Content uploaded by Robin Holding Kay
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Robin Holding Kay on Mar 28, 2018
Content may be subject to copyright.
Content uploaded by Robin Holding Kay
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Robin Holding Kay on Mar 28, 2018
Content may be subject to copyright.
Content uploaded by Robin Holding Kay
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Robin Holding Kay on Dec 12, 2016
Content may be subject to copyright.
Volume'38(2)' ' Summer/été'2012'
'
Examining!the$Use$of$Worked'Example'Video&Podcasts&in&Middle&School&!
Mathematics*Classrooms:"A"Formative"Analysis!
Étude%sur!l'utilisation*de#podcasts#d’exemples'pratiques*dans!des"classes!de!
mathématiques"à"l'école"secondaire*de*premier*cycle:"une"analyse"formative!
!
Robin&Kay,!University!of!Ontario!Institute!of!Technology!
Jaime&Edwards,!Kawartha!Pine!Ridge!School!Board,!Hampton,!ON!
!
Abstract&
Video podcasts allow students to control when, where, and what they learn, as well as the pace of
learning. Considerable research has been conducted in higher education on video podcast use,
but not in middle schools (grades six to eight). This study investigated the use of worked
example video podcasts in mathematics classrooms with students 11 to 13 years old. One
hundred thirty-six pupils individually watched video podcasts designed to teach basic
mathematics concepts. Students were positive about the quality of worked example video
podcasts and appreciated the step-by-step, easy-to-follow explanations, diagrams, and being able
to control the pace of learning. Learning performance increased significantly after using worked
example video podcasts. There were no gender or grade level differences in attitudes toward
worked example video podcasts or learning performance.
Résumé!
Les podcasts vidéo permettent aux étudiants de contrôler quand, où, et ce qu'ils apprennent, ainsi
que le rythme d'apprentissage. Un grand nombre de recherches ont été menées sur l'utilisation de
podcasts vidéo dans l'enseignement supérieur, mais pas dans les écoles secondaires de premier
cycle (classes de sixième à huitième). Cette étude a examiné l'utilisation des podcasts vidéo
d’exercices pratiques dans des classes de mathématiques avec des élèves de 11 à 13 ans. Cent
trente-six élèves ont regardé individuellement des podcasts vidéo conçus pour enseigner des
concepts mathématiques de base. L’évaluation des élèves a été positives quant à la qualité de
podcasts vidéo et ils ont apprécié les explications par étapes et faciles à suivre, les schémas ainsi
que la possibilité de contrôler le rythme de l'apprentissage. La performance d'apprentissage s’est
améliorée de manière significative après l'utilisation des podcasts vidéo. Il n'y avait de pas de
différence selon le sexe ou le niveau scolaire dans les attitudes envers les podcasts vidéo ou dans
la performance d'apprentissage.
' ' CJLT/RCAT'Vol.'38(3)'
Analyzing'the'use'of'worked'example'video'podcasts'
2
Keywords:"middle school; secondary school; mathematics; video podcasts; online videos;
video clips; impact; learning; attitudes
Mots&clés: école secondaire de premier cycle, enseignement secondaire, mathématiques,
podcast vidéo, vidéos en ligne, clips vidéo, impact, apprentissage, attitudes
Introduction!
Video podcasts are audiovisual files that are shared in a digital format over the Internet using
personal computers or mobile devices (McGarr, 2009). Key benefits of using video podcasts in
educational settings include improved learning and study habits (e.g., Heilesen, 2010; Jarvis &
Dickie, 2009; Leijen, Lam, Wildschut, Simons, & Admiraal, 2009; McCombs & Liu, 2007),
positive student attitudes toward learning (e.g., Dupagne, Millette, & Grinfeder, 2009; Hill &
Nelson, 2011; Vajoczki, Watt, Marquis, & Holshausen, 2010) and increased learning
performance (e.g., Crippen & Earl, 2004; Griffin, Mitchell, & Thompson, 2009; Traphagan,
Kusera, & Kishi, 2010; Vajoczki et al., 2010). However, the main advantage of video podcasts is
student control over when and where they learn (e.g., Hill & Nelson, 2011; Jarvis & Dickie,
2010; Winterbottom, 2007), what they need to learn (e.g., Fill & Ottewill, 2006; Heilesen, 2010),
and the pace of learning (e.g., Chester, Buntine, Hammond, & Atkinson, 2011; Fill & Ottewill,
2006; Griffin et al., 2009).
Worked example video podcasts provide step-by-step explanations of specific procedural
problems. This type of podcast is particularly useful when students are beginning to learn
fundamental concepts. Limited research has been conducted on worked example video podcasts
(Crippen & Earl, 2004; Loomes, Shafarenkob, & Loomes, 2002). The main objective of this
paper is to explore and evaluate the use of worked example video podcasts in middle school
mathematics classrooms.
Literature!Review!
Worked&Example&Video&Podcasts!
Worked example video podcasts provide step-by-step explanations of specific procedural
problems, often found in more formal subject areas such as mathematics or science (Atikinson,
Derry, Renkl, & Wortham, 2000). This form of teaching and learning is becoming more
prevalent in the domain of education as reflected by a recent grant of seven million dollars from
the Gates and O'Sullivan foundations to the Khan Academy (http://www.khanacademy.org), one
of the largest and best known, non-profit depositories of worked example video podcasts
(Watters, 2011). However, based on a detailed review of the research (Kay, 2012), just two peer-
reviewed studies, both targeting higher education students, have examined worked example
video podcasts. Loomes et al. (2002) explored the possible benefits of worked example video
podcasts but did not formally examine their impact on student attitudes or learning. Crippen and
Earl (2004) observed that undergraduate chemistry students had positive attitudes toward worked
example video podcasts and higher test scores.
