groups studies in which subjects selected a pre-
ferred picture from a series of pictures, in isolation from any ac-
companying text studies in which subjects selected a picture
which they felt best illustrated accompanying text and studies in
which subjects were asked to supply verbal reasons for their pic-
ture preferences. Several researchers (e.g., Rudisill, 1951–1952;
Lam, 1966; Sloan, 1971; Lindsten, 1975, 1976; Myatt and Carter,
1979) concluded that children preferred realistic art styles.
However, Ramsey (1982) concluded that primary age chil-
dren preferred photographic as well as cartoon art styles when
they selected pictures in isolation from text. Teachers as well as
children regarded colour photographs showing what things look
like, drawings as complements to photographs, authentic, histor-
ical pictures, and authentic pictures of works of art as examples
of “good visuals” (Pettersson,1990). “Fussy” overviews, abstract,
obscure, ambiguous pictures, or pictures lacking the necessary
facts were regarded examples of “poor visuals.”
Poor visuals display prejudice and attitudes in conflict with
democratic principles. Pictures with merely a decorative function
and “educational cartoons” which fail to educate are other exam-
ples of poor visuals. And Lucas (1977) reported that fifth grade
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children preferred “impressionistic” art with captions and pho-
tographic art with biography.
Like Sloan (1971) and Lucas (1977), Ramsey (1989) con-
cluded that children equate highly realistic art styles (photo-
graphic and representational) with text content that depict real-
ity and real-life situations. Ramsey also found that children were
very consistent in equating the more abstract art styles (expres-
sionistic and cartoon) with imaginative, “pretend” or “make-be-
lieve” literature. Rank scores for the pictorial styles for 173 sub-
jects were photographic (1.08), representational (2.01), expres-
sionistic (3.16), and cartoon (3.75).
In the interpretation of artistic style even children, as young
as first grade, are visually literate. According to Ramsey, children
like to read about real-world subjects illustrated with full-colour
photographs, and they like to read about imaginative subjects il-
lustrated with cartoons. This research suggests a complex inter-
action between children’s perceptions of artistic style and their
selection of style to accompany specific literary forms. Ramsey
suggests that children employ pictorial artistic style as a yard-
stick for measuring the reality or fantasy of accompanying con-
tent material. Artistic styles may therefore give children various
“pre-understandings” of the text contents.
Lines and shapes
The things we humans perceive in a visual field and the manner
in which we interpret image content depend greatly on whether
or not the image is familiar within our society and whether
proper interpretation of the image has survival value within our
particular culture.
Turnbull (1961) provided a vivid example of the effect of
physical geography on size and depth perception. He described
how huge buffalo were construed by a pygmy, accustomed to liv-
ing in a dense jungle, as being no larger than insects when he
viewed them from a distance on a savannah. In the jungle it is
impossible to see any animal at anything but relatively close
141
range. In the jungle it is difficult to develop anything but close-
up perspectives.
Pygmies are renowned for their great skill in detecting and
killing birds and monkeys hidden in jungle foliage. Likewise, Es-
kimoes are skilled in detecting a polar bear or a seal in arctic ter-
rain. In either environment a European would have difficulty
spotting anything at all.
Lanners (1973) found that “primitive” people dislike straight
lines or rectangles in pictures. Annis and Frost (1973) have
shown that Cree Indians in Canada fail to perceive rectilinear op-
tical illusions in the same way other Canadians do. According to
Allport and Pettigrew (1957) this is also the case for the Zulu, a
Bantu nation of south-eastern Africa. The explanation in both
these cases is believed to be that “primitive” people prefer natu-
rally rounded shapes. The environments of “primitive” people al-
most invariably feature rounded, gentle contours. Their homes
are built as oval huts.
It takes only a glance at a painting by Brueghel to see how
completely European rural and urban landscapes have been
transformed since the 16th century. In that century, European
towns had basically soft contours. Nowadays, new city streets are
laid out in angular, abstract networks. If a hill is in the way of a
new street, the hill is simply blasted out of existence. The ensur-
ing rubble is then used to fill in valleys or lakes. Modern cities are
dominated visually by the squares and rectangles of contempo-
rary building modules. Similarly, new fields and forests are laid
out in regular, geometric patterns rather than designed to follow
the natural irregularities of the original landscape contours.
According to Segall, Cambell, and Herskovits (1966), it was
in the 1880s that a rectilinear view of the world began to influ-
ence European perception and interpretation of visual fields.
They pointed out that one of the most striking things about a
photocopy is its rectangular shape and its white frame. These
properties may very well have an effect on and interfere with our
142
perception of the image subject. This supports the notion that
physical geography exerts an influence on visual perception.
Image framing preferences
Influenced by various cultural conventions, Europeans of the late
20th century find it “natural” for pictures to be enclosed in rec-
tangular frames, and even for the frames themselves to be deco-
rated in some way. This preference is not necessarily shared in
other cultures. The visual field of the eyes is actually in the shape
of two partially overlapping ovals. The edges of that visual field
are also blurred, not sharp. The retina’s macula lutea, containing
the fovea centralis with cells providing the clearest vision, is also
oval. When illustrating his theories on selected visual fields, Gib-
son (1966) employed drawings of oval segments of reality.
Rock inscriptions
Parallel lines and right angles never frame drawings that are
made by “primitive” peoples. In the Stone and Iron Ages our fore-
fathers made rock inscriptions and murals resembling pictures
still being created today in other parts of the world. The ancient
murals in northern Norway and Sweden deal mainly with myth-
ical hunting scenes and depict such animals as moose, reindeer,
salmon, whales, and seals.
The rock inscriptions in southern Scandinavia, found most
abundantly in Bohuslän County, feature ships, weapons, the sun,
and people. There are also outstanding murals in the caves of Al-
tamira, Spain, and Lascaux, France. Even though many of the
murals were made more than 15,000 years ago, they retain un-
common vitality. The images follow the natural contours of the
cave walls and are not subjected to artificial framing.
Early books
Illustrations in early European books frequently had gently
rounded shapes. As late as the end of the 19th century Lloyds’
Natural History (1896) was published in sixteen volumes with
exquisite oval or “free” illustrations. Etchings, woodcuts, and
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paintings also were frequently made with oval or round shapes.
At the turn of the century, oval photographic portraits were very
common.
Quadrangular frames
Nowadays, quadrangular frames are so familiar to Western view-
ers that they become aware of them only under unusual circum-
stances. Sporrstedt (1980) made the following observation about
European influences in connection with the Stockholm exhibi-
tion of folk art from Tanzania:
Naturally, pictures had been seen hanging on the walls of
homes and offices of British colonial administrators and
other European residents. These pictures were invariably
framed. For us the frame is a natural border for the picture
image. But for the African servants in Oster Bay villas near
Dar-es-Salaam, the frame was an integral feature of the im-
age. This is the way their first painters saw things, and the
frame has remained an integral feature of art.
Carrying this point into the educational realm, Jahoda et al.
(1976) found that upper secondary school students in three Afri-
can countries–Ghana, Kenya, and Zambia–learned the content
of simple black-and-white drawings as well as students of the
same age in Scotland and India. The pictures employed were of
various animals and various types of human habitation. All the
pictures were “free,” that is, unrestricted by frames, tint plates,
or the like.
Summary
In summary, it may be that quadrangular pictures are largely the
result of various technical dictates and are not a reflection of
man’s true, natural preference. As an informal test of this notion,
I have, on various occasions, asked children and adults to rate
pictures having different image shapes. Given more than 7,000
choices, both children and adults preferred “soft” images to those
144
framed by straight lines. This preference is held true across dif-
ferent racial and ethnic groups.
Pictures in textbooks
If cultural-geographical differences do affect perception of image
and colour, one would expect such variations to be reflected in
the illustrations in textbooks designed in widely differing cul-
tures. As a sort of pilot test of this hypothesis, I examined typical
science textbooks, all aimed at the 10–12 years age group, from
three different cultural areas: a less-developed African country–
Ghana; an industrialized Asian country–Japan; and an industri-
alized European country–Sweden.
Number of illustrations
I found major differences in the pictorial treatment in the three
textbooks. The Ghanaian book had 135 illustrations, all in colour.
Only one illustration was a photograph; the remainder were
drawings. The Japanese book had 347 illustrations, all in colour.
Three-fourths of the pictures were photographs; one-fourth were
drawings. The Swedish book had 250 illustrations, only a third
of which were in colour. Half of the pictures were photographs;
half were drawings.
Image shapes
Irregularly shaped, oval, or round image shapes were predomi-
nant in the Ghanaian book. Those pictures that were framed (an
influence of Western printing traditions?) often contained oval
or round subjects. In fact, more than nine-tenths of the pictures
fit into one of these two categories. The Japanese book, too, con-
tained a predominance of oval, round, or irregularly shaped pic-
tures. In this case almost all of the round pictures were photo-
graphs of outstanding quality. The book displayed a highly re-
fined image language with picture sequences illustrating various
events step-by-step.
The pictures communicated a great deal of the content even
to one unable to comprehend the Japanese verbal text. In the
145
Swedish textbook fewer than one-fourth of the illustrations were
“free” or rounded images. Two-thirds of the pictures were con-
ventionally cropped into regular or, in a few cases, square for-
mats. The layout of the photographs was frequently such that it
was difficult to distinguish one picture from another. They were
used for “visual effect” rather than for information transmission.
The arrangement demanded readers greatly experienced in read-
ing pictures. The drawings were made by several different artists
and in a number of different styles.
Use of colour
In the Ghanaian and Japanese books, just as the drawings
seemed to typify their respective cultures so did the use of colour.
In the Ghanaian book all the pictures were simple, clear, and dis-
tinct, with a bright colour scale in which yellow and brown pre-
dominated. The other colours were largely the ones Berlin and
Kay (1969) define as focal colours: red, yellow, green, brown,
blue, orange, pink, purple, black, white, and grey. The Swedish
pictures displayed a wide range of colours typical of the subtle
colours of the Scandinavian landscape.
As previously noted interviews with representatives of Afri-
can publishing companies in the Ivory Coast, Ghana, and Nigeria
and examination of other textbooks from these publishing
houses confirmed the observations made of the original small
sample of Ghanaian texts.
Influence in education
Sibanda (2009, p. 202) argued that the textbook has a pervading
and ubiquitous influence in education. Not even the advent of
new technologies has been able to supplant this position. Cole-
man (2010, p. 199) noted that images, illustrations, and visual
representations presently receive less attention than printed text
as they relate to the creation of meaning in school.
146
Pictures showing people
Generally speaking people like pictures showing people. Pictures
are cultural products shared by many individuals (Moriarty and
Rohe, 1992). An individual who is smiling in a picture is seen as
a positive person, while an individual who is frowning is viewed
as a negative person (Moriarty and Popovich, 1991). The larger a
person's face appears in a picture, the more positively we per-
ceive that individual. And a close-up headshot of a person is more
positive than a photo taken from a distance (Archer et al., 1983).
When a person is shown straight on in a photograph he or
she is perceived in a more positive way and perceived as being
more in control of the situation than a person who is shown from
one side (Moriarty and Popovich, 1991). This person is also per-
ceived much more positively than a person shown from behind.
An individual appears powerful when he or she is photo-
graphed from below with the photographer looking up at him or
her. The same individual appears less powerful, and least in con-
trol of the situation if he or she is photographed from above. In-
dividuals shown with closed eyes are viewed more negatively
than those shown with open eyes. It is also known that the pur-
pose of a photo is important for our perception of the person de-
picted in the picture (Moriarty and Garramone, 1986).
Illusions
One and the same stimulus can easily be perceived in different
ways on different occasions. A very famous example of this is the
Necker cube. It is perceived in one of two ways. There are many
examples of “transformation” pictures of this kind. Some artists
have become specialists in making pictures that which can be
perceived in different ways. When the brain analyses new data, it
automatically adds or subtracts information in an effort to obtain
a “sensible” interpretation of that data.
147
The Necker cube (left) is an optical illusion, first published in
1832. We can perceive it in two different ways.
This figure is “impossible.” The depth ambiguity means that the
eye is unable to obtain all the information necessary to locate
all the figure’s parts. The brain becomes unable to determine
how to interpret the image (Thurstone and Carraher, 1966).
We often think that we see things that are not really there. Many
viewers interpret the 24 blue scribbles as forming the word “in-
formation.” An illiterate person, however, would be unable to
interpret the scribbles as forming a word (Pettersson, 1989b).
148
The eight bars are equal, but the vertical bars seem to be longer
(Sarcone and Waeber, 2011). We often have difficulty in inter-
preting simple relationships. Horizontal lines are often per-
ceived as being shorter than equally long vertical lines.
We see open and light forms as
larger than closed and darker
forms of the same shape in the
same size (Thurstone and
Carraher, 1966).
The left figure seems to have a
longer horizontal line than the
right figure, but they are equal.
This is the Müller-Lyer illusion
(from 1889).
The top red line seems to be
longer than the bottom red line,
but they are the same. This is
the Ponzo illusion (from 1911).
(Sarcone and Waeber, 2011.)
149
The Sander illusion, or Sander’s
parallelogram, is an optical
illusion from 1926. The left red
diagonal seems to be longer
than the equally long diagonal
to the right.
The left horizontal red line seems
to be different than the right red
line, but they are the same. This
is the Fee illusion (Sarcone and
Waeber, 2011).
The two red circles have the same
size but the right circle appears to be
larger. This is the Delboeuf illusion.
(Roberts, Harris, and Yates, 2005.)
The two red circles have the
same size. This is the Ebbing-
haus illusion or Titchener
circles (1901).
(Roberts, Harris, and Yates, 2005.)
These two ark shapes are identical.
This is the Jastrow illusion (from
1889). (Sarcone and Waeber, 2011.)
150
Intersected straight lines no
longer appear to be straight but
bent or serrated. The red lines
are parallel. This is the Wundt
illusion (19th century).
Intersected straight lines no
longer appear to be straight
but bent or serrated. The red lines
are parallel. This is the Hering
illusion from 1861.
The tilted square no longer appears to be a square, and the in-
tersected red circles no longer appear to be circles. This is the
Orbison illusion from 1939 (Fineman, 1996). This is a variant of
the Hering and Wundt illusions.
The Ehrenstein illusion from 1941
is an optical illusion. Here perfect
red squares that are located
within a pattern of circles take
apparent curved shapes.
151
All the red lines are parallel.
All the smaller horizontal and
vertical blue lines really distort
our perception.This is the
Zöllner illusion (1860).
Our brains can create a contour
where none exists in the image.
Kaniza (1979) describes such
illusory contours as examples of
modal, or visible completions.
In regular patterns like these the areas in the intersections of the
white and black lines look grey (Thurstone and Carraher, 1966).
Changes in scale give an illusion of elevations or depressions in
a flat figure. Inspired by the painting Metagalaxy by Victor
Vasarely 1960-1961.
152
Facilitating perception
In perceiving a message, the receiver uses sensory organs and the
nervous system. When a message is internalized the receiver has
got new emotions, new experiences, new feelings, and new
knowledge. Often individuals will interpret the same representa-
tion in different ways. Messages that are contradictory often cre-
ate more confusion than they provide help.
This main section includes the following sections: Facilitat-
ing perception of text, Facilitating perception of pictures, Facil-
itating perception of layout, and Facilitating perception of col-
our.
Facilitating perception of text
A text should be well worth reading for the intended receivers. In
order to improve the reading value of the text we may consider
the following points:
• Avoid irrelevant information and distracting jargon.
• Consider embedded meanings of different colours when us-
ing colours to accent words in a text (Hartley, 1987).
• Open and light forms are perceived as being larger than
closed and darker forms of the same shape (Winn, 1993a).
• Provide text with a rich language for pleasant reading.
• Use a list of contents to create pre-understanding.
• We can read a text from various distances and various angles
and still get the same understanding of the text content (Pet-
tersson, 1989b).
Facilitating perception of pictures
Pictures should be well worth reading for the intended receivers.
In order to improve the reading value of the pictures we maycon-
sider the following points:
• People find a “naturalness” in dealing with images either as
an aid to or, in some circumstances, as the sole means of com-
municating (Lodding, 1983).
153
• Provide a good contrast between figure and ground in pic-
tures (Wileman, 1993).
• Provide pictures with interesting contents (Pettersson 1989b,
1993).
• Receivers have even more ambiguity or semantic diversity
with visual images than with most expressions of written lan-
guage with its manifold meanings (Limburg, 1987).
• Use cultural differences may in order to impact the effective-
ness of pictures (Kovalik, 2004).
• Use open and light forms since they are perceived as being
larger than closed and darker forms of the same shape (Winn,
1993a).
• Use photographs showing people (Archer et al., 1983; Mori-
arty and Garramone, 1986; Moriarty and Popovich, 1991; Mo-
riarty and Rohe, 1992).
Facilitating perception of layout
The layout of an information material may aid or hinder percep-
tion of the content. We may consider the following points:
• Avoid too short and too long lines (West, 1987; Parker, 1988;
Pettersson, 1989a; Pettersson, 1989b; Walker, 1990; Lipton,
2007).
• Make sure that distribution of space reflects relationships.
• Use colour, orientation, pattern, shape, size, texture, and
value to show that objects belong together (Pettersson,
1989a).
