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Facts from faeces
... Plots were surveyed for axis deer faecal pellets and tracks using the "standing crop" method (Putman 1984) in January-February 2019. Control actions of axis deer and wild boar had been halted as of December 20, 2018 because of summer holidays. ...
... The response variable was a binary variable rather than the number of pellet groups per plot as few plots had more than one pellet group. Faecal pellet groups have frequently been used as an index of habitat use in several deer species (Neff 1968;Putman 1984). Although the interpretation of deer pellet groups has been somewhat controversial, there is some consensus that they usually indicate places where individuals spend more time (Neff 1968). ...
... Our analysis of deer habitat use is limited by the fact that it is based on pellet-group presence/absence, not absolute deer abundance. Although the occurrence of deer pellet groups can be affected by differential decay rates with varying rainfall, habitat type, diet and deer species (Davis and Coulson 2016;Neff 1968;Putman 1984), the use of faecal pellets implicitly widened the time window of observations as they may last several months. For present purposes, absolute estimates of deer density may be considered "unnecessary luxuries" (Caughley 1977), whereas faecal-pellet counts correlated closely with other indices (Nicosia et al. 2021) and provided a reasonable proxy for deer abundance. ...
Axis deer (Axis axis), an introduced invasive species of growing concern around the globe, have rapidly expanded through the southern cone countries in South America. Despite increasing culling efforts over 14 years, axis deer remained abundant at El Palmar National Park in north-eastern Argentina. We tested whether this continued abundance possibly reflected control failures as a result of adjacent plantation forests providing a safe-haven refuge for deer. We carried out a cross-sectional survey of deer faecal pellet groups and tracks in 77 matched pairs of 25 m2 plots deployed at random over the park–plantation interface and assessed the presence of deer trails along the 14.2-km wire fence between both land-use types. The relative odds of having at least one pellet group (occupancy) were 4.5 (95% CI 1.5 to 18.3) times higher among park plots than plantation plots. Using generalized linear mixed models, the relative odds of occupancy decreased significantly with increasing distance to the main permanent water course, but it was 83% lower in plantation plots than in the park plots. Principal component analysis of shrub cover, plant structure and plant height revealed greater shelter within the park. Deer trails were spatially aggregated up to 2300 m and were directly associated with deer occupancy. These results indicate that, in El Palmar National Park interface, plantation forests do not provide a refuge or selected habitat, and suggest instead that the environmental characteristics and diversity of habitats within the protected area are relevant for the effectiveness of the exotic ungulate management program.
... Foraging is an essential activity for wildlife to sustain life, and understanding foraging behavior and dietary patterns help gain a better understanding of the fundamental ecology of various wild species. This knowledge is valuable for wildlife conservation and management (Putman, 1984). In the case of Ursids, seasonal diets have long been a focal point in foraging ecology due to climatic conditions significantly influencing food distribution and availability, which turn causes temporal and spatial shift in their foraging behavior (e.g., Hashimoto, 2002;Munro et al., 2006;Murphy et al., 2017;Stenset et al., 2016). ...
... We conducted scat sampling of individual collared bears at fixed intervals of 1-2 h between April and November (excluding the denning season) from 2016 to 2020. We plotted the location data using QGIS software (QGIS Development Team, 2016, 2018. We defined GPS clusters as locations where Asiatic black bears spent a minimum of three fixes (at least 2-4 h) (equivalent to 3-6 h) within a 20-m radius based on the precision of GPS locations (Mori et al., 2019). ...
Foraging plays a vital role in the survival of wildlife, and shifts in food availability can impact species fitness and survival. Ursids are known to consume a wide variety of foods and are known to be opportunistic omnivores. Consequently, seasonal shifts in diet, which correspond to temporal and spatial shifts in the availability of food resources, have long captivated researchers studying the foraging behavior of Ursidae. Nevertheless, comprehensive dietary studies encompassing both the population and individual levels remain scarce. In this study, we investigated the dietary patterns of Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) at both the population and individual levels, using data collected through GPS collars and field surveys of individual bear scat samples in Nagano Prefecture, Japan, from 2016 to 2020. From early April to late June, bears mainly foraged on green vegetation. During this period, male and large‐bodied female bears showed a strong preference for green vegetation. Small‐bodied female bears also ate mostly green vegetation but tended to consume more fruit than other bears towards the end of this period. From June to October, bears' diets included a substantial amount of fruit, with notable peaks in fruit consumption in late June and early September. During the summer months, female bears often incorporated social insects into their diet compared to the population‐level trend. In mid‐September, the consumption of seeds from the Fagaceae family surged, becoming the primary dietary component during this period. This trend was consistently observed across the population. These findings underscore the importance conducting in‐depth dietary analyses that take into account individual characteristics such as sex, age, and body weight.