Worked example video podcasts in mathematics have not been researched in higher education or
middle school environments. Nonetheless, the benefits of using written worked examples are
well established (Atikinson et al., 2000; Clark & Mayer, 2008; Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark,
' ' CJLT/RCAT'Vol.'38(3)'
Analyzing'the'use'of'worked'example'video'podcasts'
3
2006; Renkl, 2005; Zhu & Simon, 1987). One of the main advantages, particularly for novice
learners, is to moderate cognitive load (Kester, Lehnen, Van Gerven, & Kirschner, 2006;
Sweller, 1988; Sweller, van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998). When approaching an unfamiliar
problem, a well-presented worked example can offer sufficient scaffolding to prevent a student
from being cognitively overwhelmed. Ideally, extraneous cognitive load (processes that do not
support learning) is minimized and germane cognitive load (processes that directly support
learning) is maximized. Video podcasts add an additional level of control over cognitive load by
allowing students to stop, rewind, and play explanations when needed.
It could be argued that the use of passively presented worked examples is overshadowed by a
constructive-based approach to learning where students are encouraged to explore in a more
open-ended environment and test "what if" scenarios in order to build knowledge (see Kirschner
et al., 2006 for a review). The constructivist approach is widely embraced by many educational
communities; however, Kirschner et al. (2006) provide substantial evidence that direct
instruction through the use of worked examples is significantly more effective when students
have a limited understanding of concepts to be learned. On the other hand, more knowledgeable
students may not find worked examples especially helpful because explanations are considered
too slow and simple (Clark & Mayer, 2008).
In summary, the use of worked examples is a potentially promising teaching approach to assist
novice learners in understanding and solving procedural-based problems.
Video&Podcasts&in&Middle&Schools!
An extensive review of the research (Kay, 2012) revealed only three peer-reviewed studies
examining the use of video podcasts in middle schools, none of which used a worked example
format. Cihak, Fahrenfrog, Ayres, and Smith (2010) reported, in a small case study, that video
podcasts delivered through a mobile device helped four autistic students develop independent
transition behaviors in school. The results were based on observational data from the researcher
and the classroom teachers. Boster, Meyer, Roberto, Inge, and Strom (2006) observed that third
and eighth grade students who watched social science and science video podcasts scored
significantly higher on tests than their peers who did not watch video podcasts. Finally, in a
follow up study focussing on mathematics, Boster et al., (2007) reported that sixth and eighth
grade students who viewed video podcasts performed significantly better than control groups
who did not view the video podcasts. None of these studies explored student attitudes toward
video podcasts.
Video&Podcasts&?&Higher&Education&
Because research is limited on the use of video podcasts in middle schools, it is necessary to
draw on research conducted in higher education to examine the potential range of benefits that
might emerge. Since 2006, research on the use of video podcasts in colleges and universities has
grown rapidly (e.g., Heilesen, 2010; McGarr, 2009). The majority of studies, though, have
examined video podcasts in the form of lectures or supplementary materials, as opposed to
worked-examples. The research suggests that students find video podcasts enjoyable to watch
(e.g., Winterbottom, 2007); satisfying (e.g., Traphagan et al., 2010); motivating (e.g., Hill &
Nelson, 2011); intellectually stimulating (e.g., Fernandez, Simo, & Sallan, 2009); and useful,
helpful, and effective with respect to improving learning (e.g., Holbrook & Dupont, 2010; Lonn
' ' CJLT/RCAT'Vol.'38(3)'
Analyzing'the'use'of'worked'example'video'podcasts'
4
& Teasley, 2009). Students also appreciate control over when and where they learn (e.g., Hill &
Nelson, 2011; Jarvis & Dickie, 2010), what they need to learn (e.g., Heilesen, 2010), and the
pace of learning (e.g., Chester et al., 2011; Griffin et al., 2009). Finally, the use of video podcasts
has resulted in significant gains in skills (e..g, Alpay & Gulati, 2010; So, Pow, & Hung, 2009),
test scores (e.g., Crippen & Earl, 2004; Traphagan et al., 2010) and grades (Vajoczki et al., 2010;
Wieling & Hoffman, 2010). Regarding gains observed in skills, test scores, and grades, none of
the studies compared the use of video podcasts with other teaching methods. In summary,
previous research in the domain of higher education suggests that video podcasts are readily
accepted by students and have a positive impact on learning. It is unknown whether this pattern
of results is applicable to worked example video podcasts in a middle school milieu.
Individual&Differences&and&Video&Podcasts!
Considerable research has focussed on gender differences and computer-related behavior (see
AAUW, 2000; Barker & Aspray, 2006; Kay 2008; Sanders, 2006 for detailed reviews of the
literature). Overall, there is a repeated pattern of small, but statistically significant differences in
computer attitude, ability, and use that often favours males. Therefore, it is reasonable to
examine gender differences in any new computer-based technology to determine the impact of
potential gender biases. Only two studies have looked at gender differences and the use of video
podcasts. Bolliger, Supanakorn, and Boggs (2010) reported that female higher education students
performed better than male students after using video podcasts. On the other hand, Chester et al.
(2011) observed no significant gender differences with respect to attitudes toward or use of video
podcasts for university students. No studies have looked at gender differences and video podcast
use in middle schools.
A second variable that has received attention is the impact of age on computer related behavior.
Bollinger et al. (2010) observed that graduate students were more motivated to use video
podcasts than junior or senior students. Chester et al. (2011) added that while there were no age
differences in attitudes toward video podcasts, higher education students who viewed video
podcasts were significantly older than students who did not watch them. It is reasonable to
speculate that video podcasts may more effective for older, more mature students who can
handle the responsibility of self-guided learning. Age or grade level and video podcast use has
not been examined to date, so it is unknown whether the results observed in higher education or
with other technologies are applicable to younger students using worked example design.
Purpose&of&the&Study&
The purpose of this study was to evaluate student attitudes and learning performance regarding
the use of worked example video podcasts in middle school mathematics classrooms. Four key
research questions were addressed:
1) What are student attitudes toward worked example video podcasts?;
2) Does learning performance change as a result of using worked example video podcasts?;
3) Are there individual differences in student attitudes towards worked example video
podcasts with respect to gender and grade?; and
' ' CJLT/RCAT'Vol.'38(3)'
Analyzing'the'use'of'worked'example'video'podcasts'
5
4) Are there individual differences in student learning performance with respect to gender
and grade when worked example video podcasts are used?
Method!