Facilitating perception of colour
People might see colours in the same way. However, no two per-
sons experience colour in the same way. The human reactions to
colour stimuli cannot be standardised. Depending on age, cul-
ture, gender, and profession, there are different subjective reac-
tions to colour. There are likes and dislikes of colour, based on
154
general as well as personal associations. Colours should be used
with care. We may consider the following seven points:
• Consider that many people are colour-blind (Hartley, 1987).
• Do not focus on specific colours as always best (Bradshaw,
2003).
• Do not use more than three or four text colours on the same
page, screen, or slide (Pettersson, 1989b).
• People rank colours as follows: blue, white, green, violet, or-
ange, and yellow (Eysenck, 1959).
• Use colour and grey scale to influence the perception of size
(Winn, 1993a).
• Use colour to enhance perception of a visual message (Dwyer,
1978, 1985).
• Work to ensure good contrast between text and background
(Bradshaw, 2003).
155
The brain
The brain is the centre of the nervous system and the most com-
plex of all organs. It is the organ that makes us human. The brain
provides the capacity for art, language, moral judgments, and ra-
tional thought. Your brain is responsible for your memories,
movements, personality and how you sense the world. It coordi-
nates your physical actions, regulate your body processes, such
as breathing and digestion.
The use of visual information pre-dates the development of
all alphabets, and all communication systems that are based on
words (Grabe, 2020). The human brain has developed for a very
long time to process visual information very efficiently and fast
(Barry, 2005). In comparison processing of verbal/written infor-
mation is very slow. Visual information effectively evokes emo-
tional responses that guide human behaviour toward the mes-
sage prior to a conscious processing of written content.
According to Rutledge (2020, p. 73) visual cognition litera-
ture indicates that the brain processes images of people, in par-
ticular faces, differently than it processes objects. Faces contain
common features that encourage holistic processing. As a result,
we can recognize faces in milliseconds (Richler et al., 2009). Ob-
jects do not contain the same predictability and take longer to
process.
This chapter includes the following main sections: Anatomy
of the brain, Cognitive levels, Mental images, and Intellectual
development.
156
Anatomy of the brain
The modern era of brain research began in the mid-1960’s, when
Dr Roger Sperry and his associates published their findings re-
garding patients who were operated on to control life-threaten-
ing epileptic seizures (see Levie, 1987, Sinatra, 1986; Wilson,
Reeves, and Gazzaniga, 1982 for reviews).
Metallinos (1997) noted that attentional and perceptual pro-
cesses are neuro-physiological and basic biological activities of
the sensory organs and the nervous system.
The human brain has two cerebral hemispheres. The brain is
a jellylike mass of fat and protein (about 1.4 kilograms) with
some 100 billion nerve cells. The brain is hierarchically arranged.
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain containing the
cerebral cortex of the two cerebral hemispheres, with such struc-
tures as the basal ganglia, the hippocampus, and the amygdala.
The basal ganglia are involved in complex action sequences. The
hippocampus is an important structure in memory and spatial
behaviour. The amygdala is involved in the regulation of higher-
order motivational states. The two cerebral hemispheres are sep-
arated by a deep fissure called the longitudinal fissure. The cere-
brum is controlling all voluntary actions, emotions, hearing, per-
sonality, vision and much more.
These schematic illustrations show the human brain from
above with the two cerebral hemispheres (left), and from the
left side (right): 1) Frontal lobe, 2) Parietal lobe, 3) Occipital
lobe, 4) Temporal lobe, 5) Brainstem, and 6) Cerebellum.
157
This schematic illustration shows a longitudinal cross section of
the human brain: 1) Cerebrum, 2) Corpus callosum, 3) Thala-
mus, 4) Ventricular system, 5) Hypothalamus, 6), Pituitary
gland, 7) Pons, 8) Brainstem, and 9) Cerebellum. The brain is
turned left.
The frontal lobes are located at the front of each cerebral
hemisphere, followed by the parietal lobes. In each hemisphere
the lobe is separated by the central sulcus, which is a deep space
between the different tissues. In each hemisphere the frontal lobe
is positioned above the temporal lobe and separated from it by a
deep fold, the lateral sulcus, also called the Sylvian fissure. This
part of the brain is important in our choices between bad and
good actions and these lobes suppress socially inappropriate be-
haviour. The primary motor cortex controls voluntary move-
ments of specific body parts. Broca’s area is a centre for speech.
The parietal lobes are positioned above the occipital lobes
and behind the frontal lobes. The sensory cortex is the main sen-
sory receptive area for the major sensory inputs from the recep-
tors for pain, temperature, and touch in the skin. The parietal
158
lobes help us to understand objects, shapes and spaces. Here sev-
eral areas are important in processing of language. These lobes
also play a role in our understanding of numbers and their rela-
tionships.
The temporal lobes help us to hear, perceive and understand
sound. These lobes also play a role in the recognition of objects
and are a place for visual memory. This is a place for emotional
and intellectual functions. Wernicke’s area is a centre for speech
comprehension. This part of the brain also has a centre for smell.
The occipital lobes are divided into several functional visual
areas, each containing a map of the visual world. The primary
visual area receives stimuli from the eyes. Here we process and
make sense of visual information.
The brainstem, or brain stem, is the posterior part of the
brain. It plays an extremely important role. All communications
between the main part of brain and the different parts of the body
have to pass through the brainstem. The brainstem consists of
four parts: the medulla oblongata, the pons, the cerebellum and
the midbrain.
The medulla oblongata (or medulla) regulates automatic
and involuntary functions such as our blood pressure, breathing
and heart rate. The pons conducts signals from the brain down
to the cerebellum and carries the sensory signals up into the thal-
amus. It contains circuits for basic movements. The cerebellum
regulates the fine control of timing in movement and perception.
The midbrain is involved with sensory and motor integration.
The cerebellum, our “little brain,” is a small region in the
lower part of the brain. It plays an important role in coordination
and control of our balance and our voluntary motions. It may also
be involved in some cognitive functions such as attention.
The meninges are the three membranes that surround the
brain and spinal cord. They are called the dura mater, the arach-
noid mater, and the pia mater. The combined meninges protect
the central nervous system. The dura mater has a fibroelastic
layer of cells. The arachnoid mater is an effective barrier between
159
the cerebrospinal fluid and the blood circulation in the dura ma-
ter. The pia mater is a very thin membrane providing the brain
and the spinal cord with blood vessels that nourish the nerve
cells. The brain uses a lot of energy, up to one fifth of our total
energy consumption.
The corpus callosum is a wide commissure, a flat bundle of
fibres connecting and enables communication between the left
and right cerebral hemispheres.
The thalamus has multiple functions relaying information
between different areas inside the brain and the cerebral cortex.
The ventricular system in the brain is four connected cavi-
ties (ventricles). The cerebrospinal fluid is produced here by a
network of special cells. The ventricular system is connected with
the central canal of the spinal cord.
The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus and is part
of the limbic system. It has a number of functions, such as linking
the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary
gland (hypophysis).
The pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is a small endocrine
gland at the base of the brain. It secrets hormones that help con-
trol all functions of the sex organs, blood pressure, growth, man-
agement of energy, metabolism and much more.
160
Cognitive levels
All cognitive processes are mental activities. Metallinos (1997)
concluded that in perception we see, hear, and taste fragmented
bits of information. In cognition we see, hear, and taste cohesive
and unified information.
Perception and thinking are activities that take place where
no one can see them — inside our heads. Carlson (1993) pointed
out that because thinking is hidden, we can only infer its exist-
ence from people’s behaviour. When we think, we perceive, clas-
sify, manipulate, and combine information. When we are
through, we know something that we did not know before. Much
of our thinking involves verbal language. We use words and con-
cepts, but we also think in shapes and images.
This main section includes the following sections: Two
halves, and See–look–read
Two halves
In accordance with some theories, the two halves of the brain are
apparently specialized and function independently of one an-
other. At the same time, however, either of the brain halves ap-
pears to be capable of assuming the functions of the other half.
There is an immense communication between the two halves of
the brain. It has been estimated at six billion pulses per second.
The left half of the brain
Each half of the brain has its own sensory perceptions, thoughts,
feelings, and memories. Thus, the left half of the brain is said to
be mainly verbal: capable of speech, counting, and writing. The
left half of the brain seems to be specialized in abstract thought.
It is analytical, logical, detailed, and sequential.
The left half of the brain process specific information for vis-
ual cognitive activities performed close to the body, dependent
on local eye scans of near space. These smaller, shorter, local
scans allow sharp focusing and the identification of detail. Most
certainly, there is considerable cooperation between the two
161
brain hemispheres. Generally speaking, dual and parallel pro-
cessing modes of the hemispheres are beneficial to the human
being.
Western societies have for a long time placed a premium on
the properties represented by a well-developed left half of the
brain. Intelligence tests are usually designed so that residents of
urban areas consistently record higher scores on the tests than
residents of rural areas; middle-class people record higher scores
than blue-collar workers; and whites record higher scores than
blacks. However, one study showed that Australian aborigines
were dramatically superior to white Australians in solving test
problems when these problems were designed so that the right
half of the brain had to be brought into play in order to solve the
problems. So, intelligence is linked to culture and cannot be de-
fined with numerical values.
The right half of the brain
The right half of the brain is said to be speechless but it is capable
of concrete thought, perception of space, and can understand
complicated relationships. The right half of the brain is also said
to be holistic, spatial, intuitive, and creative. According to Heil-
man, Chatterjec, and Doty (1995) the right half of the brain pro-
cess information from global eye scans for overall orientation in
space.
The right half of the brain is said to be more developed than
the left half of the brain in boys. With girls it is the opposite. At
school, children receive a good training of the left part of the
brain. All children should be able to develop both parts of their
brains at school. More right-brain activities, like drawing, hand-
iwork, and rhythm exercises are needed. It is conceivable that
some of the fantastic success noted by the Japanese in the field
of electronics and computer technology is due to the circum-
stance that the Japanese, since time immemorial, have lived in a
“pictographic” society and, therefore, think in a different way
than we do in Western cultures.
162
The brain cells communicate
During processing of information, new groups of brain cells are
activated and associate to each other (Dryden and Vos, 1994).
Old and new information is processed in an attempt to find pos-
sible relationships. Information is gradually converted into expe-
rience and insight. Experience and insight are then converted
into knowledge. Later, knowledge is converted into skills and at-
titudes–and eventually into wisdom.
The knowledge acquires more detail and is internalized. This
process is influenced by our earlier experiences and memories
(our internal context). The brain has 100 billion brain cells (neu-
rons) and 900 billion supporting glia cells. Each neuron may be
connected to other brain cells via more than 20 000 structures
called synapses (Dryden and Vos, 1994). The brain cells com-
municate with each other by transmitting electrical impulses
through this gigantic network, which is constantly changed and
adopted to new situations.
Brain capacity
Many estimates have been made of brain capacity. It has been
said that the number of possible connections between the brain
cells are greater than the number of molecules in the universe.
According to Cotton (1995a) all those gloomy predictions that
our brain cells have been decaying from the moment we were
born have been refuted in some current research that suggests
that brain cells can regenerate and that nerve cells can certainly
grow again to give sensation to limbs that have been without any
sensitivity.
The brain is sometimes described as a living jungle, far more
advanced than any machine ever developed. However, the “cog-
nitive science” approach compares the human mind with com-
puters. Cognitive scientists generally model the human memory
as a very complex network, where each piece of data is cross-
linked, or cross-indexed, to many other pieces of data in many
163
different places. Computers and computer networks are now be-
ing built to mimic this complicated arrangement.
Mental efforts
Texts and pictures may be either easy or difficult to interpret, de-
pending on different factors. If, for example, a reader lacks the
background knowledge in a given field that is required in order
for him to interpret a text, then there is no chance that he will
understand it, no matter how diligently the writers, instructors,
graphics experts, and designers exert themselves. The same ap-
plies if the reader's command of the language used is poor.
Salomon (1984) pointed out that there is a widespread naive
preconception about pictures as “easy media.” Most people are
convinced that pictures require only a small amount of invested
mental effort to be understood.
Weidenmann (1988) pointed out that a learner may quickly
get an illusion of full understanding of the content or message in
an image and may stop the information processing after only a
short glance. When the picture is combined with a text, s/he will
concentrate on the part of the message that is perceived as the
more informative.
Text is generally perceived as a better medium than film for
communication of to-be-learned content (Katz, Blumler, and
Gurevitch, 1974; Kosbiech, 1976; Salomon, 1984). Weidenmann
(1988) suggested that similar preconceptions may also exist
about text vs. printed pictures.
See–look–read
An outline of a cognitive model to clarify differences between the
concepts “see-look-read,” and “hear-listen” is presented in the il-
lustration on the next page. The model should be viewed as a the-
oretical device, based on empirical findings and extensive re-
search on eye movements and fixations as summarized above,
clearly showing that we are capable of perceiving picture con-
tents in many different ways.
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Our sensory organs respond to changes in our environment.
We are normally capable of resolving changes with a gradient
greater than about two percent. But we adapt to slow, gradual
changes and often fail to notice them. So, our senses are normally
in the resting state but have a rapid response capability. In the
corresponding manner, we are unable to remain on the highest
cognitive levels for more than relatively brief periods of time
since this would otherwise be too enervating and lead to some
form of mental “cramp.”
It is suggested that there are different cognitive mental levels.
Creating or analysing a message needs much more mental en-
ergy than just looking at a message.
Being aware
A single fixation of a picture is sufficient to enable us to recognize
it subsequently among other pictures. If we, e.g., go shopping in
a department store, we are virtually unaware of the large number
of advertising pictures/messages and background music to
which we are exposed to in the store. Everything merges into a
kind of “noise.” We probably process most of the stimuli in this
noise on a superficial level. We see and hear but do not look or
listen. When we listen to the radio while engaged in some other
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simultaneous activity, such as cooking a meal, fixing a punctured
tire, or glancing through a newspaper, we are aware of words,
music, and images. Azoulay (2008, p. 14) asked viewers to watch
the photograph instead of just look at it.
When changes occur in our surroundings, we are capable of
responding rapidly and powerfully by activating our bodies both
in physical and mental terms. Sometimes, everything goes ac-
cording to plan. The pike gets a minnow, the cat gets its mouse,
and we find the information we are looking for. At other times,
efforts may fail. A predator may miss its prey, and we may spend
a great deal of time and energy gathering information that which
turns out to be useless.
Looking at
Looking at a picture consumes more mental energy and demands
a higher cognitive level than merely seeing a picture. Impressions
are conducted from the sensory to the short-term memory, i.e.,
operative memory. We only become aware of the information
that succeeds in passing through the brain’s filtering system.
Most of the information disappears after a while.
Reading …
When we, e.g., study material in books or on TV, we process that
material actively. We read texts, listen to music, and read pic-
tures. Perceived information is processed, sorted, and stored in
certain parts of the brain’s long-term memory. Many fixations of
a picture are required for people to recall it subsequently and,
e.g., be able to describe it. Active reception of linguistic intelli-
gence comprising text, sound, or pictures, individually or in con-
cert, always requires exertion. Reading and listening are men-
tally and physically exhausting.
Analysing …
Conscious analysis of linguistic messages, such as texts, music,
and pictures (e.g., research), probably demands an even greater
consumption of mental energy and a higher cognitive level. As
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previously noted the brain actually uses about one fifth of our
daily consumption of energy.
Uninteresting or poorly designed material reduces our inter-
est in the subject described by that material. So, the sender of a
message should strive to design text, music, and pictures in the
most attractive, relevant manner possible so receivers are en-
couraged to process the message on the highest possible cogni-
tive level. This should be the case irrespective of whether the
“message” involves “information,” “entertainment,” “education,”
or “news.” The principles apply irrespective of the medium in-
volved, although different media transmit messages from send-
ers to receivers in completely different ways.
Creation of text, music, and pictures
The most demanding processes are those leading to the creation
of text, music, and pictures. Creative people have often described
the mental effort that is often associated with creativity. The
model assumes the existence of a dynamic relationship in which
we consciously and unconsciously switch cognitive levels.
No clear distinctions can be made between the cognitive lev-
els discussed here. But there are probably major differences be-
tween individuals due to cultural, social, and personal factors.
So, the model should not be interpreted too literally. However, it
can be employed to elucidate the fact that there are major differ-
ences between the concepts “see-look-read” and “hear-listen.”
Manipulative effects
Compared to a book, films, interactive computer programs, pho-
nograms, TV, and video have a highly manipulative effects on re-
ceivers. Message contents change continuously in a predeter-
mined manner with respect to time, space, and subject selection.
The receiver’s active efforts to seek information are therefore
largely disabled. A reader can “digest” the textual and visual con-
tents of a book at a self-selected pace. In a structured information
context, the reader is able to process information in about the
same way as in a “natural” situation.
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Pictures have an impact and a much greater ability to influ-
ence us than text. Children are more easily frightened by watch-
ing an act of violence on TV than by reading about the same act
in a book or in a newspaper. This is because things we see appear
to be more “real” than things we merely read about and because
a higher cognitive level is required for reading than for seeing.
Many scientists, such as Tröger (1963) and Noble (1975), have
shown that small children are incapable of actively processing
the contents of and understanding contexts in a TV or video pro-
gram. This is something most parents of small children have also
experienced.