... Five years earlier, Hoss et al. (1992) used PCR to analyze brown bear feces from the Brenta region of Italy and found Christmas berry, Photinia villosa, fruits dominating the late summer diet. This was an item often missed with traditional fecal diet analysis (Putman 1984). Putman's (1984) original "Facts from feces" recognized that traditional diet analysis would be limited because 1) plant and animal fragments may be differentially recognized and counted in feces, and 2) these dietary materials would be digested and passed through the gut at different rates causing bias in feeding behavior studies. ...
... This was an item often missed with traditional fecal diet analysis (Putman 1984). Putman's (1984) original "Facts from feces" recognized that traditional diet analysis would be limited because 1) plant and animal fragments may be differentially recognized and counted in feces, and 2) these dietary materials would be digested and passed through the gut at different rates causing bias in feeding behavior studies. However, it was not until Kohn and Wayne (1997) that the broader ecological community realized the power of using molecular approaches to evaluate animal feces to estimate population sizes of the target species, evaluate home range and territory size, assess effective population size, measure genetic variation, evaluate diet, and gain new insights into unseen interactions between predators and prey. ...
Predation is an important species interaction to monitor when assessing an invasive species’ impact on a particular ecosystem, but it can be difficult to observe and thus, fully understand. On Kaua’i island, invasive Barn Owls (Tyto alba) predate native seabirds, but difficult terrain in this region and the cryptic nature of owl predation make traditional monitoring of predation quite challenging. Using Barn Owls collected as part of removal efforts on Kaua’i and Lehua islands, we conducted DNA metabarcoding of owl digestive tracts to detect and determine seabird species they predate. We used a seabird-targeted 12s marker to sequence 112 swabs from 55 owls and detected six seabird species, including two ESA-listed seabirds – Hawaiian Petrel (Pterodroma sandwichensis) and Newell’s Shearwater (Puffinus newelli), in 12 swabs from 11 owls (20% of sampled owls). Corresponding morphological assessment of owl stomach contents detected seabird species as prey items in only 2% (1/55) of sampled owls, highlighting the utility of molecular approaches for detecting diet items, especially degraded or visually absent items. Additionally, this approach has proven very useful in revealing cryptic trophic interactions in inaccessible seabird populations. For the most comprehensive analysis of diet, the use of both esophageal and cloacal swabs for metabarcoding is recommended. Supplementing metabarcoding with other methods that can provide complementary prey information, such as stable isotope analysis, would help to characterize trophic interactions more fully. The method described here has proven to be a reliable tool for investigating diet in invasive owls and may be used to investigate cryptic predation in living birds as a minimally invasive technique, as well.
... https://doi.org/10.17221/19/2023-JFS ganic matter digestibility of pasture could be calculated from the nitrogen content of the faeces, the use of faecal nitrogen (fN) as a research proxy has been extensively applied in ecological research, and especially in studies related to the nutrition of wild ruminants (Putman 1984;Leslie Jr, Starkey 1987;Osborn, Jenks 1998;Dryden 2003;Leslie Jr et al. 2008). Certainly, there are circumstances in which fN is limited as a nutritional quality indicator for wildlife ungulates in natural settings due to numerous interacting factors that directly or indirectly affect animal nutrition. ...
... Nevertheless, a simultaneous study of other faecal nutritional fractions like lignin (fLig) and acid (fADF) and neutral detergent fibre (fNDF) may help to draw a better picture of the diet quality. Nowadays, this can be achieved through a fast and cheap technique like near-infrared reflectance spectrometry (NIRS) (Putman 1984;Leite, Stuth 1995;Foley et al. 1998;Dryden 2003;Tolleson et al. 2005;Landau et al. 2006;Showers et al. 2006;Gálvez-Cerón et al. 2013;Villamuelas et al. 2017). Indeed, the technique has already been successfully used for estimating the diet quality of roe and red deer in the Czech Republic (Kamler et al. 2004). ...
Herbivorous ungulate diets affect population performance and overall forest health through balanced interactions on plant-herbivore relations; therefore, understanding them is critical. Faeces are frequently used in ungulate nutritional ecology because they can provide information about animals' digestive efficiency. Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus) have different morpho-physiological and ecological constraints, and these differences should be reflected in their faeces. On the other hand, the lack of information about the animal (sex, age, reproductive status, diet selection, etc.) may be challenging for such studies. This study aimed to detect species' different susceptibility to these factors reflected in animals' faeces. Thus, we hypothesised that near-infrared reflectance spectrometry (NIRS) could distinguish between the faecal nutrients of two cervids. We collected 94 usable faeces from both species along the forest transect in Bohemian forests in the Czech Republic, covering 2 500 ha. Roe and red deer overlap was determined using the four faecal nutritional components on two axes. No discrimination occurred, refuting our hypothesis and highlighting that out-of-control variables are critical for faecal studies in uncontrolled settings. Fibrous parts explained the most variance (48%), indicating animals' strong reliance on nutrition quality. Apparently, uncontrolled supplementary feeding produced similar faecal nutrient outcomes during the nutrition-limiting winter, which was theoretically supported by the animal's response to predation and hunting pressure. The inability of NIRS to identify the source of N in faeces may also explain the lack of discrimination.