Sample&
The student sample was selected from a small community of approximately 85,000 people
located in Ontario, Canada. One hundred thirty-six middle school students (72 boys, 64 girls)
from grades six (n=29), seven (n=47), and eight (n=60), ranging in age from 11 to 13 years,
participated in the study. Data were collected from eight different mathematics classrooms. One
hundred thirty students completed the attitude survey and 136 students participated in pre- and
post-tests.
Video&Podcasts!
Development of video podcasts
An experienced teacher developed three mathematics worked example video podcasts covering
exponents (grade six, 7 min 29 seconds), the circumference of a circle (grade seven, 2 minutes
21 seconds), and multiplying monomials (grade eight, 5 minutes 14 seconds). These problems
were then recorded using a screen capturing program called Camtasia (version 5). Each finished
recording took approximately 15 to 20 minutes to produce. All three worked example video
podcasts were then loaded and organized on the respective course web pages. See Kay (2011) for
links to all three video podcasts used in the study.
Problem Format
Each worked example video podcast had the following features: a clear descriptive title, a short
explanation of the concept being taught, and a series of example problems solved by the teacher
in a step-by-step fashion. Students could control the worked example video podcast with the
pause, stop, or play button as well as a dragging tool that permitted moving to anywhere in the
video podcast.
Design features
When planning and creating the worked example video podcasts, six key features were followed
based on well-researched design principles. First, the problem type was selected and segmented
into clear steps (e.g., Clark & Mayer, 2008; Mayer, 2005) so that the user was not overwhelmed
(Ball & Bass, 2000; Greer, 1997). Second, key elements were written down as needed in order to
reduce the cognitive load of students (e.g., Clark & Mayer, 2008; Kester et al., 2006; Sweller,
1988). Third, clear visuals were used when necessary to illustrate key aspects of problems (e.g.,
Atkinson, Derry, Renkl & Wortham, 2000; Clark & Mayer, 2008; Rittle-Johnson & Koedinger,
2005; Tarmizi & Sweller, 1988). Fourth, important elements were highlighted in order to focus
student attention (e.g., Jeung, Chandler, & Sweller, 1997; Willingham, 2009). Fifth, a relaxed,
conversational, engaging voice was used to create the impression that each student was being
addressed personally (e.g., Atkinson, Mayer, & Merrill, 2005; Clark & Mayer, 2008). Finally,
the length of worked example video podcast was kept to a minimum to address issues of limited
attention span (e.g., Medina, 2008; Renkl, 2005; Tapscott, 2009).
' ' CJLT/RCAT'Vol.'38(3)'
Analyzing'the'use'of'worked'example'video'podcasts'
6
Procedure&
At the beginning of class, students from grades six, seven, and eight completed a pre-test to
assess their knowledge of the concepts being covered by the video podcasts (exponents,
circumference, or multiplying monomials). They then watched their assigned worked example
video podcast for as long as they needed. This process usually took no longer than ten minutes.
After watching the worked example video podcast, each student immediately completed a post-
test (identical to the pre-test) to assess their knowledge of the concept presented to them.
Students were then asked to fill in a survey about their attitudes toward worked example video
podcasts. In order for the data from surveys and pre-post test scores to be included in this study,
students had to return a signed parental consent form. Participation in this study was voluntary,
anonymous, and in no way impacted a student’s grade. The survey questions about worked
example video podcasts are presented in Appendix A.
Data&Sources!
Background information
Students were asked their gender and grade. More detailed information was not collected in
order to preserve the anonymity of the students.
Survey Data
Students were requested to fill in a 17 item, five-point Likert scale, assessing overall attitude (1
item), quality of explanation (5 items), learning features (3 items), pace of learning (3 items),
engagement (2 items), and potential purpose for using worked example video podcasts in the
future (3 items). The internal reliability of the entire scale was 0.84. However, because this is
considered a formative study, all items in the scale were analysed individually in order to gain
further insights into the use of worked example video podcasts in middle schools.
Open-ended response question
Students were asked one question about whether they thought they could learn from worked
example video podcasts. These qualitative comments were reviewed and categorized by theme.
The coding scheme is presented in Appendix B.
Performance
Students were given identical pre- and post-tests targeting the concept addressed in the video
podcast for each grade (exponents, circumference, and multiplying monomials). Differences
between pre- and post-scores were used to measure learning performance. Note that the study
was not designed to compare the use of worked example video podcasts with any other method
of teaching. Rather, the assessment of learning performance was used to determine if viewing
worked example video podcasts had a significant impact on short-term learning.
Results!
Attitudes&Toward&Video&Podcasts!
Explanations
' ' CJLT/RCAT'Vol.'38(3)'
Analyzing'the'use'of'worked'example'video'podcasts'
7
Eighty-percent of the students agreed or strongly agreed that the worked example video podcasts
were easy to follow with problems that were well explained in a clear, step-by-step manner. The
majority of students (79%) also believed the worked example video podcasts helped them
understand the problem or concepts better. Some students were confused by some of the steps
presented (18%), although 60% of the students experienced no confusion (Table 1).
Learning features
Almost 70% percent of the students agreed or strongly agreed that the writing on the worked
example video podcasts was clear. Over 70% of the students agreed or strongly agreed that
diagrams or pictures presented in the worked example video podcasts helped them understand
better. Finally, just over half the students agreed or strongly agreed that good tips were provided
to help solve the problems in the worked example video podcasts (Table 1).