According to Blum (1986) the human mind functions on
subconscious as well as on conscious levels of awareness and per-
ception. The subconscious mind is readily accessible and recep-
tive to various forms of suggestion and stimuli that can influence
and alter conscious level thought and behavioural patterns. Our
eyes are extremely sensitive to visible light wavelengths, visible
light that is often not even seen, visually recording all that we see
and do not see with exact precision. Blum maintained that there
is an “unseen visual environment” which can and does provide
suggestive stimuli to the subliminal level of consciousness.
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Mental images
The terms image and imagery are used in a variety of situations.
Derived from the Latin imago (picture, semblance, or likeness),
an image is often thought of as a representation of what we nor-
mally perceive as the registration in our minds of an event, an
object, or a picture.
This main section includes the following sections: Many def-
initions, Visual thinking, Creative work, Problem solving, Fan-
tasy images, Self-images, Target Images, Dreams, and Sublim-
inal reception.
Many definitions
There are several other meanings of the word image. The Long-
man Dictionary of Contemporary English (Longman, 1990)
provides six definitions of the concept image. The Oxford Dic-
tionary and Thesaurus (Tulloch, 1995) provides nine defini-
tions, and The Random House Dictionary of the English Lan-
guage (Berg Flexner, 1987), provides 23 definitions of the con-
cepts image, imaged, and imaging and seven definitions of the
concepts imagine, imagined, imagining. All these definitions
show that there are many different meanings of the words image
and imagine.
Gibson (1966) rejected the concept of the retinal image as a
picture. We are never conscious of the process in which rays of
light reflected from some object enter the eye, are refracted by
the eye’s cornea, lens, and vitreous humour, and strike the retina.
The retinal images, that are formed upside down on the back of
our eyeballs are very unstable, and abruptly shifting two to four
times every second according to the movements of the eyes. They
are continuously translated into signals sent through the optic
nerves to the visual centres in each half of the brain.
Classification of inner images
The perception of mental images may comprise many different
combinations of impressions conveyed with the aid of all our
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senses. Our inner images may encompass everything from ab-
stract stills to highly realistic, moving, three-dimensional images
in colour plus a number of auditory, olfactory, gustatory, and tac-
tile sensations. We may classify inner images according to the
sense to which they appeal. We have auditory, gustatory, tactile,
olfactory, and visual images.
We may also classify images by the sphere of influence from
which they are perceived. Such examples are agricultural, do-
mestic, political, religious, scientific, social, and technical im-
ages. Unlike a physical representation of an image, a person’s
mental representation is not directly available for scrutiny and
study. Thus, researchers of mental images must rely upon infer-
ence in order to characterize its components and structure. Inner
images can be described to other people through drawings, film,
paintings, models, sculpture, video, etc., as well as with words
alone and without any physical representations.
Dake (1999) noted that, in the scientific literature, visual
cognition generally focuses on object recognition and classifica-
tion and rarely presents any arguments in terms of visual images
of aesthetic richness and depth. Visually simple diagrams, repre-
senting abstract intellectual theories, are the most common form
of visual communication in the literature on visual cognition.
Primary and secondary visual imagery
In my view, there are two main types of inner images: primary
visual imagery, and secondary visual imagery. Primary visual im-
agery, i.e., our perception of vision, is created in the brain’s visual
centres. This imagery is subsequently stored in our memories.
All perceptual processes are neurophysiologic and basic bio-
logical activities of the sensory organs and the nervous system.
All cognitive processes are mental activities. Metallinos (1997)
concluded that in perception we see, hear, and taste fragmented
bits of information. In cognition we see, hear, and taste cohesive
and unified information. So, primary visual images are the result
of external stimuli. Most people, however, define the term “visual
170
imagery” as something seen or experienced, roughly synony-
mous with the term “memory.”
In contrast to primary visual imagery, secondary visual im-
agery is mainly the product of internal stimuli, as images formed
in the mind: conceptions, ideas, and mental representations.
Most people do not require any external stimuli in order to create
mental images. We have a mode of awareness, an inner vision
that dreams and creativity are made of. It is enough to think
about an event, a specific object, or a person. Mental images can
therefore represent both an “external reality” and an “internal re-
ality,” which may or may not exist, and which may or may not be
recalled from memory. External stimuli can and do initiate sec-
ondary visual imagery. Memories are discussed later in this book.
Thoughts and dreams are secondary visual images discussed in
this chapter.
Visual thinking
Depictive expressions of thought predate written language by
thousands of years (Tversky, 2011). They have evolved in com-
munities through a kind of informal user testing that has refined
them. Visual communications abstract and schematize, use
properties of the page and the marks on it to convey meanings.
Many theories
Thinking is an activity that takes place where no one can see it —
inside our heads. There has been a debate about mental imagery
and visual thinking for many years. Visual thinking and visual
thoughts are visual representations that arise when we think.
Several researchers have provided definitions and theories about
visual thinking.
Arnheim (1943, 1969, 1974) was one of the first to use the
term visual thinking. He described visual thinking as the unity of
perception and conception that calls for the ability to see visual
shapes as images (pictures, signs, and symbols). Paivio (1971)
suggested that imagery uses representations and processes that
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are ordinarily dedicated to visual perception rather than to ab-
stract conceptual structures.
However, Hinton (1979) and Kosslyn (1980) suggested that
there are special processes dedicated to handle spatial infor-
mation. According to Ruch and Zimbardo (1971) visual thinking,
in its simplest form, is the manipulating of symbols representing
elements of the internal or external environment by using im-
agery by formation of mental images. Wileman (1980) defined
visual thinking as organizing mental images around shapes,
lines, colour, textures, and compositions. And McKim (1980a,
1980b) defined visual thinking as the interaction of seeing, draw-
ing, and imagining. According to McKim (1980, p, 8):
Visual thinking is constantly used by everybody. It directs
figures on a chessboard and designs global politics on the ge-
ographical map. Two dexterous moving men steering a piano
along a winding staircase think visually in an intricate se-
quence of lifting, shifting, and turning.
The McKim diagram (1980b, p. 8) explains the fluid dynamic
that occurs without our conscious awareness or thought. The
three partly overlapping circles symbolize the idea that visual
thinking is experienced to the fullest when seeing, imagining,
and drawing merge into active interplay. The visual thinker uti-
lizes seeing, imagining, and drawing in a fluid and dynamic way,
moving from one kind of imagery to another.
According to Pylyshyn (1981) imagery is not a distinct cogni-
tive module but a representation of general semantic knowledge.
For imagery we use one general thought process. Shepard (1981)
proposed that in imagery a shape is represented by a two-dimen-
sional manifold curved in three-dimensional space to form a
closed surface, such as a sphere. Hortin (1982) added the dimen-
sion of visual rehearsal as a strategy for employing visual think-
ing in the learning process.
Ausburn and Ausburn (1978) stressed the importance of the
conclusion pictorial conventions are learned. Since people do not
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innately decode unfamiliar photographs, technical drawings,
maps, and so on, they must first acquire the skills to make mean-
ing from visual symbols. One example is the problem for people
in developing countries to understand scales.
Understanding of scale requires the presence of a direct sys-
tem of measurement. When research evidence indicates that
skills in interpreting and formulating images and visual repre-
sentations are learned or acquired skills, this also implies that
they can be taught. According to Ausburn and Ausburn (1978, p.
18) visual skills are increasingly vital in developing countries, as
the policies of their governments call for increasing self-reliance.
Seels (1994) presented a “visual literacy continuum” reach-
ing from internal visual thinking over visual learning to external
visual communication.
According to Dake (1999) art and science appear to agree on
the fundamental importance of learning to perceive global, ge-
stalt structure as foundational to visual thought. The visual ma-
terials that artists seem to regard as most foundational to the suc-
cessful development of visual ideas are both global and configu-
rational in nature. This preference corresponds to the function of
the initial, primary occipital lobe, the visual processing areas of
the brain.
Stokes (2002) saw a connection between visual thinking and
viewing graphics on a computer. Here complex computations are
presented graphically, allowing for deeper insights as well as
heightened abilities to communicate data and concepts.
Imagery classes
Hill and Baker (1983) discussed six types of “imagery classes” or
“imagery levels”:
• Static Imagery. Memory images, “pictorial” representations
in our minds of places we have visited, and of pictures we have
seen.
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• Construction Imagery. The organization of non-visual sen-
sory information into visual form. For example, forming an
image of a person or an event.
• Transformation Imagery. Active exploration and transfor-
mation of elements of a visual field. We may actively manip-
ulate images of real objects, mental rotation of images. This
kind of imagery is important in many activities, such as archi-
tecture, construction, interior design, and map-reading,
where it is necessary to translate two-dimensional represen-
tations into three dimensions.
• Metaphoric Imagery. We use visual metaphors and analogies
in our minds. We are familiar with the primary image and we
are required to make secondary conceptual links. Apprecia-
tion of a metaphor involves an understanding of the nature of
the image and its function.
• Problem-Solving Imagery. This is an extension of the fourth
type. We perform intuitive synthesis involving extrapolation.
We create new realities beyond our previous experience.
• Schizogenic Imagery. This is a not fully defined end point on
the visual imagery continuum. This kind of imagery is the
product of an uncontrolled process and it is divorced from
meaning. It is usually an indication of some kind of disturb-
ance. This level includes hallucinations.
Percepts and images
Richardson (1983) believed that all individuals have the capacity
to form and use vivid memory images, but that some people lose
their ability through disuse and/or disinterest. However, Slee
(1983) pointed out that while some people can recreate various
vivid pictures in the mind with little or no conscious effort, others
are quite unable to muster up any kind of visual image in the
waking state.
Richardson (1983, p. 23–24) distinguished between two ma-
jor kinds of inner images, percepts and images. Experiences that
have their immediate origins “outside myself” are classified as
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percepts. Experiences that have their immediate origin “inside
myself” are classified as images. While the content of a visual im-
age is “pictured” to oneself, the content of a verbal image is “spo-
ken” to oneself.
I agree with Richardson (1977, 1983) that while abstract
thought tends to be represented in awareness by the sound and
feel of inner speech, concrete thought is more likely to be repre-
sented in visual forms. Some people have so strong information
processing preferences that they are called verbalizers, if at one
extreme, and visualizers, if at the other extreme.
Visualizing the invisible
In the fall of 2020, western states in the United States experi-
enced an unusually terrible fire season, lasting for months. The
Rocky Mountain region was clouded in a 100-day haze. Here, the
air quality risk is often communicated using an Air Quality Index,
which provides a categorization of risk that is dependent on the
numerical concentration of air pollutants.
The Air Quality Index ranges from 0 to 500. Readings higher
than 100 communicate an increased risk of poor health outcomes
for small children, the elderly, and any people with respiratory
problems. Even healthy people can experience health impacts
from polluted air. However, it is very complicated to communi-
cate possible health impacts from polluted air in a safe way.
Thus, in one study Rosen, Bice, and Scott (2021) examined
the effect and the efficacy of visual designs for messages about
poor air quality. Their study utilized a 2x2 “between-subjects ex-
perimental design”. Here, the variables were message efficacy
(high vs. low), and message design (visual vs. text). The subjects
were 95 students from a large Western university. The experi-
ment assessed the effects of message design and efficacy of lan-
guage on: 1) students’ protective behavioural intention, 2) self-
efficacy, 3) source credibility, and 4) visual comprehension.
Results from this study showed some statistically significant
effects for the efficacy and the message design on students’
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comprehensions and protective behavioural intentions. Because
wildfires will continue to impact the western parts of United
States the authors concluded that future work should focus on
strategies for more salient air quality health communications.
Several processes
Slee (1983) found that mental imagery could be effective in re-
trieving appearance information (e.g., brightness, colour, struc-
tural features and texture), but less effective in recall of concep-
tual information (e.g., categories and verbal labels). According
to Kosslyn (1995, p. 268):
... imagery is used to retrieve information from memory in a
variety of circumstances, but primarily when 1) the infor-
mation to be remembered is a subtle visual property; 2) the
property has not been explicitly considered previously (and
hence labelled); and 3) the property cannot easily be de-
duced from other stored information (for example, from in-
formation about a general category to which the object be-
longs).
However, the fact that activating visual memories can form im-
ages does not mean that there is only one process in use.
In fact, there may be several different processes involved.
Kosslyn (1995) noted that the simple fact that people can arrange
imaged objects according to a description suggests that locations
are processed separately from shapes. Kosslyn noted (p. 272):
“There is evidence for a distinction between two subsystems: one
activates individual stored perceptual units well in both hemi-
spheres, and another juxtaposes parts effectively only in the left
hemisphere.”
It is clear that a single “centre” does not carry out imagery.
Imagery appears to depend on mechanisms located in different
parts of the brain. The combinations of mechanisms that will be
used depend on individual task. Actually, Kosslyn et al. (1993)
found that it was possible to track which parts of the brain are
176
more active during one experimental imagery task than during
another. By comparing brain activation when different images
were formed in the minds of the subjects the researchers were
able to show that topographically organized visual areas in the
visual cortex were activated, and that the precise location of acti-
vation were depended on the sizes of the images.
Means of representation
Two means of representation have been proposed for mental im-
ages: 1) Depictive representations that confers a special status on
images; 2) Propositional representations that treats them as rep-
resentations of linguistic meaning. These are different types of
codes for storing (Kosslyn, 1980).
According to Kosslyn (1995) imagery cannot rely solely on
depictive representations (p. 292): “It is clear that depictive rep-
resentations are one component of the ensemble of representa-
tions and events that underlie imagery, but they are not the only
component.” The brain is a very complicated organ with many
functions and it is clear that a lot of research is still needed in
order to fully understand visual thinking.
Wileman (1993) provided the following checklist with ques-
tions for evaluation of visuals with reference to “imagination” (p.
97):
• Does the visual “connect” to the learner's existing knowledge
and interest?
• Does the visual have a style that relates to the other visuals
being used in this lesson?
• Does the visual gain the attention of the viewer?
• Does the visual hold the interest of the viewer?
• Does the visual present the information in a way that helps
the viewer remember the information?
Höijer (1998) argued that cognitions such as interpretations,
conceptions, ideas, images and memories always include emo-
tions. Things are good, bad, boring, engaging, indifferent; we get
177
upset, feel ambivalent, and so on. Cotton (1995b) noted that we
have six primary emotions that are universally accepted and rec-
ognized by people all over the world no matter what language
they speak or what culture or race they belong to. These emotions
are: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise. There
are three components of any emotion. These components are: in-
ternal perception, body changes, and resulting behaviour. Ac-
cording to Cotton (1995b) we can learn to increase our personal
effectiveness if we learn to cope with our own emotions. The first
skill is to recognize a true emotional response and to be able to
identify “faked” emotions.
Critical thinking
In one study Emanuel and Challons-Lipton (2014) asked college-
level students to carefully analyse two different works of art. The
famous artwork The Death of Marat is an oil painting on canvas,
executed by the French master Jacques-Louis David in 1793. The
Coffee Cup is a commercial print created in 2008 by the photog-
rapher Wayne St. John and the attorney Mark Farbman. The stu-
dents had to do both a formal visual analysis, and a contextual
visual analysis. The formal analysis included the physical, and
the visual aspects of a work of art. Here the formal elements en-
compassed colour, composition, line, scale, and space/mass.
The contextual analysis included understanding of the se-
lected work of art in a particular cultural setting. Here students
were asked to interpret form and material by looking at colour,
shape, size, and texture. Students evaluated the intentions of the
artist, the subject matter, and the socio-historic context.
This experience of visual analysis connected students with
the French Revolution and the history of art, particularly the 19th
century and Neoclassicism. The authors concluded that critical
thinking is essential, and it involves both the comprehension and
the expression of a specific meaning, or the significance of a wide
variety of beliefs such as conventions, criteria, data, events, ex-
periences, judgments, procedures, rules, and situations. One
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important aspect of critical thinking is the analysis, interpreta-
tion, and understanding of images. This is generally known as
visual literacy. A critical thinker is able to analyse, evaluate, in-
fer, and interpret. Critical thinking is a liberating force in educa-
tion. The authors suggest that educators must challenge students
to take responsibility for their own education. Central to this pro-
cess is providing students with experiences in critical thinking so
that they can develop and mature.
Creative work
Imagery is used when we reason about the appearance of an ob-
ject when it is transformed, especially when we want to know
about subtle spatial relations. Gardner (1983) found that we each
have at least seven different types of intelligence. Two types, lin-
guistic intelligence and logical-mathematical intelligence, are
very highly valued in traditional education. The other five intel-
ligences are musical intelligence, spatial or visual intelligence,
kinaesthetic intelligence or physical intelligence, interpersonal
intelligence or social intelligence, and intrapersonal intelligence
or introspective intelligence.
Spatial intelligence
Spatial intelligence, or visual intelligence, is the ability to paint,
take great photographs, and create sculptures. People with visual
intelligence create mental images, use metaphors, and have a
sense of gestalt. They like to engage in drawing, painting, and
sculpting. These people can easily read maps, charts, and dia-
grams. This is the kind of ability used by architects, sculptors,
painters, navigators, chess players, naturalists, and pilots.