... Faecal matter does not only provide the researcher a lot of information about the proprietor and its population by observations in the field, such as abundance, habitat use and movement, but also through DNA analysis, such as sex ratio, age, diet, reproductive productivitiy and hormones-and stress levels [17,18]. Thus, collecting faecal matter is an important and non-invasive method to monitor animal populations. ...
... The collection of faecal pellets can provide the researcher with a lot of information about the species/population investigated [17,18,30]. Ways of collecting these samples have proven to be time-consuming, costly and relatively inefficient, simultaneously requiring an additional amount of time in the laboratory after collecting the samples to complete the analysis. ...
Alpine and arctic bird populations have shown an unmistakable decrease over the last three decades, and the need for conservation is highly necessary. We investigated the use of five privately-owned dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) as a non-invasive tool to determine the presence of rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta), through sniffing out faecal pellets, using a yes/no training regime. We carried out 36 double-blind experimental trials per dog and hypothesised that dogs could discriminate the rock ptarmigan from similar species, such as black grouse (Tetrao tetrix), western capercaillie (T. urogallus) and willow grouse (L. lagopus). Our dogs detected differences between the avian species with an average accuracy of 65.9%, sensitivity of 66.7% and specificity of 65.3%. We showed that privately-owned dogs have the potential to be used as biodetectors for conservational work within controlled laboratory conditions for declining species, but overall, only one dog was considered proficient enough. We concluded that dogs could be used as a non-invasive tool to detect the rock ptarmigan, and with further field training and testing, operate in the field for detection surveys.
... For species exhibiting latrine behavior, such as forest musk deer, fixed defecation sites also function as territorial markers, providing signals to conspecifics [17][18][19][20][21]. Moreover, defecation sites serve as important indicators of microhabitat selection in wildlife [18,[22][23][24]. These sites are often considered relatively safe, where animals are relaxed, providing a basis for studying their microhabitat choices [18,[25][26][27]. ...
The forest musk deer (Moschus berezovskii) and Siberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus) are browsers with a broad sympatric distribution in North and Southwest China. However, little is known about their spatial utilization of microhabitats and habitats. This study, conducted on Huanglong Mountain in China, analyzed the defecation site distribution, indicating preferences of forest musk deer and Siberian roe deer for their habitat demands. Using generalized linear mixed models (GLMMs), we compared the defecation site preferences of both species and further examined their spatial utilization patterns. The results indicated that the primary factors influencing defecation site preferences for forest musk deer were slope (15.79%), elevation (4.26%), herbaceous cover (19.93%), herb height (33.73%), and tree diversity (15.64%). Conversely, for Siberian roe deer, elevation (54.63%) and herbaceous cover (29.31%) were the key factors. Significant differences were found in elevation (p < 0.001) and herbaceous diversity (p < 0.01) between the defecation sites of the two species, with additional notable differences in slope position, tree diversity, and average tree height (p < 0.05). Furthermore, forest musk deer primarily utilized broadleaf forests, coniferous forests, mixed conifer-broadleaf forests, and sparse woodlands. In contrast, Siberian roe deer utilized broadleaf forests, sparse woodlands, and coniferous forests, showing a significant difference (p = 0.01). These findings suggest distinct spatial ecological segregation between forest musk deer and Siberian roe deer regarding their microhabitat preferences and vegetation type utilization at the habitat scale.
... In most studies, bulk dung samples are simply dried and homogenized for isotope analysis, voluntarily including all large undigested plant matter such as seeds, irrespective of whether they may comprise the bulk of the fecal sample or not (Blumenthal et al., 2012;Codron et al., 2006;Loudon et al., 2019;Phillips & O'Connell, 2016). Plant parts high in cellulose are commonly heavily masticated and processed by herbivores, making it difficult to identify or separate from other fractions of intestinal matter (Putman, 1984). Hence, in mainly folivorous species the bulk dung approach may be useful for isotope analysis if the aim is to actually obtain the isotopic signal from the remains of these ingested plants. ...