Table 1: Middle School Students Attitudes Toward Video Podcasts (n=130)
Item
Mean
SD
Disagree1
Agree2
Overall
1. Overall, I liked using the clip
4.03
(1.00)
8%
77%
Explanation
2. The clip was easy to follow.
4.10
(0.92)
5%
80%
3. The problem was explained well.
4.06
(0.95)
8%
80%
4. All steps were explained clearly.
4.08
(0.97)
7%
78%
5. I was confused by some steps.
2.27
(1.22)
60%
18%
6. This clip helped me understand.
4.15
(0.95)
6%
79%
Learning Features
7. Writing in the clips was easy to read.
3.88
(0.99)
11%
68%
8. Diagrams helped me understand.
4.02
(0.97)
8%
72%
9. Good tips were provided.
3.55
(1.01)
12%
52%
Pace
10. The clip was too long.
2.62
(1.16)
45%
21%
11. The clip went too fast for me.
1.97
(1.06)
72%
9%
12. I used pause feature to stop the clip.
1.48
(1.00)
88%
8%
Engagement
13. The clip was boring.
3.21
(1.22)
29%
41%
14. Like better than using a textbook.
4.42
(0.98)
6%
86%
Future Purpose
15. Clips would be helpful for homework
3.53
(1.31)
19%
57%
16. I would use this clip to review for tests.
3.61
(1.26)
17%
58%
17. Clips would be helpful for extra help.
3.28
(1.27)
26%
45%
1 Both Disagree and Strongly Disagree
2 Both Agree and Strongly Agree
' ' CJLT/RCAT'Vol.'38(3)'
Analyzing'the'use'of'worked'example'video'podcasts'
8
Pace
Most students were comfortable with the length of the worked example video podcasts; however,
20% percent agreed or strongly agreed that they were too long. Over 70% of the students agreed
or strongly agreed that the worked example video podcasts were not too fast. Finally, less than
10% of the students used the pause feature while they watched the worked example video
podcast (Table 1).
Engagement
Forty-one percent of the students agreed or strongly agreed that the worked example video
podcasts were boring, 29% thought they were not boring, and 30% were neutral. Almost 90% of
the students agreed or strongly agreed that watching the worked example video podcasts was
better than using the textbook (Table 1).
Future use
Almost 60% of the students agreed or strongly agreed that the worked example video podcasts
would be helpful for homework or reviewing for tests. Forty-five percent of the students agreed
or strongly agreed that the worked example video podcasts would be useful when they needed
extra help and did not have time to meet the teacher (Table 1).
Learning&Performance&and&Video&Podcasts&
Independent t-tests, run using SPSS 19.0, revealed that learning performance scores increased
significantly for grade six (p < .001), seven (p < .001), and eight (p < .001) students. The average
percent increase for all three grades was 66%. The effect sizes for these gains, based on Cohen's
d, are considered large for all three grades, with changes ranging from two to three standard
deviations (Cohen, 1988, 1992) (Table 2).
Table 2: Pre vs. Post Mathematics Test Scores with Worked Example Video Podcasts
Topic
Pre VP
Mean % (SD)
Post VP
Mean % (SD)
% Chg
Sig. of
t value
Cohen’s d
Grade 6 (n=29)
23.4 (30.2)
84.0 (17.9)
60.6
10.9 *
2.44
Grade 7 (n=47)
17.0 (24.5)
85.1 (22.5)
68.1
15.9 *
2.90
Grade 8 (n=60)
4.1 (12.0)
71.7 (29.5)
67.6
17.9 *
3.00
Total (n=136)
12.7 (22.8)
79.0 (25.7)
66.3
26.3*
2.72
* p < .001
Perceived&Learning&Benefits&and&Challenges&of&Using&Video&Podcast&
Students offered 129 comments about the learning potential of worked example video podcasts.
Almost 90% (n=114) of the comments were positive, five percent were neutral (n=7), and six
percent (n=8) were negative. Five themes emerged from the content analysis including general
comments, learning, comparisons with other methods of teaching, getting support, and
engagement. Each of these will be discussed in turn.
General comments
' ' CJLT/RCAT'Vol.'38(3)'
Analyzing'the'use'of'worked'example'video'podcasts'
9
Based on the survey data, almost 80% of the students liked using worked example video
podcasts (Table 2). Student comments about the general impact of worked example video
podcasts were consistent with this rating. Almost 30% of all comments (n=35) indicated that
students thought worked example video podcasts were useful and helped them understand
concepts better. Sample comments included:
“I actually knew what to do after [the video podcast] was done.”
“Before I didn't know how to do it at all, but now it is easy.”
“The clip helped me learn something I didn't know before.”
Only one student made a negative comment, stating that the worked example video podcast “was
not really [helpful], [but] it was a lot more fun to go through.”
Learning
The largest content category was learning comprising over 45% (n=59) of all student comments.
Students focussed primarily on explanations provided in the worked example video podcasts
(n=42). Typical comments were:
“The clip was explained well.”
“Yes, this clip would help me to learn because it was clear, explained well and
showed you each step.”
“The person explaining was thorough.”
Only one student offered a negative comment about learning explanations, noting that the
worked example video podcast was “confusing and didn't completely explain [the concept].”
Some students also commented on the pace of learning (n=8) appreciating that the instructor took
her time when explaining the problem (e.g., “[It moved] slowly and [was] easy to follow,” “The
person took her time.”). One student noted that the worked example video podcast “could have
gone slower.”
Several students (n=5) commented that the visual representations in the worked example video
podcasts were helpful (e.g., “There are pictures to help.”, “It is easier to learn visually.”, “The
moving diagram ... guided me through the problem.”). Two students added that they liked being
able to control the flow of learning (e.g., “You can control if you want to stop and go back to
something.”). Finally, a couple of students remarked on the quality and quantity of examples
(e.g., “[The video podcast] does more than one [example]. It goes from easy to medium to
hard.”, “It has very clear examples.”)
Compare
A number of students compared the use of worked example video podcasts to other methods of
teaching (n=20, 16% of all comments). Some students (n=11) felt that using worked example
video podcasts was better than learning in the classroom because there were fewer interruptions,
teachers did not always have the time to explain concepts clearly, and sometimes they were
reluctant to ask questions. Here are some representative comments:
' ' CJLT/RCAT'Vol.'38(3)'
Analyzing'the'use'of'worked'example'video'podcasts'
10
“During lessons there are always interruptions, so it is hard to follow.”
“The teacher doesn't always have time to explain every single thing.”
“Some people may be afraid to ask the teacher for help and this way they will get
the help that they need.”
“It is more fun than hearing a teacher talk.”
Others students (n=8) commented that they preferred using worked example video podcasts over
working through textbooks. Sample comments included:
“[Video podcasts are] easier to understand than the textbook.”
“Yes [video podcasts] definitely would help me because ... the textbook rarely
helps me.”
“It would take me longer if I used a textbook.”