Blakeslee (1980) pointed out that even Aristotle was aware
that thoughts are dependent on images. In De anima (Eng. = On
the soul), he wrote: “Thinking is impossible without some inner
images. The process is the same when a person thinks as when a
person draws a diagram.” According to Blakeslee (1980), the
well-known American mathematician Hadamard (1945) found
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that distinguished mathematicians often avoid thinking in
words. Instead, they employ visual imagery in their creative
work. Hadamard reported that Albert Einstein once remarked
that certain characters and more or less distinct, reproducible,
combinable, consciously evoked images are the physical units
that apparently serve as elements in the thought process.
Design decisions
Kosslyn (1995) noted that it is possible that the major use of im-
agery is to prompt one to think about previously neglected as-
pects of objects or events. Creative people sometimes witness
that they are able to create with very few if any conscious thought
processes. While design decisions are constantly being made, the
design process is so fluid that thinking merely gets in the way.
The Artist In His Studio is an interesting record of Alexander
Liberman’s visits to many of the great painters and sculptors who
lived and worked in France during the twentieth century (Liber-
man, 1988). Liberman met with people like Braque, Cézanne,
Chagall, Kandinsky, Léger, Matisse, Miro, Picasso. The book is
an interesting source of the artist’s working methods and differ-
ent ideas. In 1954 Liberman met with Pablo Picasso (1881–1973)
in his studio in Vallauris, a little hill town on the French Riviera.
During the meeting Picasso made the following remark (p. 106):
“I have an extraordinary memory. I remember practically all my
paintings. The blue period was not a question of light or colour.
It was an inner necessity to paint like that.”
Picasso regarded his paintings as research and experiments,
and not as works of art. In his different studios, Picasso was “sur-
rounded by an unbelievable mass of visual stimulants” (p. 105).
Picasso collected everything that pleased, interested or inspired
him. “I never move anything in a studio. I always leave everything
exactly as it is,” he said (p. 105). Liberman (op. cit.) had many
conversations with Georges Braque (1882–1963) in his studios
in Paris, as well as in Varengeville. In one discussion on painting
Braque remarked (p. 143):
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The painting materializes in contact with nature. Painting is
a meditation. It is contemplation, for the painting is made
in the head. One must regurgitate it. One must give it back.
Painting is a restitution.
... If I am going to paint a lobster, all I like to make sure of
is whether it has six or four legs. Curious, the visual memo-
ry that one has. I did not know exactly how many legs a lob-
ster had, but in drawing it from memory I found the correct
number. I discovered that the memory of the appearance
rendered the right number.
Several other authors have also commented on the creative work
processes of painters. According to Girard (1996) Henri Matisse
(1869–1954) once said (p. 10): “You see, when I paint, I am giving
plastic expression to objects in my mind. When I close my eyes, I
can see things better than with my eyes open, stripped of all inci-
dental detail. That is what I paint.”
Inner screen
Liberman (1988) noted that almost all the colours that sur-
rounded Paul Cézanne (1839–1906) in his Aix–en–Provence stu-
dio were grey (p. 5): “No one saw more colours in a grey than
Cézanne. And the dark grey walls of his studio are the neutral
background against which his eye translated the many hues of
his inner vision. This great colourist also loved to paint on a grey
day.”
In 1899 Cézanne painted the portrait of his art dealer Am-
broise Vollard during numerous laborious sessions. According to
Lallemand (1994, p. 80) Vollard reported that he sat 115 times
and even then, the painting (39.5 x 32 in.) was not yet considered
finished. When Vollard drew the painter’s attention to two spots
on the hands where the canvas was not covered, Cézanne re-
sponded that he had to find the right colour to fill these minute
white spaces: “If I put something there at random,” the artist re-
sponded, I should have to redo the entire picture, starting from
that very spot.” This dictum illustrates Cézanne’s intensive
181
procedure and his unceasing concern for finding the right bal-
ance of form and colour.”
Authors sometimes claim to “see” their characters on some
“inner screen” on which events are displayed. The Swedish de-
tective story writer Gösta Unefäldt noted the following in an in-
terview in the Dagens Nyheter newspaper (Ståhlberg, 1984; in
translation): “When I’m sitting at my typewriter, it’s like having
a screen in front of me on which all the action unfolds. The char-
acters do things, and I just describe their behaviour.”
Other authors, film, TV and theatre directors, etc., have sup-
plied similar descriptions of their creative work processes. Far
too often the activities of creative people are thought to be moti-
vated by pleasure and enjoyment only. Truly creative activity is
extremely difficult work that often requires years of dedication
and struggle in order to reach good results.
Problem solving
The mental representations that individuals generate for tasks
are considered to have powerful influences of the way those indi-
viduals process external task information they encounter (Anzai
and Yokoyama, 1984; Chi, Feltovich, and Glaser, 1981; Kotovsky,
Hayes, and Simon, 1985; Larkin, 1983; Voss et al., 1983; Lesgold
et al., 1988; Romiszowski, 1993). Geisser (1992) pointed out that
we need words for logical reasoning. She concluded that a prop-
ositional/linguistic representation system is a necessary condi-
tion for logical inference and wrote (p. 181):
Images, or pictorial representations, can at best play a lim-
ited, heuristic role in logical reasoning, and more generally
in the processing of thoughts. A pictorial/visual representa-
tion system, whatever its role in general cognitive processes
may be, is a poor substitute for the verbal/linguistic system
as a vehicle of logical reasoning.
Qin and Simon (1992) discussed mental imagery in scientific
problem solving. They concluded that similar information is
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displayed, whether obtained from the eye or from the memory.
In both cases similar reasoning processes can be applied. There
may be less, as well as more, information in “the mind’s eye” than
in a visual display. Our ability to reason on a display does not
necessarily imply that we understand it. We cannot visualize two
mutually contradictory scenes.
According to Qin and Simon (op. cit.) the ability to reason
from a display demands processes that are not simply “logical”
but embed subject matter knowledge. A display may instruct the
instructor but not the students, who do not have the same back-
ground knowledge.
Mental images will usually fade away rapidly. According to
Kosslyn (1995) many people have reported that (p. 276): “hold-
ing an image is a little like a juggling act: each part is refreshed
while other parts are fading. Presumably, the total amount that
can be kept in mind at once depends on the speed with which the
parts are refreshed and the speed with which they fade”.
Fantasy images
Fantasy is an imagined, generally pleasant, event. We create fan-
tasy visual images by juxtaposing previously acquired combina-
tions in new ways. Using our imagination, we can generate men-
tal visual images of things we have never seen nor experienced
before. Fantasy fulfils a wish or satisfies a desire whose ultimate
origin is subconscious. According to Freud, our fantasies may be
conscious, like daydreams, preconscious, such as cancelled
plans, or subconscious, like proto-fantasies. A daydream is a
flight from reality in the form of wishful thinking. During a day-
dream (see dreams), we are aware that events in our thoughts are
distinct from events in the material world.
Previous experiences
Conscious and preconscious fantasies are formed under the in-
fluence of subconscious fantasies. We utilize previous experi-
ences and knowledge in a process in which we may well activate
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long-term memory, retrieve “copies” of visual elements, such as
dots, lines, areas, shapes, patterns, etc., to the perceptive and
cognitive level, and test different combinations in new ways. We
may “build” and form new inner images.
Imagining the existence of fantasy animals composed of
body parts and properties taken from a number of real creatures
previously known to us is quite feasible. It is obvious that several
painters and scriptwriters and producers of movies possess such
abilities, which is clearly demonstrated by the “entertainment in-
dustry.” This type of imagery represents an abstract “inner real-
ity” and needs to have nothing in common with ordinary, every-
day “external reality.”
Imagination
After visits with Marc Chagall (1887–1985) in his studio in Vence
on the French Riviera Liberman (1988) wrote (p. 169):
Chagall’s great gift is literally the power of imagination, the
ability to summon and exteriorize on canvas, or other medi-
ums, the substance of dreams, the intangible mirages of the
mind.
... Part of the secret power of Chagall’s art is in the artist’s
struggle against all the forces that shackle the flight of inspi-
ration and pull man downward. The soaring, floating, run-
ning, jumping images in his paintings are symbols of libera-
tion.
Fantasy is creative, enabling us to experience new and meaning-
ful totalities. The gift of fantasy varies considerably from one per-
son to another. Some people claim to lack any fantasy at all, but
no one is ever wholly without some fantasy. In children, the bor-
derline between fantasy and reality may be very diffuse. A child
may be completely convinced that she or he saw a real lion in a
closet or a real tiger strolling in the garden. Such a child is not
consciously lying.
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Verbal modes of thinking
Qualls and Sheenan (1983) argued that fantasy has a critical, but
so far frequently unrecognized part to play within the present ed-
ucational system. They showed that make-believe play in chil-
dren could contribute to their cognitive, emotional and social de-
velopment. Qualls and Sheenan stressed the need to encourage
fantasy in children if the imaginable capacities of fantasy are to
survive into adult-hood. There is a clear need to design educa-
tional experiences to stimulate imaginable modes of thinking.
Our present educational system definitely favours verbal,
logical (left hemisphere) modes of thinking. Encouragement is
needed for the individual child to use both verbal and visual
modes of thinking, to be capable of both convergent and diver-
gent thinking, and to be both rational and intuitive. Fantasies can
include visual but auditory, tactile, and other sensory experi-
ences. Fantasy is a basic component in our culture. It can be ex-
pressed in numerous ways, i.e., in artistic, scientific, and practi-
cal creativity, games, illusions, daydreams, and (sleep) dreams.
Hallucinations are an extreme form of fantasy.
Self-images
A self-image or ego image is the view a person has of her-/himself
on a particular occasion. This view usually differs in many re-
spects from the view held by other people. A person may regard
her-/himself as rather fat (self-image), prefer being slim (target
image) but actually have a normal build (objective image). Self-
confidence is a measure of how positively we view ourselves.
Closely knit groups, such as a football team, a teenage gang,
a religious sect, or a political extremist group, may strive to create
a very considerable common identity. Common views and values,
similar actions, clothing, uniforms, hairstyles, badges, symbols,
etc., enhance the feeling of affiliation. Group members often ac-
quire a definite “collective self-image.” Companies, public agen-
cies, and different kinds of clubs always have some kind of col-
lective self-image. Employees, members, and supporters usually
185
have a “we” outlook, i.e., some shared perception of the organi-
zation’s identity.
Richardson (1983, p. 30) concluded that people who have
the ability to form and control vivid memory images are more
successful in influencing their own mood states and are more
likely to benefit from the mental practice of perceptual motor
skills. Richardson suggests that those who suffer from weak
memory imagery can be helped to make it more vivid with all the
potential advantages that this has for utilizing a greater number
of self-management skills.
Target images
A target image is the image a person forms about her/his future
in life. Dreams, visions, hopes, or fears are decisive to a person’s
involvement in preparations for her/his future. Ingvar (1975)
noted that our perception of the future is highly important to us
(p. 56, in translation): “The memories we have, our experiences,
the knowledge we acquire in life, are governed by the vision we
have of the future.”
A positive target image is the ideal image (“ego ideal”) people
form about themselves, their goals for personal development,
i.e., things they would like to become and actively strive to
achieve. For example, politicians often see themselves as victors
in a future election.
Many successful athletes see themselves as winners on top
of the winner’s stand. They repeatedly perform mental “dry runs”
of a future contest/game, polishing their imagined performance
each time. This kind of “mental training” may be as demanding
and strenuous as real physical training. The area of target images
has attracted a large number of authors to produce a never-end-
ing number of tests, articles, and even books on “self-improve-
ment.”
186
Dreams
The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (Longman,
1990) as well as The Oxford Dictionary and Thesaurus (Tulloch,
1995) provides five definitions of the concept dream. The Ran-
dom House Dictionary of the English Language (Berg Flexner
and Hanck, 1987) has 14 definitions of the concepts dream,
dreamed or dreamt, dreaming.
Basically, a dream is an experience of a series of images and
ideas that occur during our sleep. Carlson (1993) pointed out that
sleep is behaviour, not just an altered state of consciousness. Alt-
hough dream experiences are imagery, they seem very real. Some
dreams are pleasant; others are annoying or even frightening.
Dreams and dreaming are studied from a traditional psycho-
analytical approach, and also from a physiological viewpoint.
Dreaming is a distinct, natural and necessary part of sleeping,
usually characterized by the occurrence of rapid eye movements,
REM (Carlson, 1993). Everyone dreams four to six times a night.
Each dream will last from 15 to 20 minutes. The study of dream
content is limited. Because most or our dreams are very soon for-
gotten we often believe that we have not dreamed at all.
Most dreams seem to reflect happenings, thoughts, and feel-
ings of the previous day or days. Sometimes, people dream about
things that they avoid thinking about while awake, and these
dreams may be filled with symbols whose significance they can-
not recognize. Dream content seems to be a dynamic mixture de-
rived from current stimuli, past experiences, interests, and urges.
Although dreams apparently occur in colour, they often fade to
black and white in memory.
Oring (2010) discussed similarities between dreams and vis-
ual images, and suggested that “Synchronicity Systems” can be
useful in the analysis of pictures. The German analytical psy-
chologist Carl Gustav Jung (1875–1961) introduced the psycho-
logical concept “Synchronicity” (Synchronizität), a basis for the
apparently random simultaneous occurrence of phenomena. Ac-
cording to Jung events are “meaningful coincidences” if they
187
occur with no causal relationship. Carl Jung used the ancient
Chinese Synchronicity System “I Ching” in his dream therapy for
approximately 30 years. According to Jung the 64 symbols (or
hexagrams) in I Ching, and text revealed the meaningful coinci-
dence between our psychological world and our external world.
Dreams as well as visual images use symbols to express feel-
ings and ideas that emanate from the subconscious. Oring (2010,
p. 4) wrote:
Often, Synchronicity Systems reveal surprising insights
about pictures that are not possible to obtain in any other
way. They are able to tap directly into our subconscious mind
and reveal the great wealth of information about pictures
that lies hidden there. By so doing, they enable us to use both
our conscious and our unconscious mind in analysis–and to
insure that our analysis is as comprehensive and accurate as
possible.”
The symbols of dreams and the symbolic answers of Synchronic-
ity Systems originate from the same source within us.
Subliminal reception
In 1957 an advertising expert claimed that he had inserted sub-
liminal visual messages in a showing of Picnic, a popular film
(Carlson, 1993). The messages, which said “Eat Popcorn” and
“Drink Coke,” supposedly caused people to rush to the refresh-
ment stand and purchase these items. This story received much
attention and a lot of publicity at the time, and it is often cited in
the literature. However, several years later, the advertising ex-
pert admitted that he had invented the whole story in order to get
favourable publicity for his advertising business. No subliminal
visual messages were used and no customers rushed out to buy
any popcorn or Coke.
According to Dudley (1987), subliminal reception may be de-
fined as the individual’s ability to perceive and respond to stimuli
that are below the “limen” or level of consciousness. Above it,
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stimuli are called supraliminal. Dudley outlines four methods of
subliminal stimulation:
• A tachistoscope that flashes messages or pictures so rapidly
that the viewer is unaware of their presence.
• Accelerated speech in low volume auditory messages.
• Embedding or hiding pictures or words in larger pictures or
ornamental detail.
• Suggestiveness, the image implying quite a bit more than a
quick glance would indicate.
Sutton (1990) provided an extensive overview of research on sub-
liminal reception. He concluded (p. 12), “In summary, it seems
apparent that the phenomenon of subliminal reception is a sci-
entifically demonstrated phenomenon. It is also apparent that
there needs to be precise definition of what we mean when we
use the term. It is equally clear that much of what is being
claimed commercially as subliminal effects is not scientifically
validated through carefully controlled independent testing and
experimental replication.
The reaction of the media to the phenomenon is often lack-
ing in awareness of the problem and its history. Government
forces, while wary of the hidden dimension involved, seem una-
ble and unfitted to deal with the situation. In some areas the me-
dia educator and visual literacy practitioner have little role to
play beyond being a concerned citizen and consumer but in oth-
ers, especially in the area of ad design and appeal on the basis of
meaning through inference and implication, there is a great need
for media awareness and visual literacy”.
189
Intellectual development
The ability to produce art and visual communication is one of the
defining characteristics of fully modern human beings, since
their emergence in Africa 100,000 years ago (Janik and Kaner,
2018). The human neurophysiological capacities are exemplified
by early art in the story of human evolution.
This main section includes the following sections: Increas-
ing capacities, Understanding advertising, Basic geometric
shapes, and Details of a picture.
Increasing capacities
Cognitive developments take place along with remarkable neu-
rological, physical, and perceptual changes during the first years
of life. The learning capacity is said to depend on the number of
associative links in the brain, and their accessibility. What learn-
ing is and how it develops is a primary concern for scientists in-
terested in human development. Some educational theorists
view the education of a child as an unfolding process. The child
develops inevitably as a product of nature.
The main function of the teacher is to provide the optimum
conditions for this development. This leads to the theory that the
child’s experience is the essential point. The Swiss educator J. H.
Pestalozzi was a leading theorist in this field. His practical sche-
mas were designed to provide the most appropriate experience
for the child’s development. According to the Renaissance Dutch
philosopher Erasmus and the Jesuit Fathers, understanding had
to precede learning. The teacher’s first task was careful prepara-
tion of the material to be taught.