Feces are a treasure trove in the study of animal behavior and ecology. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis allows to assess the dietary niches of elusive primate species and primate breastfeeding behavior. However, some fecal isotope data may unwillingly be biased toward the isotope ratios of undigested plant matter, requiring more consistent sample preparation protocols. We assess the impact of this potential data skew in 114 fecal samples of wild bonobos (Pan paniscus) by measuring the isotope differences (Δ13 C, Δ15 N) between bulk fecal samples containing larger particles (>1 mm) and filtered samples containing only small particles (<1 mm). We assess the influence of fecal carbon and nitrogen content (ΔC:N) and sample donor age (subadult, adult) on the resulting Δ13 C, Δ15 N values (n = 228). Additionally, we measure the isotope ratios in three systematically sieved fecal samples of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus), with particle sizes ranging from 20 μm to 8 mm (n = 30). We found differences in fecal carbon and nitrogen content, with the smaller fecal fraction containing more nitrogen on average. While the Δ13 C values were small and not affected by age or ΔC:N, the Δ15 N values were significantly influenced by fecal ΔC:N, possibly resulting from the differing proportions of undigested plant macroparticles. Significant relationships between carbon stable isotope ratios (δ13 C) values and %C in large fecal fractions of both age groups corroborated this assessment. Δ15 N values were significantly larger in adults than subadults, which should be of concern in isotope studies comparing adult females with infants to assess breastfeeding. We found a random variation of up to 3.0‰ in δ13 C and 2.0‰ in nitrogen stable isotope ratios within the chimpanzee fecal samples separated by particle sizes. We show that particle size influences isotope ratios and propose a simple, cost-effective filtration method for primate feces to exclude larger undigested food particles from the analysis, which can easily be adopted by labs worldwide.
... In fact, there are lots of different approaches towards the estimation of ungulate abundance based on the counting of faecal pellet groups along transects or within plots. Two main groups of approach may be distinguished based on the cleaning or not of the investigate area before the counting of the faecal pellets (Putman, 1984). The faecal standing crop (FSC) is implemented by counting the number of accumulated pellet groups within randomly distributed sample quadrats, or along fixed transect lines without cleaning the study area. ...
The general aim of this guidance is to review the methods for estimating relative abundance and density in wild ruminant species and give insights on how to obtain reliable estimations by using those methods. The results are a possible guideline on best practices to improve the accuracy and comparability of density methods. For these purposes, we reviewed and evaluated 18 methods used in 19 wild ruminant species widely distributed across Europe. In accordance with the ENETWILD consortium objectives, we aimed to assess if different types of data can be used to generate comparable data at large scale (i.e. harmonized) and for calibration of hunting data. More in general, we aimed to provide some recommendations to select the methods to estimate the abundance or density, and to implement at best them, in order to obtain a general framework of ungulate populations which may be useful in case of a disease outbreak. We also produced detailed recommendations to increase the quality of the result provided by some methods which are recognised able to be reliable (good accuracy and precision) and have the potential to be used for the validation and calibration of other direct or indirect methods. Largely, the “counting” of a large herbivore on a regional scale is unfeasible, it can only possible to assess its relative abundance at a local scale. We show that partially irrespective to species characteristics, the habitat type plays a key role in the selection of the best method to determine density or relative abundance. A method that gives a density estimate rather than relative abundance, if possible, should be used. On a large spatial scale and to give long-term trends, high-quality hunting data statistics (collected on a local scale) have the highest availability and comparability potential across Europe to be used in predictive spatial modelling of wild ruminant relative abundance and density, but their collection should be mandatory in all countries - currently it is not – standardized and harmonised among them. On a local scale (e.g., management units), camera trapping (CT) is a method that can be conducted in several environmental conditions and at any time to collect robust data (some basic instructions for the practical use of CT to estimate wild ruminant density, which have to be adapted to specific conditions, is provided). In open areas, where the CT can request an excessive effort to obtain robust outcomes, we suggest using methods involving the direct detection of animals (vantage points, linear transects, block counts, random points), paying attention to correctly define the referred areas (for instance by means of distance sampling) and to estimate the repeatability of the results.
... For developing effective management strategy of wildlife species, information on feeding habits and activity patterns are essential [21]. e present study shows that the time spent for foraging was higher during the dry season. ...
The foraging ecology and diurnal activity patterns of the klipspringer (Oreotragus oreotragus) were studied in Yetefet Woyenat Forest from September 2017 to August 2018 during the dry and wet seasons. Data were collected by visual observation using focal and scan sampling methods. The result indicated that klipspringers were observed feeding on grasses, herbs, trees, and shrubs, but were primarily browsers during both wet and dry seasons. Carissa edulis was the most consumed plant species in the study area, followed by Rosa abyssinica and Maytenus arbutifolia. Despite moderate ambient temperatures, klipspringers were mostly active during early morning and late afternoon, feeding 45.56% of the daylight hours during the dry season and 43.75% during the wet season. Klipspringers were facing threats due to human activities in the study area. Thus, appropriate conservation measures should be taken to reduce disturbance of their ecology.