Support
Several students (n=8) viewed worked example video podcasts as a good support or backup tool
when they missed a few steps in class or an entire lesson, forgot what the teacher explained, got
stuck on a particular question, did not have time to meet the teacher, were working at home, or
needed to review for a test. Sample comments are:
“Yes [video podcasts] would [help] because sometimes I miss a few steps in
class."
“[Video podcasts] would help if you missed a lesson and needed to catch up.”
“Yes [video podcasts] would really help me a lot because if I am at home I can
get help.”
“Yes [video podcasts] definitely would help me because I don't have extra time
for help with teachers.”
“I think [video podcasts] could come in handy for studying for a test.”
Engagement
Six students commented on the engagement value of worked example video podcasts. Four
students felt they were more fun (e.g., “[Video podcasts are] fun and interactive.”, “[Video
podcasts] were a lot more fun.”) and two students thought they were boring.
Individual&Differences&in&Attitudes&Toward&Video&Podcasts&
Gender
To assess gender differences in attitudes toward video podcasts, a MANOVA (using SPSS 19.0)
was conducted using the 17 attitude scale items (Appendix A). Based on Hotelling's t (ns), no
significant differences were observed between boys' and girls' attitudes toward video podcasts.
Grade level
To assess differences among the three grade levels (six, seven, and eight) in attitudes toward
video podcasts, a MANOVA (using SPSS 19.0) was conducted with the 17 attitude scale items
' ' CJLT/RCAT'Vol.'38(3)'
Analyzing'the'use'of'worked'example'video'podcasts'
11
(Appendix A). Based on Hotelling's t (ns), no significant differences were found among grade
levels and attitudes toward video podcasts.
Individual&Differences&in&Learning&Performance&and&Video&Podcasts&
Gender
An independent t-test (using SPSS 19.0) comparing change in learning performance scores
between boys (M=63.0, SD = 32.8) and girls (M=70.0, SD = 24.6) revealed no significant
differences (t=1.40, df=134).
Grade level
A one-way ANOVA (using SPSS 19.0) comparing change in learning performance scores
between grades six (M=60.6, SD = 29.8), seven (M=68.1, SD = 29.4), and eight (M=67.6, SD =
29.3) revealed no significant differences (F=0.68, df=2,133).
Discussion!
Student&Attitudes&Toward&Video&Podcasts!
Middle school students in this study had positive attitudes toward worked example video
podcasts used to teach mathematical concepts. Both survey data and open ended responses
indicated that they particularly appreciated the quality of explanations presented noting that they
were easy to follow, clear, and helpful. These findings are consistent with those observed in
higher education (e.g., Holbrook & Dupont, 2010; Lonn & Teasley, 2009). They may also reflect
the design decision strategy used in this study as suggested by Clark and Meyer (2008), namely
to break down problems into clear steps so that students are not cognitively overwhelmed.
Student ratings and comments also suggested that key learning features such as clear writing and
the use of visual aids were helpful. While not directly tested, the results indirectly support the
worked example video podcast design followed in this study: clear writing of key elements to
reduce cognitive load (e.g., Kester et al., 2006; Sweller, 2003), using clear visuals to illustrate
important concepts (Clark & Meyer, 2008), and highlighting to focus student attention (e.g.,
Willingham, 2009).
Based on survey data and comments, most middle school students thought the length and pace of
the worked example video podcasts were appropriate. This finding is consistent with research
suggesting that video podcasts should be concise in order to address students' limited attention
span (e.g., Medina, 2008; Tapscott, 2009). However, twenty percent of the middle school
students felt the worked example video podcasts were too long. This finding could be explained
by cognitive load theory (e.g., Kester et al., 2006; Sweller, 1988; Sweller et al., 1998) and the
limitations of worked examples when used with more experienced students. Pre-test scores were
quite low (Table 2) indicating that most students were novices with respect to the concepts being
taught and would respond better to a slower, detailed explanation. However, more
knowledgeable students may have been frustrated by the slower pace and rated video podcasts as
being too long.
' ' CJLT/RCAT'Vol.'38(3)'
Analyzing'the'use'of'worked'example'video'podcasts'
12
Somewhat surprisingly, less than 10% of the students used the pause button to control the pace
of learning. In addition, only two students commented that they liked being able to go back and
review parts of the worked example video podcast. Previous research in higher education
suggested that students like to control the pace of learning (e.g., Chester et al., 2011; Griffin et
al., 2009). One possible explanation is that the pace of learning for worked example video
podcasts in the current study matched most students’ comprehension levels and therefore it was
not necessary to stop and review misunderstood material. Future research is needed, perhaps in
the form of focus groups or interview data, in order to understand control over worked example
video podcasts for middle school students.
The majority of students rated worked example video podcasts as either neutral or boring in
terms of engagement. Only a handful of students made comments about the worked example
video podcasts being fun and enjoyable. This finding is somewhat contradictory to previous
research on video podcast use in higher education classrooms where students viewed them as
enjoyable to watch, satisfying, motivating, and intellectually stimulating (e.g., Fernandez et al.,
2009; Hill & Nelson, 2011; Traphagan et al., 2010; Winterbottom, 2007). On the other hand,
given the range and variety of technological toys available to today's students, worked example
video podcasts of mathematical explanations would probably be considered less engaging.
On average, almost 60% of middle school students agreed or strongly agreed that worked
example video podcasts would help them with homework or to review for tests. Almost half the
students thought the worked example video podcasts would be helpful when they did not have
time to see the teacher for extra help. These expectations are consistent with previous
experiences of higher education students and the use of video podcasts outside the classroom
(e.g., Holbrook & Dupont, 2010; Lonn & Teasley, 2009).
In summary, previous research has not examined middle school students' attitudes toward
worked example video podcasts. The results in the current study strongly suggest that students
appreciate good explanations, careful pacing, and memory aids such as clear writing and
diagrams. They also view worked example video podcasts as potentially useful supports outside
the classroom.
Learning&Performance&and&Video&Podcasts&
The results of this study indicate that the worked example video podcasts had a significant
statistical and practical impact on middle school students’ short-term learning performance for
three mathematical concepts. Students had very little knowledge of the concept being taught with
a mean pre-score of 12 percent. After they watched the worked example video podcasts, their
test scores increased by more than 65%. This sizeable gain can be largely attributed to the use of
video podcasts as no other intervention or stimulus was used. It is possible that the priming effect
of completing a pre-test could have contributed to increases in post-test scores. However, since
pre-test scores were so low, it is unlikely that students understood the pre-test problems well
enough to boost performance in the post-test.