Cognitive development theory
Although the sequence of motor-perceptual experience, followed
by symbolic representation, has been advocated for a long time,
Jean Piaget offered the first insight in this field. Piaget had an
early biological training. Like Dewey, he viewed learning as an
adaptive and biological feature. Its biological function was to aid
190
the individual in dealing with the surrounding environment. Pia-
get particularly worked with his own three children that he stud-
ied intensively from their births. He approached the function of
thinking and learning in terms of mental or cognitive structures
that make thinking and learning possible. According to Piaget,
we develop schemata for dealing with and understanding our en-
vironment.
Piaget claimed that there are stages of intellectual develop-
ment that all children pass through as they learn certain univer-
sal schemata for structuring the world. Piaget argued that assim-
ilation of new ideas was not enough. Accommodation of the es-
tablished ideas to the new experiences was also required.
According to Piaget’s Cognitive development theory (1926,
1936) chronological age is the most important factor in a child’s
mental development. Piaget described four stages of that devel-
opment.
The first stage is called the sensory-motor period (0–2
years). The second stage is the pre-operational period (2–6/7
years). The third stage is the period of concrete thought processes
(6/7–11/12 years). The fourth stage is the period of formal or ab-
stract though processes (from 11/12 years to about 15). The child
gradually develops internal cognitive schemas that strengthen
synapses in the brain.
Rules of thumb
Miller’s (1956) initial review of short-term memory research,
“The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on
our capacity for processing information,” was related to items
like brightness, colour, digits, hue, length, letters, loudness,
pitch, size, and taste. Subsequent studies by Case (1974, 1975),
Pascual-Leone and Smith (1969), and Bazeli and Bazeli (1992)
have come to similar conclusions. They also found clear differ-
ences over age groups with children having an increasing capac-
ity until reaching adult levels in the middle teen years. Bazeli and
191
Bazeli (1992) provide rules of thumb for this increasing capacity
(p. 44).
As a rule of thumb second graders ought not be asked to han-
dle new information that contains more than two or three
steps or components at one time, fourth graders no more
than three or four, seventh graders no more than four or five,
and high school students no more than five or six. Presenta-
tions of new information ought to include combinations of
visual and verbal media, but teachers should be careful to
limit simultaneous multi-media presentation of information
they appear to be more distracting than helpful to some stu-
dents.
Results indicate that visual language abilities develop prior to
and serve as the foundation of, verbal language development, at
least for three-, five-, eight-, and twelve-year-olds (Reynolds-My-
ers, 1985; Moriarty, 1994). These languages are apparently more
efficient than verbal languages in memory tasks. A verbal re-
sponse to a visual stimulus or a visual response to a verbal stim-
ulus requires a transformation from one modality to another.
The ability to transform from verbal to visual modality develops
more rapidly than the transformation from visual to verbal mo-
dality. Development of visual language abilities is dependent
upon receiver interaction with images, objects, and also with our
body language (Fleming and Levie, 1978, 1993; Reynolds-Myers,
1985).
Simple physical routines
Dryden and Vos (1994), claimed that 50% of a person’s ability to
learn is developed in the first four years of life, and another 30%
is developed by the eighth birthday. Those vital years lay down
the pathways on which all future learning is based. According to
Dryden and Vos youngsters are their own best educators, parents
their best first teachers.
192
Simple physical routines can help infants explode into learn-
ing. Our homes, beaches, forests, playgrounds, zoos, museums
and adventure areas are the world’s best schools. Learning any-
thing, including learning reading, writing and math, can be fun
for youngsters as long as it is treated like a game. Teaching based
on cognitive theories of learning recognises that readiness to
learn comes about through the combination of at least three pro-
cesses. These three processes are: 1) Growth in quality of intel-
lectual activity. 2) Prior experience. 3) Desire to learn.
Pupils in junior schools
Much of the work on reading skills makes use of the readiness
concept. The Italian educator Maria Montessori claimed that pe-
riods of sensitivity, corresponding to certain ages, exist when a
child’s interest and mental capacity are best suited to acquiring
knowledge of such things as textures and colours, tidiness, and
language. The ability to recognise stimuli develops with age. Chil-
dren of all ages recognise visual stimuli better than auditory
stimuli. Learner characteristics, such as age, gender, culture,
prior knowledge of the subject matter, scanning habits, and vis-
ual and text processing abilities affect learning abilities and
learning skills.
Pupils in junior schools (Backman, Berg, and Sigurdson,
1988; Eklund, 1990) have very low “pictorial capability.” The
same is true for pupils in intermediate schools, junior high
schools, and in comprehensive schools (Backman, Berg, and Sig-
urdson, 1988). In addition, comprehensive school students are
poor at expressing themselves with pictures (Backman, Berg, and
Sigurdson, 1988; Eklund, 1990). Furthermore, inconsistent use
of graphics in information and learning materials is quite com-
mon. This will reduce understanding and learning (Bradshaw,
1996, 2003).
We may have one kind of memory for pictorial material and
another for linguistic material. Pictorial stimuli are stored as im-
ages and not as words. The stimuli cannot be recalled without
193
extensive cognitive efforts to retrieve the stored image, transform
it into words and then verbalize those words.
Types of intelligence
Gardner (1983) found that we each have at least seven different
types of intelligence. Two of these types, linguistic intelligence
and logical-mathematical intelligence, are very highly valued in
traditional education. The other five intelligences are musical in-
telligence, spatial or visual intelligence, kinaesthetic intelligence
or physical intelligence, interpersonal intelligence or social intel-
ligence, and intrapersonal intelligence or introspective intelli-
gence. Later he added one more type, 8) naturalistic (Gardner,
1991, 1993). Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory has influ-
enced the learning styles approach (Allcock and Hulme, 2010).
Linguistic intelligence
Linguistic intelligence is defined as our ability to read, write, and
communicate with words. Obviously, this ability is highly devel-
oped in authors, poets, novelists, copywriters, scriptwriters, ora-
tors, political leaders, editors, publicists, journalists, and
speechwriters. People in this group are sensitive to patterns.
They are orderly and systematic. They have ability to reason.
They like to listen, read, and write.
Logical-mathematical intelligence
Logical-mathematical intelligence is our ability to reason, calcu-
late, and handle logical thinking. This is most developed in math-
ematicians, scientists, engineers, police investigators, lawyers,
judges, and accountants. People in this group like abstract think-
ing and problem solving. They use logical structures and are pre-
cise. They enjoy counting and they are organised. Traditionally,
most so-called intelligence tests have focused on linguistic and
mathematical intelligence. And much schooling around the
world concentrates on those two abilities. In accordance with
Gardner, this has given us a warped and limited view of our
learning potential.
194
Musical intelligence
Musical intelligence is the ability to compose songs, sing, and
play instruments. People with musical intelligence are sensitive
to emotional power of music, organisation of music, pitch,
rhythm, and timbre. This is obviously highly developed in com-
posers, conductors, performers, musical audiences, recording
engineers, musical instruments makers, piano tuners, and also
in cultures without traditional written language.
Spatial intelligence
Spatial intelligence, or visual intelligence, is the ability to paint,
take great photographs, and create sculptures. People with visual
intelligence create mental images, use metaphors, and have a
sense of gestalt. They like to engage in drawing, painting, and
sculpting. These people can easily read maps, charts, and dia-
grams. This is the kind of ability used by architects, sculptors,
painters, navigators, chess players, naturalists, and pilots.
Kinaesthetic intelligence
Kinaesthetic intelligence, or physical intelligence, is the ability to
use hands and body. A person in this category has exceptional
control of his or her body, control of objects, good timing, trained
responses, and good reflexes. He or she learns best by moving
around and participating and remembers what was done rather
than what was said or observed. Kinaesthetic intelligence is
highly developed in dancers, actors, athletes and sporting achiev-
ers, inventors, mimics, surgeons, karate teachers, racing car driv-
ers, outdoor workers, and mechanically gifted people.
Interpersonal intelligence
Interpersonal intelligence, or social intelligence, is the ability to
relate to others. This is the kind of ability that seems natural with
salesmen, motivators and negotiators.
Intrapersonal intelligence
Intrapersonal intelligence or introspective intelligence is the
ability of insight, to know oneself–the kind of ability that gives
195
some people great intuition. This is the kind of ability that lets
you tap into the tremendous bank of information stored in your
subconscious mind.
Comprehension of movies
Children first have to learn to comprehend individual pictures
before they can comprehend the plot of a movie (Tröger, 1963).
A basic requirement here is that children really are capable of
distinguishing between an object and a picture of that object.
Only after this is possible is a child mature enough to deal with
various subjects on an abstract level.
Tröger suggested that children do not achieve picture com-
prehension until they reach the age of about six. Comprehension
of movies is therefore only possible after this age. Tröger defined
the following stages in movie comprehension:
• The child attains picture comprehension, i.e., the ability to
distinguish between an object and a picture of the object.
• The child comprehends individual scenes in a movie. But
these scenes are not perceived as being related to prior and
subsequent scenes.
• The child begins to comprehend the interrelationship of indi-
vidual scenes.
• The child begins to comprehend all the relationships in the
film.
In Tröger’s view, children under seven perceive movie reality dif-
ferently than adults. Even here Tröger described four stages of
development which arise in chronological order but at different
ages for different children, depending on their development in
other respects:
• The child lacks movie comprehension and views a movie re-
alistically.
• The child views a movie as a reproduction of reality, i.e., the
events on the screen have really happened. The photographer
just happened to be passing and made the movie.
196
• The child perceives the movie as possible reality, i.e., they un-
derstand that the movie was made but that the events in the
movie could actually happen in reality.
• The child perceives the movie as selected and processed real-
ity. Not every adult reaches this stage.
With the exception of age levels Tröger’s view is in close agree-
ment with the views of Piaget (1926, 1936) Later, also Noble
(1975) expressed similar views. Actually, children probably attain
facility in picture comprehension at a much earlier age than six,
possibly as early as three years.
Comprehension of TV programs
Noble (1975) analysed the way in which children of different ages
perceive the content of TV programs and found very wide differ-
ences between children in the different stages of development ac-
cording to Piaget’s Cognitive development theory (1926, 1936).
Children from 2 to 6 tended to either strongly like or dislike
what they saw. They had difficulty in distinguishing between in-
ternal and external experiences, i.e., between imagination and
reality, and felt involved in and able to influence events in TV
programs. They are unable to comprehend how different aspects
of an event may be interrelated and therefore view TV programs
as a succession of mutually unrelated happenings.
When children acquire the ability to carry out reversible
thought processes in the third stage of their development, they
begin to respond systematically to concrete stimuli in their sur-
roundings. Their world of thought is no longer restricted to the
present, and it becomes possible for them to foresee events and
understand relationships. At the beginning of this stage of devel-
opment, the children concentrate on special events in a TV pro-
gram, but they gradually begin to understand the plot.
Children from 11–12 are only capable of understanding the
concrete, physical behaviour of the TV performers, not the emo-
tions supplying the motivation for a given action. Motivation is
a necessary antecedent of cognitive effort to interpret meaning
197
(Brennan and Bahn, 2006). From about the age of 13, children
begin to be capable of dealing with logical thought processes on
an abstract plane. Only at this stage do they acquire the ability to
understand the indirect symbolism often found in movies and TV
programs.
Noble (1975) found that TV producers could accurately pre-
dict what children would like, but not what children would un-
derstand. Social circumstances, in addition to chronological age
and intelligence, play an increasingly important role in the ability
of children to understand the events in a TV program.
Various studies have shown that middle-class mothers
talked and discussed things with their children to a greater extent
than working class mothers. In Noble’s view, therefore, we can
expect to find similar differences regarding TV programs. The so-
cialization process in middle-class children means that these
children tended to receive more encouragement in understand-
ing the programs.
In the United States, TV programs made for children are ba-
sically designed in the same way as programs for adults. In pro-
grams such as Sesame Street, for example, children see a series
of rapid and varied scenes that are frequently unrelated to one
another. Children’s programs in Sweden are better tailored to
children’s prerequisites.
The former Soviet Union was even more advanced in this re-
spect. The state-run Soviet TV company produced programs for
five age groups: up to the age of 7, 8–10, 11–14, 15–18 and over
18 years of age. The former Eastern Bloc countries have amassed
considerable know-how about the way TV programs should be
designed to suit different age groups. However, less is known
about this subject in the West.
Comprehension fluency is the degree to which one under-
stands metaphorical information efficiently (Chang, 2013). Pro-
cessing fluency is “the subjective experience of ease with which
people process of information” (Alter and Oppenheimer, 2009,
p. 291).
198
Understanding advertising
Advertising messages do not often require nor invite critical eval-
uation from their audiences, especially for soft sells and emo-
tional advertising appeals. A theoretical foundation for the study
of how individuals process persuasive messages is the Elabora-
tion Likelihood Model (Petty and Cacioppo 1986). This dual pro-
cessing model suggests that individuals will likely process the in-
formation displayed through one of two routes after a critical
point of message evaluation. The two routes are differentiated by
the amount of elaboration, defined as amount of issue relevant
thinking.
According to Barry (1998) magnetic resonance imaging
scans lend insight into how children and adolescent brains pro-
cess incoming messages and differ from adult brains in ascribing
meaning to visual messages. Adolescent brains, for example, ap-
pear to process emotions primarily in the area of the amygdala,
a cluster of nerve cells in the depth of the temporal lobe. As they
mature, brain activity shifts toward the frontal lobe, where ra-
tional processing takes place. This allows adults to respond to
emotional stimulation with reason, and to put “rational brakes”
on peripheral cues such as colour and imagery.
Children and adolescents, however, have less information-
processing ability. They do not pay attention to factual infor-
mation in advertising and do not process advertising through
logical assessment and rational analysis. Children and adoles-
cents tend to ascribe meaning to peripheral cues such as colour
and imagery and process advertising through their emotional as-
sociations. The same visuals are not equally effective for receiv-
ers with different prior knowledge.
Advertising based on factual attributes such as price, ingre-
dients or product features is likely to appeal to adults. Advertis-
ing based on images is likely to appeal to both adults and chil-
dren, but children lack the rational development through experi-
ence that would put rational brakes on the ad’s effects. This is
why ads which suggest the types of people who might use a
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specific product and use cues to tap into emotionally loaded ex-
periences with which children can identify–in reality or in fan-
tasy–are particularly effective on children. Visual messages with
carefully crafted emotional appeals bypass logic.
Basic geometric shapes
When a person attempts to copy a drawing, he or she generally
simplifies the subject so that it increasingly assumes simple,
basic geometric shapes such as circles, rectangles, and triangles.
When small children begin to make pictures of their own, the cir-
cle is generally their first definable area, followed by the square
and then the triangle. The external contours of an image and its
“total shape” are probably very important to the way we perceive
image content.
My own study of the image creativity of children (Pettersson,
1979) showed, among other things, that the paper’s edges, the
corners in particular, attracted the children’s attention. They
pointed out that one of the most striking things about a photo-
copy is its rectangular shape and its white frame. These proper-
ties may very well have an effect on and interfere with our per-
ception of the image subject itself. This influence was apparent
in one-third of the pictures made by children from two to seven.
Yarbus (1967) and many other scientists have shown that we
only fix our attention on certain elements of a picture’s image, so
it is possible that the corners of rectangular and square pictures
are distracting to small children reading a picture. The corners
may demand attention that should be conferred on image con-
tent. An ideal picture should probably be oval with blurred edges.
The image should emerge from the background, like Gibson
(1966) described our perception of “selected visual fields.”
Pictures in our books and newspapers have not always been
rectangular and square, and we can find interesting differences
in different cultures. Today, we live in an age increasingly domi-
nated by television. Children may ultimately expect all images to
have the same format as a TV screen.
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According to Goldsmith (1987) most children, in cultures
where pictures are a regular feature of the environment, are “pic-
torially literate” by the time they are about eight or nine. How-
ever, Barufaldi and Dietz (1975) found that most of the children
between grades one and six performed better in observation and
comparison tests when using real, solid objects as opposed to pic-
tures of the same objects.
Details of a picture
Amen (1941), Mackworth and Bruner (1970), and a number of
other authors have commented on the tendency of young chil-
dren to become absorbed in details of a picture at the expense of
the whole. Pictures may have hundreds of details. Some of these
details may be very important, while others totally lack im-
portance. Elkind, Koegler, and Go (1964) found that children are
generally unable to switch attention voluntarily from parts to
whole until they are about nine years old.
Barry (1998) noted that because children developmentally
cannot or do not pay attention to factual information in advertis-
ing–but rather to peripheral cues such as colour and imagery–
they tend to process advertising not through logical assessment,
but through their emotions. Because of this, persuasion tends to
be accomplished in both children and adolescents almost exclu-
sively through imagery.
Illustrations in materials for use with children under thir-
teen should be strictly relevant to the text. Younger children can-
not ignore incidental illustrations. If pictures do not help, they
will probably hinder the understanding of the content.
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This illustration shows three playing cards from different parts
of the world. They differ in hundreds of details. However, those
who use to play cards will immediately recognize the “value” of
each card. In this case all three playing cards are "Jack of
hearts." The card players don’t care about the non-significant
details in the cards.
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Processing
Learning is a general term for a relatively lasting change in per-
formance caused directly by experience. Learning is also the pro-
cess or the processes whereby such a change is brought about.
Learning is a process or a set of processes by which relatively per-
manent changes in behaviour occur as a result of practice or ex-
perience.