... The scats, previously dry-preserved with silica-gel, were broken up and the prey remains were identified to species, where possible, based on macroscopic characteristics of bones, hairs, reptile scales, and invertebrates pieces compared with the reference personal material of collection, bibliography (rodent teeth: [11]) or were consulted to specialists (Coleoptera Order). The percentage of the volume of each identified prey per scat was estimated visually [26,27]. The composition of the diet was expressed as a percentage of volume (%V = estimated volume of each prey type/total estimated volume x 100). ...
The honey badger (Mellivora capensis) is a medium-sized carnivore distributed throughout Africa to the Arabian Peninsula, Iran, Turkmenistan, and India. However, available information on its ecology is very scarce. We studied its feeding ecology in the remote north-western Sahara Desert, based on the contents of 125 fecal samples collected during large scale surveys. Samples were confirmed to belong to honey badgers by camera trapping and genetic analyses. Barely 18 prey species were detected. The diet primarily consisted of spiny-tailed lizards Uromastyx nigriventris and U. dispar (72% of volume in scats). Secondary prey items were arthropods (14%), small mammals (8%), other reptiles (4%), and eggs (0.8%). Some small geographic and temporal differences were related to the consumption of beetle larvae and rodents as alternative prey. Camera trapping and distance sampling surveys showed that diel activities did not overlap between honey badgers and spiny-tailed lizards, suggesting that badgers primarily dig lizards out of their burrows when inactive. Consumption of spiny lizards by other sympatric meso-carnivores was < 6.1% of occurrence (223 analyzed scats); the honey badger behaved as a trophic specialist in the Sahara, probably thanks to exclusive anatomical adaptations for digging. We discuss the role of this circumstance minimizing the exploitative competition, which could allow the survival of this large mustelid in this low productive and highly competitive environment.
... Investigating diet profiles can provide insights on livestock depredation by carnivores, and allow for gauging the extent of their dependence on non-wild prey (Marker et al., 2003;Kolipaka et al., 2017). Examining diet patterns using prey remains in fecal matter (scats) has been the cornerstone of carnivore ecology and natural history studies (e.g., Floyd et al., 1978;Ackerman et al., 1984;Putman, 1984;Carbone et al., 1999). Over time, development of novel analytical frameworks and application of genetic methods have improved the reliability of such assessments (Carreon-Martinez and Heath, 2010;Klare et al., 2011). ...
Livestock depredation is the most ubiquitous type of negative interaction between humans and carnivores. We conducted a range-wide assessment linking diet patterns of the endangered dhole Cuon alpinus, with livestock consumption and human-dhole interactions. We first performed a reanalysis of dhole diet data from all published studies (1973-2013) incorporating a recently-developed non-linear correction factor for quantifying prey biomass consumed. We then determined the relative livestock numbers consumed by dholes over time across its range, compared these with earlier estimates, and investigated the relative importance of wild vs. non-wild prey in dhole diet. Using information from >70 studies, we explored links between livestock consumption by dholes, availability of wild versus non-wild prey, sympatric depredation-prone carnivores, and people's perception of dholes as livestock predators. We found that (a) dhole diet profiles varied regionally, (b) dholes consumed fewer livestock compared to estimates generated using other, widely used methods, (c) livestock consumption by dholes was associated with wild and non-wild prey densities, and number of co-predator species, and (d) people's negative perception of dholes was associated with pack sizes, levels of livestock depredation and number of sympatric carnivore species. Global efforts for dhole conservation should involve different strategies based on region-specific realities that account for ecological context as well as human perceptions, which would require well-designed studies of dhole social and population dynamics, and human-dhole interactions. We also call for more such range-wide assessments of livestock depredation by wild canids, complemented with direct investigations of human-canid interactions.
... Four north-south orientated transects were set up at 10-m intervals across each site for quantifying site variation. To provide an index of herbivore activity at each site, we established 16 fecal pellet accumulation plots (Putman 1984) of 15.75 m 2 (r = 2.24 m) at 10-m intervals along each transect (accounting for 10% of site area; Appendix S1). Along the same transects, we estimated cover abundance of vegetation strata and ground cover attributes using point intercept method; obtained distance to tree cover from GIS; and measured soil textural characteristics (Appendix S1). ...