Improvement in performance is consistent with gains observed in previous research studies for
middle school (e.g., Boster et al., 2006, 2007; Cihak et al., 2010) and higher education
environments (Alpay & Gulati, 2010; Crippen & Earl, 2004; So et al., 2009; Traphagan et al.,
2010; Vajoczki et al., 2010; Wieling & Hoffman, 2010). It is important to recognize that this
' ' CJLT/RCAT'Vol.'38(3)'
Analyzing'the'use'of'worked'example'video'podcasts'
13
study makes no claim that video podcasts work better than other forms of teaching. The primary
conclusion is that worked example video podcasts were effective in helping middle school
students learn how to solve procedural mathematics problems.
Individual&Differences&and&Video&Podcasts&
Previous research on differences between males and females and video podcast behavior was
mixed with one study reporting significant learning performance gains in favour of females
(Bolliger et al., 2010) and another study reporting no gender differences in attitude and use
(Chester et al., 2011). However, research on gender differences in the use of technology in
general (e.g., AAUW, 2000; Barker & Aspray, 2006; Kay 2008; Sanders, 2006) suggested that
males might respond more positively to video podcasts. The current study found no significant
differences between boys and girls with respect to either attitudes about worked example video
podcasts or learning performance. Worked example mathematics video podcasts used in this
study were essentially gender neutral. It is difficult to speculate why gender differences occur in
some studies and not in others. Future research needs to investigate this issue more deeply,
perhaps with the use of post-task interviews, to come up with a reasonable explanation.
Two recent studies suggested that older university students appreciated and were more motivated
to use video podcasts that their younger counterparts (Bolliger et al., 2010; Chester et al., 2011).
Results from the current study indicated that their were no significant differences in attitudes and
learning performance among grade levels when worked example video podcasts were used. It is
possible that the age range covered in this study (11 to 13 years olds) was too narrow to
differentiate affective and cognitive responses to video podcasts. One can only conclude that
video podcasts appear to be equally accepted and useful in grade six, seven, and eight
classrooms.
Educational&Implications&
The current study is a formative effort to investigate the use of worked example video podcasts
with middle school students, so it would be premature to make strong recommendations for
educators wanting to use this medium. However, there are several suggestions that might prove
useful to future designers and users of worked example video podcasts for middle school
classrooms. First, clear, slow, step-by-step explanations are greatly appreciated by students at
this age level, particularly when new concepts presented. Second, students also like clear writing
and visuals that support the learning process. Third, short-term learning performance can
increase markedly after watching worked example video podcasts, so using these tools for
homework, review of concepts, missed classes, and test preparation is a promising potential
option. Finally, students who struggle with other teaching methods such a using a textbook or
listening to a teacher in a large class where there can be many distractions, may benefit from
listening to worked example video podcasts inside or outside of class.
Limitations&and&Future&Research!
This study explored the use of worked example video podcasts to teach mathematics concepts in
middle school classrooms. Efforts were made to ensure the quality of the analysis by providing a
detailed description of the worked example video podcasts used, collecting data from a
moderately large sample, and employing multiple data collection tools. Nonetheless, several
' ' CJLT/RCAT'Vol.'38(3)'
Analyzing'the'use'of'worked'example'video'podcasts'
14
limitations need to be addressed to augment future research in this area. First, student behaviors
while using worked example video podcasts were not investigated explicitly. Think-aloud
protocols, interviews, or focus groups with a smaller sample of middle school students would be
useful to understand patterns of worked example video podcast use and specific design features
that might inhibit and enhance learning. Second, since this study was a formative analysis, the
reliability and validity of the survey instruments were not provided. Survey items focussing on
student attitudes toward worked example video podcasts need to be further refined and
developed. Third, only three worked example video podcasts were used. A broader range of
concepts needs to be examined in order to firmly establish the potential benefits of using this
type of podcast. Fourth, the design and presentation characteristics of video podcasts were not
examined. For example, it is reasonable to assume that factors such length of podcast, language
difficulty, pace, choice of examples, and explanation strategy could have a marked effect on the
impact of a video podcasts. Future research needs to explore the impact of these qualities. Fifth,
the sample size was moderate and more students need to be assessed to establish whether the
findings are robust. Sixth, there may have been a priming effect of completing a pre-test that
contributed to gains in post-test scores. Future researchers might consider using parallel but not
identical pre-post tests. Finally, this study looked at short-term use of worked example video
podcasts. Examining learning performance and attitudes with respect to video podcasts over a
three month term or a year, would provide a more realistic perspective on the impact of these
tools.
Summary&
The effectiveness of written worked examples has been well established in the literature;
however, this approach has yet to be assessed when communicated in the form of video podcasts.
The purpose of this study was to examine student attitudes and learning performance when
worked example video podcasts were used in middle school mathematics classrooms. Students
were positive about step-by-step explanations that were easy to follow and taught at the right
pace. They also appreciated clear writing and helpful diagrams to support learning. While some
students thought the video podcasts were boring, most felt that they were better than using a
textbook. Learning performance increased significantly as a direct result of using worked
example video podcasts. Students thought that worked example video podcasts could be useful
for homework, getting extra help when they could not meet the teacher face-to-face, and test
preparation. Future research needs to look at a wider range of worked example video podcasts in
more depth over a longer time period.
!
References!
Alpay, E., & Gulati, S. (2010). Student-led podcasting for engineering education. European
Journal of Engineering Education, 35(4), 415-427. doi: 10.1080/03043797.2010.487557
American Association of University Women (AAUW). (2000). Tech-Savvy: Educating girls in
the new computer age. Washington, DC: American Association of University Women
Foundation. Retrieved from
http://www.aauw.org/member_center/publications/TechSavvy/TechSavvy.pdf.