The result of the learning process can be noted by observing
changes in a person's or in an animal's behaviour. It can also be
seen via neuro-physiological changes. The study of learning is
one of the central themes of psychology, with connections to
child psychology, physiological psychology, education, and ther-
apy.
This chapter includes the following main sections: Pro-
cessing theories, Memory models, Processing and message de-
sign, and Facilitating theory for ID.
Processing theories
Mental processing is a designation for the mental processes in
which we process information into knowledge with reference to
our earlier experiences and memories. The information must be
internalized and made our property, as part of our memory.
Mental application is a designation for the mental processes
in which we make use of our new knowledge and test it in for
confirmation. We will remember relevant and meaningful infor-
mation if we have use for it. Hereby, knowledge is internalized
and can influence new attention.
Our eyes send more data more quickly and more efficiently
through our nervous system than any other of our senses (Barry,
2005, p. 48). Contemporary cognition research shows that image
processing is efficient. It is so efficient that a basic recognition
and an emotional response occur well before anything is regis-
tered in our conscious awareness.
203
This main section includes the following sections: Schema
theories, and Action theory.
See the book Learning for discussions of General prerequi-
sites for learning, Dual coding theory, Design of teaching aids,
Interpreting image content, Multimedia learning, Learning ob-
jectives, and Combined learning.
Schema theories
In Piaget's Cognitive development theory (1926, 1936), children
adopt a series of schemata to understand the world. A schema is
a unit of understanding stored and organized in the long-term
memory. The British psychologist Frederic Bartlett (1932) used
schemata (or schemas) as a basic concept when he developed his
learning theory. Bartlett suggested that a network of abstract
mental structures form our understanding of the world.
Organized patterns
Schema theory describes how knowledge is acquired, processed
and organized. In cognitive science and psychology, a schema de-
scribes an organized pattern of behaviour or thought, and pro-
vide a framework for future understanding. A schema contains
general expectations and knowledge about events, people,
places, and social roles (Rumelhart, 1981; Sinatra, 1986).
A schema is a cognitive framework, or a concept, that helps
organize categories of information and the relationships among
them. The focus is on how we assign meaning to things through
social experience (Davis, 2012, p. 80). We use genres, prototypes
and our mental schemata in communication (Bondebjerg, 1994;
Höijer, 1992a, 1992b). We are more likely to notice things that fit
into our already existing schemata.
Our schemata are constantly refreshed and restructured
through new knowledge, while additional connections among re-
lated schemata are made. We build new concepts on the founda-
tion of older ones. However, schemata can also contribute to
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stereotypes and make it difficult to retain new information that
does not conform to our established ideas about the world.
Strömquist (1991) pointed out that we all have proficiency in,
and insight into, the labours of writing. We all know how writing
is done. We know that “the writing process” consists of more than
simply committing words to paper; it presupposes long-term
memory and familiarity with the things that have to do with writ-
ing. In other words, writing is an extensive, time-consuming, dy-
namic, gradual, cognitive, and strenuous business. The schemata
that we use when we read influence our deeper understanding of
the content in the text Gunnarsson (1982). Our reading proce-
dure is of great importance to our capacity for understanding.
Understanding and long-term memory are closely con-
nected. It is unlikely that someone would understand a concept
without drawing from stores of information accessible by long-
term memory (Brown and Bookman, 1997).
For competencies to be acquired, it is essential that the
learner bring the important elements of knowledge required by
the task. These elements of knowledge consist of concepts, prop-
ositions, episodes, production rules, procedures, or heuristics.
New concepts are built on the foundation of older ones, and new
propositions are formed with concepts already possessed by the
learner. Processing of this kind is essential for experience, under-
standing, and expectations. Evidence for image-based schema
may be drawn from spatial cognition in linguistics (e.g., Rohrer,
2006; Erten and Razi, 2009).
Four types of schemata
According to Taylor and Crocker (1981) there are four types of
mental schemas or schemata: 1) Person schemas, 2) Role sche-
mas, 3) Event schemas, and 4) Self-schemas. Person schemas or-
ganise our knowledge of persons.
Today media is our most important source of information of
persons and groups of which we have no direct knowledge. Role
schemas organise our expectations in persons with particular
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roles and positions in society, and their behaviour in different
situations. Event schemas organise our conception of the con-
tent, and of the sequences of events. Self-schemas organise our
considerations of ourselves as persons. The image of the self is
important to us. People’s mental schemas are continuously de-
veloping, and every day we meet reality with a somewhat differ-
ent view than the day before.
Models of reality
In accordance with Bruner (1966), we use three systems to form
models of reality: 1) Actions (Enactiv), 2) Pictures (Iconic), and
3) Symbols (Symbolic or Abstract). Instruction that is provided
to a learner should proceed from direct experience (as in demon-
strations, field trips, and exhibits), through representations (as
in signs and words). The sequence in which a learner encounters
material has a direct effect on achievement of the mastery of the
task. By operating and manipulating objects we get experiences.
Pictures provide us with a holistic view. Using symbols makes it
possible to handle abstract ideas and thoughts. Language is the
main tool for abstract thinking.
Action theory
Based upon a “theory of action” Argyris (1976), and Argyris and
Schön (1974, 1978), discussed an action theory, also called dou-
ble loop learning theory. Here, the focus is on solving problems
that are complex and badly structured. It is necessary to change
underlying values and assumptions. An important aspect is the
distinction between what individuals think and what individuals
actually do.
Double loop learning is a theory of personal change that is
oriented towards professional education, especially related to
leadership in organizations. In double loop learning, assump-
tions underlying current views are questioned and hypotheses
about behaviour are tested. The end result of double loop
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learning should be increased effectiveness in decision-making
and better acceptance of failures and mistakes.
Swieringa and Wierdsma (1992) developed the collective
loop learning theory. Collective learning means organisational
changes. At the level of single loop learning this applies to
changes in the rules, the agreements on how we collaborate, what
we must do or what we are allowed to do within the present sys-
tem. This may only result in a number of minor improvements.
With double-loop-learning people bring the shared insights
forming the basis of the rules into play. Now people will learn
new principles. This means opinions, reasoning, and theories.
The double loop learning may result in renewal of the processes
or renewal of the structures in the organisation.
The triple loop learning theory applies to changes in the
communally shared principles on which the organisation is
based. It represents collective learning at the level of will, and it
results in development and major changes of the behaviour of the
organisation.
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Memory models
Our memories make it possible to store experiences, recognize
things, and learn. With the help of our memories we can think
and tackle the problems that face us. Memories give us a place in
the time dimension.
This main section includes the following sections: A contro-
versial issue, Sensory memory, Short-term memory, Long-term
memory, Conceptual change theories, Other memory models,
and Forgetting.
A controversial issue
Memories become a part of our personalities. However, whether
memory is a basic source of knowledge or not is a controversial
issue. According to Bernecker (2015) some philosophers main-
tain that memory only retains or preserves knowledge but
doesn't produce new knowledge. Others insist that there are
cases where a person first comes to know by remembering.
A memory is a mental image enabling us to visualize an ob-
ject, event, or a particular situation. In some way, we retrieve and
“activate” a copy of this visualisation stored in our long-term
memory. Many people have described the “near-death experi-
ences” they had just before losing consciousness. These experi-
ences often encompass a large number of wide-ranging images of
events throughout their lives, flashing past in a rapid, sometimes
chaotic, succession. They may even recall people, places, and
events from their earliest years. Buzan (1977) suggested that peo-
ple in this situation may well remember everything that has ever
happened to them. Normally, we are unable to access all infor-
mation stored in our long-term memory.
A number of models or theories describe the transfer of in-
formation through memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968; Broad-
bent, 1984; Lockhart and Craik, 1990; Norman and Bobrow,
1975; Sinatra, 1986; Waugh and Norman, 1965).
One way of viewing memory functions is based on infor-
mation processing in steps (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968), the
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information processing theory. On the basis of the length of time
that memories last, Bloom, Lazerson, and Hofstadter (1985)
noted three kinds of memories. The first kind is immediate
memory. The second is short-term memory, and the third kind
is long-term memory. Cowan (2001) discussed sensory
memory, working memory, and long-term memory. However,
according to Moore, Burton, and Myers (2004) the information-
processing model suggests that we have several memories gov-
erned by processes that convert stimuli to information.
Sensory memory
One thing that is common to all phases of the analysis performed
on incoming information is the need to store the signals for var-
ying lengths of time, so that the information processing can be
carried out. In psychological terms, the processes that carry out
this information storage are referred to as “memories.” The first
of these steps is the sensory memory, or the immediate memory,
which carries out the storage of stimulus information at the pe-
ripheral level.
The function of the sensory memory appears to be to hold
onto information long enough for it to be transferred to the next
form, the short-term memory. Sweller (2005) defined sensory
memory as the cognitive structure that permits us to perceive
new information. Sensory memory holds an exact sensory copy
of what was presented for less than one quarter of a second
(Mayer 2010).
Auditory sensory memory
The auditory sensory memory, or the echoic memory, briefly
holds spoken words and sounds as auditory images (Mayer,
2005b). Hearing a sentence, a word, or even a syllable requires
the listener to integrate a changing pattern of auditory stimula-
tion. This integration demands some form of short, temporary
buffer storage, and it is likely that perception relies heavily on
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such temporary memory stores that holds a representation of the
initial sounds until the entire word has been heard
Visual sensory memory
The visual sensory memory, or the iconic memory, briefly holds
pictures and printed text as visual images (Mayer, 2005b).
Loftus, Shimamura, and Johnson (1985) showed that for one
tenth of a second as much information can be extracted from the
visual sensory memory icon as from the picture itself.
Processes in the eye
Another example of the immediate memory is the biochemical
processes in the eye. The visual cells there possess some inertia
and, therefore, function as a kind of memory. The immediate
memory normally stores information for half a second to one sec-
ond.
Short-term memory
After being processed in the sensory memory, some information
is passed on to the short-term memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin,
1968). The short-term memory is also called operative memory,
STM, and working memory. The information is only retained
here briefly, not more than one to two seconds.
Complex operations
The short-term memory is a biological structure for storing in-
formation temporarily before it is passed on to the long-term
memory. A number of complex operations are carried out here
during problem solving. But the short-term memory has severe
limitations in storage capacity.
Miller’s (1968) initial review of research on short-term
memory related to items like brightness, colour, digits, hue,
length, letters, loudness, pitch, size, and taste. Most people can
repeat a seven, or eight, digit telephone number, but not ten or
eleven digits. Subsequent studies have come to similar conclu-
sions (Bazeli and Bazeli, 1992; Case, 1974, 1975; Pascual-Leone
210
and Smith, 1969). In teaching it is important not to overload stu-
dents with too much information (Cook, 2006).
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) proposed a more complex model,
for the short-term memory, which they called working memory.
Sweller (2005) defined working memory as the cognitive struc-
ture in which we consciously process information. Our working
memory selects information from our sensory memory for pro-
cessing and integration. Generally working memory holds the
processed version for less than thirty seconds (Mayer 2010).
Working memory can only process a few pieces of material at any
one time.
Several subsystems
The short-term memory has several components or subsystems
to deal with different types of information: a verbal or phonolog-
ical component, an active component, and a passive component
(Hitch, Woodin and Baker, 1989).
Reading texts and pictures, and active listening, are depend
on our short-term memory, as does all mental activity. Only a
certain limited amount of information can be contained in the
short-term memory at any one time.
New information replaces information that is older than
about one second. The older information easily disappears if we
are not prepared to store it in our long-term memory. If we re-
peat the information a few times, we increase our chances of re-
membering it. Long, complex words and sentences are difficult
to understand. If the functions of the individual words in a text
are not immediately apparent to us, our short-term memory be-
comes overloaded with long chains of words that cannot be di-
rectly put into a meaningful context.
Filter systems
Information that has entered the short-term memory can pro-
ceed through a filter that selects the information to be passed on
to the long-term memory. Once this filtration has taken place and
certain information units have been assigned priority over
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others, these priority units are given access to a “register” with a
limited memory capacity. This is when a person becomes aware
of the stored information.
All other non-priority information disappears, normally for-
ever if it is not retransmitted to the filter when the filter is able to
accept the traffic. The filter scrutinizes the information received
from the outside world and identifies the specific properties of
this information. When the information involves aural signals,
the filter notes whether the signal is strong or weak. When visual
signals are involved, the signal is scrutinized for information on
for example colour, size, direction, and movement.
Rehearsal strategies
Learners generally use rehearsal strategies to facilitate cognitive
processing of new information. Without such processing there is
no later storage. According to Weinstein and Mayer (1986), re-
hearsal strategies are designed to repeat information while it is
in the short-term memory to compensate for the time and limi-
tations there.
The longer an individual can rehearse information, take
notes, analyse and interact with texts and visuals in an active
way, the greater is the possibility that this information will be
moved from the short-term memory to the long-term memory
and that increase in retention will occur (Murray and Mosberg,
1982).
Long-term memory
The long-term memory is what most people mean when they re-
fer to “memory” (Carlson, 1993). The long-term memory has ep-
isodic memories of specific things we have done, seen, heard, felt,
tasted, and so on. They are tied to specific contexts. Semantic
memories consist of conceptual information such as our
knowledge of the names of birds and flowers. The information
that passes the “register” can proceed in different ways.
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The information can be stored in a long-term memory
(LTM). This is what normally happens with the knowledge we do
not need for the moment. This long-term memory then sets the
rules for the selection filter, so that the filter makes selections re-
lated to previous experience (see Levie, 1987; Sinatra, 1986; for
reviews). To facilitate these processes the information designer
should organise information carefully.
Theoretical models
According to Branch and Bloom (1995) visual information is usu-
ally retained longer in memory than verbal information. The
short-term and long-term memories are actually theoretical
models that cannot be related to any activity pattern or any par-
ticular anatomical structure in the human brain. The distinction
made between the STM and LTM is probably too clear-cut. In-
formation can also be passed on to an “output system,” which
emits signals to the muscles that are to carry out a given act. The
information can be switched back from the “register” to the re-
ception or to the short-term memory.
Beaver (1994) claimed that visual memory is very fast. It is
one thousand times faster to view an inner image than to re-
hearse a word from verbal memory. In accordance with Kosslyn
(1975), more details of a mental image of an object are remem-
bered when the object is imagined next to a smaller object. Thus,
the relative size of a part of an image may affect our ability to
remember and recognize it.
Adults tend to be sceptical of young children’s memory re-
ports (Forsberg, Adams and Cowan, 2022). In lab-based memory
tasks both adults and older children generally outperform
younger children. However, when young children are tested us-
ing age-appropriate paradigms, some studies suggest that in-
fants can hold as many items in visual working memory as an
average young adult. According to these authors the capacity of
visual working memory may improve partly because of increased
long-term knowledge, and, conversely, how working memory
213
capacity limitations may create a bottleneck for long-term
memory accumulation.
Physical changes
Sweller (2005) defined long-term memory as the cognitive struc-
ture that stores our knowledge base. Our long-term memory
holds a person’s knowledge for an indefinite amount of time
(Mayer 2010). According to Carlson (1993) long-term memory
appears to consist of physical changes in the brain — probably
within the sensory and motor association cortexes. In daily life it
is easier to recall general concepts than specific events. To some
extent this is due to the fact that the former usually constitute an
integrated part of larger mental networks, whereas the latter
more often have a fragmentary, non-connected status (Waldahl,
1998). In part this is because general concepts have larger num-
ber of mental cues pointing to them from different positions.
Information is processed and remembered in chunks that
are organized hierarchically. We have to think about and work
with new information in order to get it into our long-term
memory. Learning requires brainwork. The more often a mes-
sage is sent, the more familiar it becomes and the more likely it
is to be remembered. This is the basis for a much of the advertis-
ing. Linsday and Norman (1977) stated that in the teaching-
learning environment, “the problem in learning new information
is not getting information into memory; it is making sure that it
will be found later when it is needed” (p. 337).
Conceptual change theories
Concepts are mental representations corresponding to words.
For example, the concept “tree” is a mental structure that corre-
sponds to the word “tree” and refers to trees in the world. Con-
cepts may also represent a set of ideas that can be described by a
few words. Several concepts can act as building blocks of more
complex or even abstract representations.
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Conceptual change is needed
The terms “conceptual change,” “conceptual change model”
(CCM), and “conceptual change theory” can be seen as the men-
tal processes that alter our understandings of concepts, as well as
the relationships between them, in content and organization. In-
itially the idea of conceptual change was used in education as a
way of thinking about the learning, and re-learning, of changing
meanings of important concepts in disciplines such as physics
(Posner et al., 1982) and biology (Carey, 1985).
Because conceptual change is needed teachers must find
ways to enhance the motivation of individual students. Accord-
ing to Jonassen (2006) conceptual change is the mechanism un-
derlying meaningful learning. According to diSessa (2008) the
central principle of conceptual change research is the construc-
tivist idea that old ideas (or mental structures) are influential in
supporting or constraining learning (or development).
Hewson (1981, 1982) expanded the idea of conceptual
change from physics and biology to other disciplines. Today the
study of conceptual change is an interdisciplinary field. It is often
discussed in teaching of science and technology. In these disci-
plines, students cannot rely on simple memorization of facts in
order to understand advanced concepts. Here students must
learn to restructure their intuitive knowledge based on culture
and experience.