Ecological restoration of degraded ecosystems requires the facilitation of natural regeneration by plants, often augmented by large‐scale active revegetation. The success of such projects is highly variable. Risk factors may be readily identifiable in a general sense, but it is rarely clear how they play out individually, or in combination. We addressed this problem with a field experiment on the survival of, and browsing damage to, 1275 hand‐planted buloke (Allocasuarina luehmannii) seedlings in a nationally endangered, semi‐arid woodland community. Buloke seedlings were planted in 17 sites representing four landscape contexts and with three levels of protection from kangaroo and lagomorph browsing. We censused seedlings and measured herbivore activity four times during the first 400 d post‐planting and fitted models of mortality and browse hazard to these data using survival analysis. Increasing lagomorph activity was associated with higher mortality risk, while kangaroo activity was not. Seedling survival was lowest for each treatment within extant buloke woodland, and the highest survival rates for guarded seedlings were in locations favored by lagomorphs. Damage from browsing was nearly ubiquitous after one year for surviving unguarded seedlings, despite moderate browser activity. On average, unguarded seedlings showed a decline in height, whereas fully guarded seedlings grew 2.3 cm across the survey period. This study demonstrates buloke seedlings should be protected from browsers, even with browsers maintained at moderate to low density, and the location that maximizes survival, and possibly growth rates, is adjacent to dunes. Further work will test this heuristic in an analysis of cost‐effective revegetation strategies for this endangered community.
... Furthermore, food classes that leave no recognizable remains (e.g. some leaves, flowers and soft-bodied invertebrates) may be absent from estimates -these limitations have been well documented in previous studies (McInnis et al. 1983;Putman 1984;Dellinger and Trillmich 1988;Tutin and Fernandez 1993;Su and Lee 2001). Additionally, some items are difficult to identify (e.g. ...
Both observational and indirect evidence are widely used to determine the diets of wild animals. Direct observations are often assumed to provide the most comprehensive reflection of diet, but many wild animals are logistically challenging to observe. Despite the regular use of observational and indirect methods for inferring diet in wild animals, they have rarely been compared in detail for the same study population. Over 12 months this study assessed the congruence of methods in estimating the diet of a montane community of eastern chimpanzees Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii in Nyungwe National Park, Rwanda using observational scan samples and macroscopic fecal inspection. The assessment of the number of food species consumed each month was comparable between methods, but the estimation of the composition of items in the diet differed significantly. Most notably, the fecal samples significantly underestimated the consumption of flowers, and certain fruit species, which based on direct behavioural observations were seasonally consumed at very high rates. Conversely, direct observations underestimated the consumption of leaves and pith in comparison to results present in the fecal samples. These results suggest that combining methods where possible is most useful for accurate monitoring of dietary trends, particularly for species that experience significant seasonal shifts in their diet.
... Diet studies are useful approaches for evaluating wildlife resource requirements (Carbone et al. 1999), niche partitioning among competitors (Breuer 2005, Vieira andPort 2007), and potential effects to prey populations and other natural resources (Allen andLeung 2012, Latham et al. 2013). As such, many methods exist to elucidate patterns in diet including direct observation; examination of stomach, scat, or pellet contents; or analysis of stable isotopes from animal hair or fatty acid signatures (Putman 1984, Iverson et al. 2004, Dalerum and Angerbjörn 2005, Azevedo et al. 2006, Monterroso et al. 2019. Collection and analysis of scats for diet selection studies is noninvasive, can result in large sample sizes, and be relatively inexpensive. ...
Carnivore diet‐selection studies based on scat analyses are frequently used to elucidate predator ecology, predict potential effects on prey populations, and inform management decisions. However, accuracy of results and the following inference are contingent on multiple sources of sampling error including missed detections and pseudoreplication in statistical comparisons that assume independence within scat samples. We compared a repeated‐sampling occupancy framework intended to estimate detection and occurrence rates for diet items with a multinomial modeling approach intended to estimate diet selection while accounting for nonindependence of diet items within samples. Both methods allowed for multimodel inference to specifically test hypotheses about differences in diet. We applied each method to 2 example data sets, a bobcat (Lynx rufus) scat data set (n = 101) collected in western Virginia, USA, from 2011 to 2013 with morphological identification of diet items, and a coyote (Canis latrans) scat data set (n = 50) collected in Tooele County, Utah, USA, in 2014 with molecular identification of diet items, and compared results with those commonly implemented in diet studies (frequency of occurrence calculations). We found imperfect detection of diet items was not a major source of bias in either the morphological or molecular data set results, but grouping similar or indistinguishable diet items in the morphological data set affected estimates when there was heterogeneity in detection among items. Using the occupancy approach on the morphological data set demonstrated that presence or amount of some diet items could decrease detection of other items and bias occurrence estimates. Furthermore, comparing multiple models of bobcat diet using Akaike's Information Criterion with either approach revealed no support for seasonal differences, even though traditional frequency of occurrence calculations differed by almost 10%. Thus, we suggest even moderate trends in diet based on frequency of occurrence calculations without incorporating measures of uncertainty may represent sampling error, and not true differences in diet. When detection is not conditional on other diet items, comparison of multinomial models will typically be sufficient to make accurate inference about carnivore diets without requiring additional processing of scat samples. © 2019 The Wildlife Society. Several sources of sampling error can influence inference in carnivore diet‐selection studies based on scat analyses. We found accounting for imperfect detection of diet items was not a substantial source of error, but that even moderate trends found in diet studies based on frequency of occurrence calculations could represent sampling error (not true differences in diet) and efforts should be made to account for uncertainty in results.