' ' CJLT/RCAT'Vol.'38(3)'
Analyzing'the'use'of'worked'example'video'podcasts'
15
Atkinson, R. K., Derry, S. J., Renkl, A., & Wortham, D. (2000). Learning from examples:
Instructional principles from the worked examples research. Review of Educational
Research, 70(2), 181-214. doi:10.3102/00346543070002181
Atikinson, R. K., Mayer, R. E., & Merrill, M. M. (2005). Fostering social agency in multimedia
learning: Examining the impact of an animated agent's voice. Contemporary Educational
Psychology, 30(1), 117-139. doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2004.07.001
Ball, D. L., & Bass, H. (2000). Interweaving content and pedagogy in teaching and learning to
teach: Knowing and using mathematics. In J. Boaler (Ed.), Multiple perspectives on the
teaching and learning of mathematics (pp. 83-104). Westport, CT: Ablex.
Barker, L. J., & Aspray, W. (2006). The state of research on girls and IT. In J. M. Cohoon & W.
Aspray (Eds.), Women and information technology (pp. 3-54). Cambridge, MA: The MIT
Press.
Bolliger, D., Supanakorn, S., & Boggs , C. (2010). Impact of podcasting on student motivation in
the online learning environment. Computers & Educations, 55(2), 734-722.
doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.03.004
Boster, F. J., Meyer, G. S., Roberto, A. J., Inge, C., & Strom, R. (2006). Some effects of video
streaming on educational achievement. Communication Education, 55(1), 46-62. doi:
10.1080/03634520500343392
Boster, F. J., Meyer, G. S., Roberto, A. J., Lindsey, L, Smith, R., Inge, C., & Strom, R. (2007).
Some effects of video streaming on educational achievement. Communication Education,
56(2), 134-144. doi: 10.1080/03634520601071801
Chester, A., Buntine, A., Hammond, K., & Atkinson, L. (2011). Podcasting in education: Student
attitudes, behavior and self- efficacy. Educational Technology & Society, 14(2), 236–247.
Cihak, D., Fahrenkrog, C., Ayres, K. M., & Smith, C. (2010). The use of video modeling via a
video iPod and a system of least prompts to improve transitional behaviors for students
with autism spectrum disorders in the general education classroom. Journal of Positive
Behavior Interventions, 12(2), 103-115. doi: 10.1177/1098300709332346
Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2008). E-Learning and the science of instruction. San Francisco:
Pfeiffer.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd edition). New York:
Academic Press.
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155-159. doi: 10.1037/0033-
2909.112.1.155
Crippen, K. J., & Earl, B. L. (2004). Considering the effectiveness of web-based worked
example in introductory chemistry. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science
Teaching, 23(2), 151-167.
' ' CJLT/RCAT'Vol.'38(3)'
Analyzing'the'use'of'worked'example'video'podcasts'
16
Dupagne, M., Millette, D. M., & Grinfeder, K. (2009). Effectiveness of video podcast use as a
revision tool. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 64(1), 54-70.
Fernandez, V., Simo, P., & Sallan, J.M. (2009). Podcasting: A new technological tool to
facilitate good practice in higher education. Computers & Education, 53(2), 385-392.
doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.02.014
Fill, K., & Ottewill R. (2006). Sink or swim: taking: taking advantage of developments in video
streaming. Innovations in Education and Teaching International. 43(4), 397-408. doi:
10.1080/14703290600974008
Greer, B. (1997). Modelling reality in mathematics classrooms: The case of word problems.
Learning and Instruction, 7(4), 293-307.
Griffin, D. K., Mitchell, D., & Thompson, S. J. (2009). Podcasting by synchronising PowerPoint
and voice: What are the pedagogical benefits? Computers & Education, 53(2), 532-539.
doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.03.011
Heilesen, S. B. (2010). What is the academic efficacy of podcasting? Computers & Education,
55(3), 1063-1068. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.05.002
Hill, J. L., & Nelson, A. (2011). New technology, new pedagogy? Employing video podcasts in
learning and teaching about exotic ecosystems. Environmental Education Research, 17(3),
393-408. doi: 10.1080/13504622.2010.545873
Holbrook, J., & Dupont, C. (2010). Making the decision to provide enhanced podcasts to post-
secondary science students. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 20(1), 233-245.
doi: 10.1007/s10956-010-9248-1
Jarvis, C. & Dickie, J. (2009) Acknowledging the ‘forgotten’ and the ‘unknown’: The role of
video podcasts for supporting field-based learning, Planet, 22, 61-63. Retrieved from
http://www.gees.ac.uk/planet/p22/cjjd.pdf
Jarvis, C., & Dickie, J. (2010). Podcasts in support of experiential field learning. Journal of
Geography in Higher Education, 34(2), 173-186. doi: 10.1080/03098260903093653
Jeung, H., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1997). The role of visual indicators in dual sensory mode
instruction. Educational Psychology, 17(3), 329-433. doi: 10.1080/0144341970170307
Kay, R. H. (2008). Exploring gender differences in computer-related behaviour: Past, present,
and future. In T .T. Kidd & I. Chen (Eds.), Social information technology: Connecting
society and cultural issues (pp. 12-30). Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference.
Kay, R. H. (2011). Worked example mathematics video podcasts. Retrieved from
http://faculty.uoit.ca/kay/res/vp_ms/Clips
Kay, R. H. (2012). Exploring the use of video podcasts in education: A comprehensive review of
the literature. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(3), 820-831. doi:
10.1016/j.chb.2012.01.011
' ' CJLT/RCAT'Vol.'38(3)'
Analyzing'the'use'of'worked'example'video'podcasts'
17
Kester, L. Lehnen, C., Van Gerven, P. W. M., & Kirschner, P. A. (2006). Just-in-time schematic
supportive information presentation during cognitive skill acquisition. Computers in
Human Behavior, 22(1), 93-116. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2005.01.008
Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction
does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, worked example,
experiential, and inquiry-base teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75-86. doi:
10.1207/s15326985ep4102_1
Leijen, A., Lam, I., Wildschut, L., Simons, P. R. J., & Admiraal, W. (2009). Streaming video to
enhance students’ reflection in dance education. Computers & Education, 52(1), 169-176.
doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2008.07.010
Lonn, S., & Teasley, S. D. (2009) Podcasting in higher education: What are the implications for
teaching and learning? Internet and Higher Education, 12(3), 88-92.
doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2009.06.002
Loomes, M., Shafarenko, A., & Loomes, M. (2002). Teaching mathematical explanation through
audiographic technology. Computers & Education, 38(1-3), 137-149.