In traditional face-to-face lectures, teachers usually know if
their students are still “with them”. Teachers have access to (non-
verbal) cues, and they can usually see if their students are still
“with them” and comprehend the lecture. However, some eye-
tracking devices measure exactly where students look in an im-
age. In two studies Kok et al. (2023) used visualizations of stu-
dents “gaze data” in order to study how they comprehended the
contents of a video lecture.
In the first phase, 36 students were “eye-tracked” while they
watched a video lecture. The analysis of data showed that the ex-
tent to which the students looked at relevant information, as well
215
as the extent to which students looked at the same location as the
teacher, correlated with the students’ comprehension of the lec-
ture, in accordance to their scores on an open question.
In the second phase, 50 participants watched visualizations
of students’ gazes with six different techniques. Here Kok et al.
(2023) found it is possible to use gaze visualizations in order to
predict learners’ comprehension. There was only minor differ-
ences between visualization techniques.
Social experiences
Since mental construction processes are influenced by social ex-
periences, Hewson (1992) argued that knowledge constructed by
each individual is not normally completely idiosyncratic and per-
sonal. Existing knowledge and cultural and social agreements
about meaning not only limit how new experiences are inter-
preted, but also influence what is perceived in any situation.
Thus, two individuals exposed to the same events may perceive
and interpret them in very different ways. This depends on their
individual underlying beliefs and knowledge, and the ways in
which these beliefs influence and are influenced by the social in-
teractions out of which they are formed.
Two perspectives
Özdemir and Clark (2007) concluded that a body of conceptual
change researchers have made significant progress on two com-
peting theoretical perspectives regarding knowledge structure
coherence: 1) Knowledge-as-theory perspectives, and 2) Know-
ledge-as-elements perspectives.
These two perspectives implicate radically different Concep-
tual change through “knowledge-as-theory” was derived from the
work of Piaget’s learning theory and Kuhn’s concept of normal
science and scientific revolution. This perspective was summa-
rized in the following question: “Is a student’s knowledge most
accurately represented as a coherent unified framework of the-
ory-like character?”
216
Conceptual change through “knowledge-as-elements” recog-
nizes a student’s understanding of material through their inter-
action with the world. This perspective was summarized in the
following question: “Is a student’s knowledge more aptly consid-
ered as an ecology of quasi-independent elements?”
There are significant similarities and differences between
knowledge-as-theory and knowledge-as-elements perspectives.
If a learner’s understanding is theory-like, and if certain specific
conditions are met, the learner will become dissatisfied with ex-
isting conceptions when conflicting examples are introduced to
the learner. If a learner’s intuitive knowledge is elemental in na-
ture, instruction should focus on how those elements are acti-
vated in appropriate contexts. From a constructivist view, all of
the various elements in a student’s conceptual network are sub-
ject to progressive knowledge construction.
The Vosniadou conceptual change model
Vosniadou (2007) proposed a conceptual change model for
iconic and symbolic visual representations existing in a learner’s
schema structures. Here mental representations are hold to-
gether in an organized fashion. This allows people to understand
how different pieces may be related, and how they may influence
each other. The “Vosniadou conceptual change model” has five
interconnected key components in a three-dimensional struc-
ture. These components are 1) Framework theories, 2) Presup-
positions, 3) Conceptual domains, 4) Concepts, and 5) Specific
theories.
Other memory models
Results from several experiments show that learning is maxim-
ized when the contents are the same in, audio, print, and visual
channels. The content, the context, the format, and the structure
of a visual influence the viewer’s ability to perceive its message.
Sometimes comparisons are made between the human brain and
217
a serial computer. However, the brain differs in many ways from
a computer.
Important and unimportant information
As a rule, a computer must be able to process considerably more
information than a human in any given situation since most com-
puter programs are unable to distinguish between important and
unimportant information. Usually the machine is therefore inca-
pable of ignoring any information in the way that the human
brain constantly does. This is one of the reasons why a person’s
ability to process sensory information is far beyond the capability
of even giant computers, even though the individual processing
steps are carried out much faster in a computer than in the hu-
man brain, about one million times faster.
A major difference between the human brain and serial com-
puters is that damage to serial computers is disastrous. If parts
of the central processor or memory elements are destroyed the
whole system “crashes.” However, moderate damage to the hu-
man brain only reduces its efficiency.
Drew and Grimes (1985) studied the process of learning
from television news and the relationship between audio and vis-
ual channels. The results from the study showed that close coor-
dination between audio and video improved audio recall of tele-
vision news stories, and redundancy aided story understanding
and audio information recall.
Procedural and declarative memories
On the basis of the functions that memories perform they seem
to be either procedural, or declarative (Pines, 1986).
Procedural memory, or implicit memory, is a kind of
memory for skills that we perform in an automatic and uncon-
scious way. Here our previous experiences aid our performances.
This unconscious memory is capable of controlling rather com-
plex behaviours in our daily lives. Procedural memory allows
people to remember how to get dressed in the morning and pre-
pare breakfast without consciously thinking about all the details
218
related to these activities. Procedural memory probably develops
earlier in life than declarative memory.
Declarative memory, or explicit memory, is a conscious
memory. It is the memory of which we are aware. We remember
previous experiences, facts, and information, and we can recol-
lect what happened years ago. We know that we have learned
something, and we can discuss this with others.
Framework theories
According to the framework theories our already existing
knowledge will influence how we may understand new infor-
mation. Visual data may be used in science instruction and learn-
ing. Framework theories are large overarching sets of knowledge.
These structures frame our understanding and serve us as lenses
through which we “see” knowledge (Finson and Pedersen, 2015).
At any single instant, a learner may hold multiple framework
theories. A learner’s framework theories include his/her intuitive
knowledge, knowledge gained from life experiences, and beliefs.
The learner presumes that some information is accurate, and ap-
plicable to the situation. Presuppositions act as filters for the
transfer of information into schemata and may therefore effec-
tively hinder alternative explanations. Examples of presupposi-
tions: 1) Visual data may be used as effective tools. 2) Visual data
are limited and cannot be used in all learning contexts.
A conceptual domain is a coherent body of knowledge. The
learner may use knowledge from several different domains. A
conceptual domain will include many concepts. Conceptual do-
mains may concern the function of the brain and the cognitive
building of schemas.
A concept is a small piece of subject matter knowledge. Sev-
eral related pieces are used together as units. Examples of con-
cepts are visual perception, visual learning, and visual thinking.
Sets of interrelated propositions form specific theories. Spe-
cific theories are influenced by attitudes, cultural contexts, social
contexts, and motivations. Examples of specific theories concern
219
various aspects of areas such as cognition, learning, and visual
literacy.
This framework may guide science educators in making
more effective use of “visual data” in instructional contexts. Vos-
niadou (2007) defined visual data as visual inputs beyond visual
information.
Forgetting
Forgetting is the process through which information in memory
becomes inaccessible, either because the information is no longer
stored or because it is stored but is not at that time retrievable.
Forgetting is rapid at first and then gradually levels off. This pro-
cess may be increased by interference from other material, either
learned beforehand or subsequently. The amount of forgetting
increases with the amount of interfering material and with its
similarity to the material being remembered. People tend to re-
member what they regard as most important; they typically op-
erate by attempting to reconstruct the incident using their exist-
ing knowledge, with the result that they may recall what would
have been expected instead of what actually occurred.
A number of techniques are available for improving memory.
Buzan (1977) discussed specific memory systems that establish
links between or exaggerate the image of things to be recalled.
The mere act of making a special effort to remember may suffice
to improve memory capacity. Mnemonics are additional cues to
help retrieve the appropriate information. For example, a mne-
monic for remembering the order of the colours of the spectrum,
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet, uses the sen-
tence “Richard of York gains battles in vain.” The colour names
are first reduced to their initial letter, and these are then elabo-
rated into a meaningful sentence, providing a sequential organi-
zation not present in the order of the colour names themselves.
Several researchers have reported that large amounts of text
are more likely to be forgotten than small amounts of text (Brad-
shaw, 2000).
220
Processing and message design
The producer of information and learning materials can facilitate
communication, and the various learning processes of the receiv-
ers. This main section includes the following sections: Simplicity
in a message, Facilitating processing of colour, Facilitating pro-
cessing of text, Facilitating processing of pictures, Facilitating
processing of layout, Facilitating memory for text, Facilitating
memory for pictures, and Improve your own learning.
Simplicity in a message
Complicated language, in both texts and pictures, will impair the
understanding of any intended message. Thus, text and pictures
for information should always be designed so that they are easy
to read. Any graphical message should be legible, readable, and
also well worth reading for the intended audience. Any audial
message should be audible, distinct, and also well worth listening
to for the intended audience.
Simplicity in a message will result in easier and more effec-
tive perception, processing and memory of that message (Sina-
tra, 1986). Design has the unique capacity (Mijksenaar, 1997, p.
25) to shape information by:
• Comparing or ordering.
• Emphasizing or understating.
• Grouping or sorting.
• Opting for immediate or delayed recognition.
• Presenting it in an entertaining fashion.
• Selecting or omitting.
Information should be as simple, clear, and unambiguous as pos-
sible. However, in any presentation, information can be enriched
with a wealth of details.
221
Facilitating processing of colour
In order to facilitate the processing of colour we should:
• Find out likes or dislikes of colour.
• Limit the number of colour codes.
• Use colour coding in a consistent way. Inconsistent use of col-
ours will reduce learning (Bradshaw, 1996, 2003).
• Use colour coding to increase understanding and learning
(Dwyer, 1972, 1978; Epskamp, 1981; Hannafin and Peck,
1988; Bradshaw, 2003).
Facilitating processing of text
In order to facilitate the processing of text we should:
• Design text to facilitate mental processing.
• Divide the text into sections, subsections, and paragraphs to
avoid too large masses of text (Jonassen, 1982).
• Provide the time that is necessary for the receivers to read,
interpret and understand the message in the text.
• Set headings in different type versions to aid comprehension
of the text content (Jonassen, 1982).
• Use a variety of examples and non-examples.
Facilitating processing of pictures
In order to facilitate the receiver’s mental processing of pictures
we should:
• Use graphics in a consistent way.
• Use line drawings when study time is limited (Dwyer, 1972).
• Use pictures that are relevant to the content of the text. It will
facilitate learning from reading prose (Levin, Anglin and Car-
ney, 1987).
• Use realistic versions of artwork when unlimited study time
is allowed (Dwyer, 1972; Fleming and Levie, 1978; Soulier,
1988).
222
Facilitating processing of layout
In order to facilitate the processing of layout we should:
• Avoid inconsistent use of typography.
• Do not make lines too short, or too wide (Ekwall, 1977).
• Make close connections between verbal and visual represen-
tations.
• Use captions to anchor interpretations of pictures (Barthes,
1977).
• Use illustrations that are relevant to the content in the text.
• Use paragraph headings to improve learning (Cisotto and
Boscolo, 1995).
Facilitating memory for text
As previously seen there is a close relationship between guide-
lines aimed at providing simplicity and guidelines aimed at facil-
itating perception, processing and memory. Simplicity in a mes-
sage will result in easier and more effective perception, pro-
cessing and memory of that message. In order to facilitate
memory for text we should:
• Present only a limited number of information elements at the
same time.
• Present text and illustrations in close connection.
• Provide meaningful contents.
• Use a graphically complex text rather than a “plain” text.
• Use cuing to highlight ideas. The consensus is that readers are
more likely to remember cued ideas than un-cued ideas
(Hartley, 1987).
• Use specific textual structure in instructional text (Frase,
Barry, and Schwartz, 1979, Bernard, 1990).
223
Facilitating memory for pictures
In order to facilitate memory for pictures we should:
• Co-ordinate design of learning materials with a theory of
meaningful learning (Fleming and Levie, 1993; Mayer,
1993a). Mayer et al. (1995) built such a theory from compo-
nents of Wittrock’s (1974, 1989) generative learning theory
and Paivio’s dual coding theory (Paivio, 1971, 1978, 1983,
1986, 1991; Clark and Paivio, 1991).
• Put pictures as close to the relevant text as possible (Benson,
1985; Braden, 1983; Haber and Hershenson, 1980; Hartley
and Burnhill, 1977; MacDonald-Ross, 1977; Mayer, 1993;
Mayer and Sims, 1994; Mayer et al 1995; Moreno and Mayer,
2000; Pettersson, 1989b, 1993; Wright, 1982).
Improve your own learning
Based on research in psychology it is possible to provide guide-
lines for more effective learning. The guidelines presented below
are selected from many possible guidelines and based on a large
amount of research (Cotton 1995a, 1995b, Dryden and Vos 1994,
Hannafin and Hooper 1993, Mellander 1993, Ormrod 1989, Pet-
tersson 1993, Winn 1993).
Improve the general prerequisites for learning
For learning to occur you must be mentally prepared to learn.
You must be interested and curious. You must be willing to learn!
• Be positive.
• Eat a good breakfast and a good lunch every day, preferably
including fresh vegetables and fruit.
• Exercise regularly to oxygenate the blood.
• Get an enthusiastic mentor.
• Use all your senses.
• Use different representations and different media.
• Use relevant and meaningful material from different sources.
• Work together with other learners.
224
Improve attention
The learning process starts with attention, such as curiosity, ex-
citement, expectation, or fear. In pedagogy, this is called motiva-
tion.
• Avoid mental overload.
• Determine your best learning times. Do not leave your learn-
ing tasks to the last minute.
• Minimise distractions and establish your priorities.
• Pay attention to important information, and think about why
this information is important.
Improve perception
Human perception is only sensitive to changes in stimulation.
You actually perceive less than all you see and hear, and much of
the information is never used. At the same time, you perceive
more than you see and hear. You believe that you see and hear
things that are not there. Your brain fills in missing information.
Accurate identification can be made from the correct perception
of just a few parts.
• Acknowledge your biases.
• Break large tasks into smaller ones. Summarise information.
• Make sure that you understand the problem at hand.
• Read pictures and captions carefully.
• Seek out additional information.
Improve processing
Information is converted into experiences and insights that are
converted into knowledge. We need to understand the function
of both our short-term memory and our long-term memory.
There are special learning techniques.
Short-term memory
• Make notes.
• Organise information into larger units.
225
• Put essential information in long-term memory as soon as
possible.
• Rehearse information.
Long-term memory
• Learn and store information in a meaningful and organised
way.
• Place realistic expectations on yourself. Reward yourself.
• Relate new information to what you already know.
• Use learning techniques.
• Work mentally with new information. Review and reflect.
Learning techniques
• Imagine that your brain-cells are organised like trees, storing
related information on its branches.
• Put related points on the same main branches, like sub-
branches.
• Record a word or a symbol for each point you want to recall.
• Start with the central topic in the centre of the page. Draw
branches spreading out from it.
• Try arranging key points of any topic on a sheet of white paper
in the same tree-like format.
• Use coloured pencils or markers for related topics.
Improve application
It is important to use new knowledge. We will remember relevant
and meaningful information if we have use for it. The usefulness
of conclusions made by other people is limited. We must gain
confirmation through our own experiences. The information
must be internalised. Here are guidelines for application of in-
formation.
• Add new knowledge when necessary.
• Apply new knowledge to various situations.
• Apply the Japanese concept “kaizen,” continuous improve-
ment.
• Convert new knowledge into skills and attitudes.
226
• Practice and use new knowledge as soon as possible.
• Teach others.
Improve your reading skills
There is no doubt that we learn a great deal from reading. Here
are some guidelines you can use for improving your reading
skills. These ten simple guidelines are based on the so called
PQRST-method (Preview, Question, Read, Self-recitation, and
Test). This method is intended to improve students’ abilities to
study and remember material presented in their textbooks.
• Add structure to the text. Summarise the text with keywords
and notes. Add missing information.
• Be an active, and not a passive, reader.
• Read the text and find answers to the questions: How? What?
When? Where? Who? Why?
• Get several opinions. Read about the same topic in different
books. Use your new knowledge and compare different views.
• Increase your vocabulary. Learn the relevant terminology.
• Look for usable information. Preview the chapter at hand to
get an idea of its topics and sections. Read the chapter out-
lines, the section headings, and the summary.
• Relearn how to read efficiently.
• Skim the text with a pencil at hand. Read the pictures and
captions. Mark keywords and make notes of important mes-
sages. Read the important sections. Look for relationships
and conclusions.
• Test the result of your learning. Rehearsal improves your
memory. Read keywords and notes. It is a good idea to repeat
this after a day, after a week, and after a month. Compare your
new knowledge with your own experience.
• The optimum time for learning from reading seems to be 20-
40 minutes. Do not spend too much time. Take a break.
227
Improve your listening skills
Listening requires concentration.
• Analyse the structure of the presentation.
• Ask the presenter for explanations when needed.
• Be an active rather than a passive, listener.
• Distinguish between relevant and irrelevant information.
Facilitating theory for ID
There are numerous competing and complex theories of learn-
ing, memory, and knowledge. There seems to be an (ever) on-
going debate, and there are many different views. Acquisition of
knowledge involves complex cognitive processes, such as atten-
tion, perception and learning. These processes are influenced by
our earlier experiences and our memories. Groups of brain cells
are activated and associate to each other. Information is con-
verted into experience and insight.