... However, these studies require long sampling periods and they may be biased by the specific characteristics of the dispersal vectors (e.g., different rates of detection: Kéry et al., 2010). For instance, the elusive behavior of mammals means they are hardly ever seen in the field (Gittleman et al., 2001), although their frugivory habits can be inferred by studying the content of their faeces, as different species can be identified by the shape and the size of such traces (Putman, 1984). More recently, molecular techniques have been applied to study bird seed dispersal, using seeds from faeces as templates to amplify target sequences (González-Varo, Arroyo & Jordano, 2014). ...
Seed dispersal is an essential process to maintain the viability of plant populations, and understanding this ecological process allows management strategies to be developed to conserve ecosystems. European Union priority habitat 5220* is defined as "Mediterranean arborescent shrubland with Ziziphus lotus" and it represents a favorable microclimate within the severe climatic conditions typical of the semiarid southeastern region of the Iberian Peninsula. Therefore, the study of seed dispersal in this priority habitat by different frugivorous guilds, is a challenge for its conservation. In this study, we have characterized a mutualistic network of seed dispersal that is mediated by vertebrates (mammals and birds) in the protected habitat 5220*. The aims of this study were to: (i) identify the seed disperser community; (ii) analyze the relative role of key species in the dispersal process; and (iii) compare the functional ecology of the seed dispersal process between mammals and birds. As such, we collected animal faeces to determine seed dispersers taxonomy, identifying the mammals through the visual aspect of the faeces and the birds by DNA barcoding. In the case of birds, we also collected regurgitated seeds in which the disperser species was also identified through molecular techniques. This allowed us to build-up a mutualistic network and to identify the relative role of these animals in seed dispersal. Our results showed that mammals and birds fulfilled complementary roles in seed dispersal, with birds representing the main dispersers of key plants within the 5220* habitat, and mammals the main dispersers of human-cultivated plants. Herein, we provide a useful approach with relevant information that can be used to propose management policies that focus on restoring the threatened 5220* habitat, promoting the role of birds to disperse key species that structure plant communities of this priority habitat.
... In the last few decades, several indirect methods have been proposed and tested in order to assess the abundance of populations through the analysis of persistent signs where the direct methods were found to fail. Even though the reliability of such indirect methods is not yet consensual [12,13], they are usually less demanding and time-consuming than direct methods. Moreover, given their lower disturbance, they also reduce the aforementioned bias caused by behavioural modifications. ...
Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) is the most abundant cervid in Europe and, as such, has a considerable impact over several human activities. Accurate roe deer population size estimates are useful to ensure their proper management. We tested 3 methods for estimating roe deer abundance (drive counts, pellet-group counts, and camera trapping) during two consecutive years (2012 and 2013) in the Apennines (Italy) in order to assess their precision and applicability. During the study period, population density estimates were: drive counts 21.89±12.74 roe deer/km² and pellet-group counts 18.74±2.31 roe deer/km² in 2012; drive counts 19.32±11.12 roe deer/km² and camera trapping 29.05±7.48 roe deer/km² in 2013. Precision of the density estimates differed widely among the 3 methods, with coefficients of variation ranging from 12% (pellet-group counts) to 58% (drive counts). Drive counts represented the most demanding method on account of the higher number of operators involved. Pellet-group counts yielded the most precise results and required a smaller number of operators, though the sampling effort was considerable. When compared to the other two methods, camera trapping resulted in an intermediate level of precision and required the lowest sampling effort. We also discussed field protocols of each method, considering that volunteers, rather than technicians, will more likely be appointed for these tasks in the near future. For this reason, we strongly suggest that for each method managers of population density monitoring projects take into account ease of use as well as the quality of the results obtained and the resources required.