Mayer, R. E. (2005). Principles for managing essential processing in multimedia learning:
Segmenting, pretraining, and modality principles. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge
Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 169-182). New York: Cambridge University
Press.
McCombs, S., & Liu, Y. (2007). The efficacy of podcasting technology in instructional delivery.
International Journal of Technology in Teaching and Learning, 3(2), 123-134.
McGarr, O. (2009) A review of podcasting in higher education: Its influence on the traditional
lecture, Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 25(3), 309-321.
Medina, J. (2008). Brain rules. Seattle, WA: Pear Press.
Renkl, A. (2005). The worked-out examples principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer
(Ed.) The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge University
Press.
Rittle-Johnson, B., & Koedinger, K. R. (2005). Designing knowledge scaffolding to support
mathematical problem solving. Cognition and Instruction, 23(3), 313-349. doi:
10.1207/s1532690xci2303_1
Sanders, J. (2006). Gender and technology: A research review. In C Skelton, B. Francis, and L.
Smulyan (Eds.), Handbook of gender and education. London: Sage.
So, W. W., Pow, J. W., & Hung, V. H. (2009). The interactive use of a video database in teacher
education: Creating a knowledge base for teaching through a learning community.
Computers & Education, 53(3), 775-786. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.04.018
Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: effects on learning. Cognitive
Science, 12, 257–285.
' ' CJLT/RCAT'Vol.'38(3)'
Analyzing'the'use'of'worked'example'video'podcasts'
18
Sweller, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional
design. Educational Psychology Review, 10, 251–296.
Tapscott, D. (2009). Grown up digital. Toronto, Ontario: McGraw Hill.
Tarmizi, R. A., & Sweller, J. (1988). Guidance during mathematical problem solving. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 80, 424-436. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.80.4.424
Traphagan, T., Kusera, J. V., & Kishi, K. (2010). Impact of class lecture webcasting on
attendance and learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 58(1), 19-
37. doi: 10.1007/s11423-009-9128-7
Vajoczki, S., Watt, S., Marquis, N., & Holshausen, K. (2010). Podcasts: Are they an effective
tool to enhance student learning? A case study from McMaster University, Hamilton
Canada. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 19(3), 349-362.
Watters, A. (2011). Khan Academy gets $5 million to expand faculty & platform & to build a
physical school. Hack Education. Retrieved from
http://www.hackeducation.com/2011/11/04/khan-academy-gets-5-million-to-expand-
faculty-platform-to-build-a-physical-school/
Wieling, M., & Hofman, W. (2010). The impact of online video lecture recordings and
automated feedback on student performance. Computers & Education, 54(4), 992-998. doi:
10.1016/j.compedu.2009.10.002
Willingham, D. T. (2009). Why don't students like school? San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Winterbottom, S. (2007). Virtual lecturing: Delivering lectures using screencasting and
podcasting technology. Planet, 18, 6-8. Retrieved from
http://www.gees.ac.uk/planet/p18/sw.pdf
Zhu, X., & Simon, H. A. (1987). Learning mathematics from examples and by doing. Cognition
and Instruction, 4(3), 137-166. doi: 10.1207/s1532690xci0403_1
' ' CJLT/RCAT'Vol.'38(3)'
Analyzing'the'use'of'worked'example'video'podcasts'
19
!Appendix!A:!Student!Survey!Assessing!Attitudes!Toward!Video!Podcasts!
Item
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Overall
1. Overall, I liked using the clip
1
2
3
4
5
Explanation
2. The clip was easy to follow.
1
2
3
4
5
3. The problem was explained well.
1
2
3
4
5
4. All the steps in the problem were
explained clearly.
1
2
3
4
5
5. I was confused by some steps.
1
2
3
4
5
6. This clip helped me to understand the
problem better.
1
2
3
4
5
Learning Features
7. The writing in the clips was easy to read.
1
2
3
4
5
8. The diagram or pictures helped me
understand the problem better.
1
2
3
4
5
9. Good tips were provided to help me
understand the problem.
1
2
3
4
5
Pace
10. The clip was too long.
1
2
3
4
5
11. The clip went too fast for me.
1
2
3
4
5
12. I used the pause feature to stop the clip
at some point
1
2
3
4
5
Engagement
13. The clip was boring.
1
2
3
4
5
14. I like this clip better than using a
textbook.
1
2
3
4
5
Future Purpose
15. I would use this clip to help me with my
homework.
1
2
3
4
5
16. I would use this clip to review for tests.
1
2
3
4
5
17. It is hard for me to come for extra help
with the teacher after the class, so these
clips would be helpful.
1
2
3
4
5
18. Would this clip help you learn? Please explain
' ' CJLT/RCAT'Vol.'38(3)'
Analyzing'the'use'of'worked'example'video'podcasts'
20
Appendix!B:!Coding!Scheme!for!Learning!Benefits!or!Challenges!Using!Video!
Podcast!
Category
Description
Learn
• Students talked about learning including quality of
explanations, pace of learning, visuals, control, and
examples given
Compare
• Student compare the use of video podcasts with other
teaching methods such as using a textbook or being
taught as a class
Support
• Student s refer to being able to get help for tests or when
they do not understand a concept taught by the teacher
Engage
• Students talk about being engaged or bored by the use of
video podcasts
General
• Students refer to the general positive impact of video
podcasts or that they understand more after using the
clips
'
Authors
Robin Kay. Email: robin.kay@uoit.ca.
Robin Kay is an Associate Professor in the Faculty of Education at UOIT. He has published
over 120 articles, chapters and conference papers in the area of technology in education and has
taught computers, mathematics, and technology for over 20 years at the high school, college and
university level.
Jaime Edwards. Email: jaime_edwards@kprdsb.ca.
Jaime Edwards is a mathematics teacher and special education consultant teacher in the
Kawartha Pine Ridge District School Board. For the past 8 years, she has been a leader in
KPRDSB with respect to introducing and incorporating technology into the classroom.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