Every information designer needs to facilitate attention,
perception, learning, processing, and memory of all the messages
provided in layouts, pictures, and texts in information materials.
Every intended audience must be able to notice their messages,
and then be able to mentally process important data. It is very
important to have clear objectives.
The facilitating theory for ID includes, but is not limited to,
the following four fields of knowledge: attention theories, per-
ception theories, processing theories, and practical application
theories.
Attention theories includes two areas of knowledge: capacity
theories (with filter theory, pertinent stimuli theory, and pre-at-
tentive processing theory), and resource models.
Perception theories includes four areas of knowledge: clarity
theory, figure and ground theory, gestalt theories, and affordance
theories.
228
Processing theories includes four areas of knowledge: schema
theory, constructivist learning theory, action theory, and dual
coding theory.
ID Library. Other books in my ID Library, such as Text Design,
Image Design, and Graphic Design includes texts about practi-
cal application theories.
The facilitating theory for ID contributes to information design
with valuable facts, practices, principles, and theoretical ap-
proaches. Here are some points from the facilitating theory.
• A presentation may hold the viewer’s attention when the
rhythm, layout, and pace are not predictable and too boring.
• Close coordination between audio and video improves
memory and understanding.
• Contradictory messages often create more confusion than
they provide help.
• Designers need to help students to construct their own mean-
ing instead of structuring it for them.
• Graphic form, pictures, sound, and words compete for our at-
tention.
• Headings with bold and bright colours will get attention.
• Illustrations should always be presented in close connection
to the discussion in the text.
• In graphic design of screen displays, physical affordances
play only a minor role, so other principles must be invoked.
• Information materials must get attention, and constantly re-
draw the attention in order to hold the interest of the viewers
alive.
• Metaphors can aid screen design.
• Multimedia presentations should not contain too much extra-
neous information in the form of sounds or words.
• New information is mentally integrated into an existing body
of knowledge.
• Our memory for pictures is superior to our memory for
words.
229
• Perception entails fast, holistic, parallel, and simultaneous
processing.
• Pictures must always be explained in information and learn-
ing materials.
• Pictures of the human figure, in particular pictures of the face,
get attention.
• Texts with good typography will be noticed in a positive way.
• The closure principle is based on our tendency to perceive
complete figures.
• The common fate principle is based on our tendency to per-
ceive objects that move together in the same direction as col-
lective entities.
• The continuity principle is based on our tendency to perceive
a slow and gradual change in a stimulus as one stimulus.
• The contrast principle is based on our tendency to array im-
pressions that form natural opposites in groups, and reinforc-
ing one another.
• The good form principle is based on our tendency to percep-
tually group elements together if they form a pattern that is
orderly, regular, and simple.
• The grouping principle is based on our tendency to perceive
small elements that are arranged in groups as larger forms.
• The information designer needs to know the audience.
• The interplay between text, visuals, and graphic form needs
to be studied and tested thoroughly before optimal combina-
tions can be found.
• The main goal in information design is clarity of communica-
tion.
• The objective set principle is based on our tendency perceive
some phenomena more strongly than others.
• The proximity principle is based on our tendency to percep-
tually group events, objects, and units on the basis of their
proximity to one another.
• The similarity principle is based on our tendency to perceive
and group our impressions on the basis of their similarity.
230
• There is a difference between what individuals think and what
they do.
• Usually receivers are capable of interpreting far more content
in a given picture than the designer had in mind.
• We are not able to attend to more than one stimulus at a time.
• Words, such as “click here,” can describe desired actions in
screen design.
231
ID Library
At the beginning of this millennium there was a huge lack of text-
books for the new academic discipline Information Design. At
that time, I wrote some research papers, and also some basic
texts about communication, design, and information. Already in
2002 John Benjamins Publishing Company published my book
Information Design, An introduction in Amsterdam and Phila-
delphia. This was useful, but it was not enough. Of course, also,
other people contributed with research papers, and after some
time also with textbooks.
Since I retired, 1 January 2009, I have continued working
with research at the Institute for Infology. I have developed an
Information Design Library with 12 e-books. These e-books in-
clude more than 4 000 pages, and together they constitute my
digital Information Design Library, something I really wanted
to have for my own teaching many years ago.
• Message Design.
• ID Theories.
• Text Design.
• Image Design.
• Using Images.
• Reuse in Art and Design.
• Graphic Design.
• Cognition.
• Learning.
• Predecessors and Pioneers.
• It Depends.
• ID Concepts.
All these books are available at ResearchGate at:
< https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rune_Pettersson >
232
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Appendix: Main concepts
Many concepts may have diffused and sometimes even multiple
meanings. For the purpose of this book I have used the following
brief descriptions of main concepts related to languages and text
design. Here these concepts are sorted in alphabetical order:
Affordance is the possibility to perform an action on an object
or environment. The handle on a teacup provides an “affordance
for holding it”.
Amygdala in the brain is involved in the regulation of higher-
order motivational states.
Anomalies of colour vision, colour blindness, is a condition
in which certain colour distinctions cannot be made, with esti-
mates ranging as high as 10% of the male population. Only 1% of
the female population has abnormal colour vision. Failure to dis-
tinguish between red and green is the most common problem.
Application of knowledge. After attention, perception, and
processing of information we apply our new knowledge and test
it in different applications for confirmation.
Assign meaning. People do not derive the same information
from things they hear, read, or see. The meaning of any language,
verbal or visual, is not only resident in words or pictures but in
ourselves.
Associations. A text and a picture will give rise to many indi-
vidual associations and interpretations.
Associative perception. The reader ignores variation on one
visual dimension when reading a picture.
Attention is direct, distinct, and sudden. There are always far
more stimuli than we can ever notice at any given situation.
Attention time span is the length of time a subject can focus
on an object or a topic. Our attention will usually not last for long.
272
Auditory principles. Some visual Gestalt principles also apply
in the acoustic domain. Silence or background noise, interrupted
by a loud sound, followed again by silence or noise, is an auditory
analogue of a figure on a ground.
Auditory threshold is the lowest sound intensity we are capa-
ble of perceiving.
Aural perspectives. The ear is efficient in receiving and local-
izing sound within our environment. Our ears bring us a world of
sound that has depth and distance.
Behaviourist theory. See Conditioning.
Beta movement is an optical illusion, where fixed images seem
to be moving.
Brain. A brain is hierarchically arranged. The higher region of
the brain consists of the cerebral hemispheres, with structures as
the basal ganglia, the hippocampus, and the amygdala.
Brain capacity. Our brains have 100 billion brain cells (neu-
rons) and 900 billion supporting glia cells. Each neuron may be
connected to other brain cells via more than 20,000 synapses.
Brain halves. In accordance with some theories, the two halves
of the brain are apparently specialized and function inde-
pendently of one another. At the same time, however, either of
the brain halves appears to be capable of assuming the functions
of the other half.
Brain research. The modern era of brain research began in the
mid 1960’s. Research suggests that brain cells can regenerate and
that nerve cells can grow again.
Brain stem is the lower region of the brain. It consists of four
parts: the medulla oblongata, the pons, the cerebellum and the
midbrain.
Broca’s area is an anterior zone in the left frontal cortex. The
functions regulate articulation of speech.
273
Cerebellum in the brain stem, the lower region of the brain,
regulates the fine control of timing in movement and perception.
Cerebral cortex is the top layer of the brain. This is the main
region for complex thought and other intellectual functions.
Closure principle, law of closure, natural law, and theory of
closure, is based on our tendency to mentally see complete fig-
ures even when the stimuli is incomplete.
Cognition is a mental processing model used in cognitive psy-
chology. Our working memory is limited to five to seven “chunks”
of information. Our attention must frequently be refreshed, and
recalling information requires more cognitive effort than recog-
nizing information.
Cognitive development takes place along with remarkable
neurological, physical, and perceptual changes during the first
years of life. Learner characteristics, such as age, etc. affect learn-
ing abilities and learning skills.
Cognitive load, the amount of mental demand on our working
memory at a given moment.
Cognitive principles denote one of the four groups of message
design principles; facilitating attention, facilitating perception,
facilitating processing, and facilitating memory
Cognitive resources are limited. Resource models explain the
effects of structural alteration and time sharing.
Cognitive science is the multidisciplinary scientific study of
the mind and its processes. It examines cognition.
Cognitive style describes a learner’s typical modes of perceiv-
ing, thinking, problem solving, and remembering of information.
Cognitive use of colour. Colour in a visual is important when
it carries information that is vital to the contents in the visual.
Colour and associations. Yellow, orange, and red hues are
perceived as warm and active. Red evokes feelings of strong
274
emotions. Violet, blue, and blue-green are perceived as cool and
passive hues.
Colour perception. We can see the difference between several
million colours. We can distinguish about 10,000 different col-
ours, and only about seven colours in the same field of view.
Common fate principle, law of common fate, says that ele-
ments that move in the same direction belong together.
Common region principle, principle of closed forms, princi-
ple of boundary, says that we group elements that are enclosed
by a boundary.
Comprehension fluency is the degree to which one under-
stands metaphorical information efficiently.
Conditioning. We learn to act in acceptable ways by being
praised and rewarded when we do good things and by praise be-
ing withheld when we do not. There are two traditions within be-
haviourism: Classical conditioning and Operant conditioning.
Continuity principle, law of continuity, law of good continu-
ation, line of direction, principle of good continuation, and the-
ory of direction. We perceive a gradual change as one stimulus.
Aligned elements are grouped together.
Contrast principle, contrast law. The size of an area, a line, or
a volume is always relative. Our perception of size depends on
our knowledge of surroundings.
Convexity principle, law of convexity, states that convex pat-
terns will be perceived as figures.
Creative processes are influenced by design principles and are
performed with design tools suitable for the type of representa-
tion that has been selected.
Declarative memory, explicit memory, is the memory for
facts, the memory of which we are aware. We know that we have
learned something, and we can discuss this with others.
275
Density. We perceptually group regions of similar elements
density together.
Echoic memory (hearing) is closely related to the sensory
memory. This memory precedes the integration of signals from
various sensory systems.
Episodic memories are memories of specific things we have
done, seen, heard, felt, tasted, and so on.
Experience-dimension is based on the functions of human
perception and our possibilities to experience the contents of the
actual message.
Eye movements. We constantly “scan” the things we look at.
In normal reading in a book, the text within fovea vision com-
prises an area of seven to ten letter spaces.
Facilitating attention. One of the information designer’s first
problems is to catch the attention of the members of the audi-
ence. Then it is up to the designer to hold, or keep, their atten-
tion. Any information material must constantly redraw the at-
tention in order to hold the interest of the viewers alive.
Facilitating learning. Any graphical message should be legi-
ble, readable, and also well worth reading for the intended audi-
ence. Any audial message should be audible, distinct, and also
well worth listening to for the intended audience.
Facilitating mental processing. Design has the capacity to
shape information. In general, information should be as clear,
simple, and unambiguous as possible. However, in any presenta-
tion, information can be enriched with a wealth of details.
Figure-ground perception is a fundamental aspect of field
organization. It is not always referred to as a Gestalt law, rather
as a figure-ground articulation.
Figure-ground principle, figure-ground principle, figure
and background principle, theory of figure and ground. We
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select some elements in a picture as the figure. The remaining
elements constitute the background.
Flicker threshold. A movie film usually uses 24 pictures, and
PAL-television use 25 images per second. This is just below the
so called “flicker threshold” at about 27–28 images per second.
Forgetting is the process through which information in
memory becomes inaccessible, either because the information is
no longer stored or it is stored but is not at that time retrievable.
Fovea is the region of the retina that gives us sharpness of vision.
Frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex in the brain are specialized
for planning and execution of complex activities.
Gestalt is a group of visual elements with properties that cannot
be derived from simple addition of its parts.
Gestalt principles, Gestalt laws, are the basic for syntax in vis-
ual languages. We perceive combinations of groups of elements.
Each Gestalt principle is supposed to function, as long as all other
things are constant.
Gestalt psychology was formed early in the 20th century. The
essential thesis in Gestalt psychology is that in perception the
whole is other than the sum of its parts.
Goodform principle, principle of good form, law of good Ge-
stalt, law of Prägnanz. We perceptually group elements together
if they form a pattern that is orderly, regular, and simple. People
eliminate complexity and unfamiliarity.
Grouping principle, law of grouping. We perceive small ele-
ments in groups as larger forms. Small dots can form a triangle,
a circle, a square, a rectangle etc.
Hearing, auditory perception, audition, is our ability to hear.
We perceive sound by detecting vibrations through the ear. Hear-
ing is one of the traditional five senses.
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Iconic memory (vision) is closely related to the sensory
memory. This memory precedes the integration of signals from
various sensory systems.
Information design. In order to satisfy the information needs
of the intended receivers, information design comprises analysis,
planning, presentation and understanding of a message–its con-
tent, language and form. Regardless of the selected medium, a
well-designed information material will satisfy aesthetic, eco-
nomic, ergonomic, as well as subject matter requirements.
Intelligence. We have at least seven different types of intelli-
gence. Linguistic intelligence and logical-mathematical intelli-
gence are very highly valued in traditional education. Other kinds
are kinaesthetic intelligence or physical intelligence, interper-
sonal intelligence or social intelligence, intrapersonal intelli-
gence or introspective intelligence, musical intelligence, and spa-
tial or visual intelligence.
Just noticeable difference, differential threshold, is the least
possible difference that can be detected between two stimuli.
Kinaesthetic intelligence, physical intelligence, is the ability
to use one’s hands or body.
Kinaesthetic modality. Children with kinaesthetic or tactile
modality, or both, rely very much on their movements and mus-
cular involvement. These children learn by doing and remember
what was done rather than what was seen or heard.
Kinaesthetic projection is a sensory experience stimulated by
bodily movements and projected onto the images we view.
Knowledge. There are numerous competing and complex the-
ories of knowledge. For our purpose knowledge refers to having
facts, information, skills, and understanding of a subject ac-
quired through education, experience, learning, and training.
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Light waves are the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that
contains visible light. The colours, from longest wavelength to
shortest, are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
Long-term memory, LTM, consist of physical changes in the
brain — probably within motor and sensory association contexts.
Macrocognition is the cognitive adaptation to complexity and
the way people actually think in complex and natural settings.
Macrocognitive, MacroCognitive, is cognition performed and
measured in natural instead of laboratory environments.
Memory. There are many models seeking to explain the func-
tion of our memories. Information is processed and remembered
in chunks that are organized hierarchically
Memory for pictures is superior to memory for words. This is
called the “pictorial superiority effect.”
Memory for text is better when content is meaningful. We best
remember what we read at the beginning and at the end of a read-
ing session.
Memory models. A number of theories, describe the transfer
of information through memory. One way of viewing memory
functions is based on information processing in steps, the “infor-
mation processing theory.” Another way is the “dual-coding the-
ory.” In accordance with the “cue information theory,” infor-
mation that is shared between channels facilitates learning.
Modality is a term for concepts in quite different areas such as
cognitive theory, education, educational psychology, learning,
linguistics, medicine, multimedia, music, semiotics, sociology,
theology, transportation, and visual analysis.
Operant conditioning, instrumental conditioning, an organ-
ism learns that a response will be followed by a consequence.
Optic nerve has about one million optic nerve fibres leading
from the ganglion cells in the brain to the eyes.
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Past experience principle, previous experience principle,
law of past experience. New impressions are dependent on and
interpreted against the background of our previous individual
experience, learning and knowledge.
Perception is a collective designation for the different pro-
cesses in which we obtain information about the outside world.
One of the simplest perceptual organizations is that of “figure
and ground.”
Perceptual constancy. We can view a picture, and a text from
in various ways and still get the same perception of the content.
Our minds constantly fill in missing details and complete images,
without our realizing that it has happened.
Pre-understanding is important to our perception of any mes-
sage. The language we choose to use in any given situation is in
itself a device conveying pre-understanding.
Processing fluency is the subjective experience of ease with
which people process of information.
Proximity is visually grouping by similarity in spatial locations.
Reading. Most people read instructional materials selectively.
Usually we use a combination of browsing, reading headings,
looking at illustrations, reading captions, reading certain parts
carefully, skimming others, and avoiding some parts completely.
Reversible is a “Figure/Ground Relationship” in which it is
likely that we can equally focus on figure and on ground.
Schemata theory postulates that we have general knowledge
about different types of text, and different whole impressions of
reality. The schemata that we bring to the fore when we read in-
fluence our deeper understanding of a text.
Similarity is visual grouping of images with similar colour,
shape, and size.
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Size constancy is our tendency to judge sizes as the same de-
spite changes in distance, viewing angle, and illumination.
Spatial intelligence, visual intelligence, is the ability to paint,
take great photographs, and create sculptures. People with visual
intelligence create mental images, use metaphors, and have a
sense of gestalt.
Speaking and writing are influenced by the sender's earlier
observations, and by the terminology and the language he or she
uses.
Tacit knowledge is knowledge that we cannot adequately ar-
ticulate verbally. This kind of knowledge can only be revealed
through practice.
Theory is the branch of art, design or science that deals with
methods, principles, and proposed explanations that are still
subject to experimentation. A theory illustrates how and why
something is as it is.
Vision is our ability to see. The visual system gives us the ability
to interpret the surrounding environment.