... On one hand, a study on Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in China has shown that they have a generalist dietary pattern (Tsukada et al. 2014) whereas, on the other hand various studies have revealed that Red foxes are not only opportunists but also facultative specialists (Vlasseva et al. 2017, Balestrieri et al. 2011, Lanszki and Heltai 2010, Lanszki et al. 2006, Serafini and Lovari 1993, Hockman and Chapman 1983. Diet composition of Red fox is mainly estimated using non-invasive method like scat analysis (Korschegen 1980, Putman 1984, Pierce and Boyle 1991, Litivaitis 2000, Iverson et al. 2004, where the food remains are examined and identified. Most available information about the food habits and diet of foxes found in India are not on Red fox but on its sympatric Indian Fox, Vulpes bengalensis (Dookia et al. 2012, Kumara and Singh 2012, Home and Jhala 2009). ...
Desert fox is a medium sized meso-carnivore, found in variety of habitats. For understanding its role in ecosystem, as a carnivore, an insight in feeding ecology is explored in Thar Desert of Rajasthan. However, the available information on the same for Desert fox (a sub-species of Red fox) is insufficient. The present study was undertaken to understand the dietary pattern of Desert fox and variation between the seasons in resource constrained environment of Thar Desert of Rajasthan. A total of 699 scats were collected for a period of around two years, covering all seasons between year 2015 and 2017 and analyzed using standard methods. It was found that fruits (28.05%) were identified as the major category followed by insects (18.94%), mammals (17.32%), reptiles (6.72%), birds (3.17%) and Arachnida (0.45%), in the diet of Desert fox. Interestingly, remains of many large domestic animals were found in the scat, suggests that upon availability, occasionally it also scavenge. The dietary pattern from the results suggested that, as opportunistic feeders, Desert foxes may have adapted to survive in one of the densely population desert landscape with changing land-tenure system and behavior to suit local circumstances, using alternative sources of prey and anthropogenic food.
... Our study demonstrated how a sampling scheme for collecting fox faeces, which was developed for ecological studies of foxes (Putman 1984;Sadlier et al. 2004), can be applied for epidemiological investigations on fox parasites. In particular, fox scats findings included the registration of the exact route by GPS which allows the repetition of exactly the same pathway and therefore standardization if repeated over time under the same conditions, without elimination of the animals. ...
... Scats located through detection dogs can enable as many downstream analyses as scats collected through other means (Putman 1984). Genetic data was probably one of the first, and most frequently, generated information (Wasser et al. 2004). ...
In conservation, consistent and extensive under-funding has necessitated creative thinking to address conservation issues on a low budget, and innovations are burgeoning as a result. One example is the use of dogs that, thanks to their heightened olfactory abilities and bond with humans, are trained to detect odours of interest to conservationists. Conservation dogs have proven to repeatedly outperform alternative survey methods in terms of accuracy, efficiency and/or cost. They have now been used for the detection of endangered and invasive species, fauna and flora, direct and indirect (e.g. scat) targets, on land and at sea, across every continent and most taxa from fire ants to whales. Here, we emphasise the versatility of detection dogs through their multiple uses applied to one species, the koala Phascolarctos cinereus . We selected, trained, tested and deployed five dogs; two for koala habitat (koala scats), one for genetic sampling (fresh scats only), one for the koala itself and one for koala disease ( Chlamydia spp. ) detection. Dogs enabled both large-scale and fine-scale survey design, with 2370 surveys performed, and 1479 genetic samples collected to date. Detection dogs are subject to similar (although sometimes much lower) limitations in terms of survey biases (e.g. individual or environmental conditions) and, importantly, detection dog/handler teams need to be tested regularly for accuracy. Nonetheless, detection dogs can, and are, helping researchers and land managers to collect more robust datasets and better inform conservation decisions. Alliances with unexpected partners in conservation (such as with police forces), citizen science, and timeshare use of dogs might improve the democratisation of their use and enable conservation detection dogs to fulfil their astonishing potential.
... Our study demonstrated how a sampling scheme for collecting fox feces, which was developed for ecological studies of fox populations (Putman 1984;Sadlier et al. 2004), can be applied for epidemiological investigations on fox parasites. In particular, fox scats findings included the registration of the exact route by GPS which allows the repetition of exactly the same pathway and therefore standardization, if repeated over time under the same conditions, without elimination of the animals. ...
In view of the role of foxes as a reservoir for Angiostrongylus vasorum, a nematode of the heart and lungs of dogs and foxes, its occurrence across Switzerland was investigated in foxes applying a standardized sampling scheme for fox fecal samples. In 72 study areas, which consisted of three 1-km² grid cells, a total of 1481 samples were collected by walking transects following linear features in the terrain, and analyzed by a flotation-sieving method. The overall prevalence rate of A. vasorum in fecal samples was 8.8% (95% confidence interval, CI 7.4–10.3%), being significantly higher in the Swiss Plateau (11.4%, CI. 9.4–13.8%) compared with other bioregions, and more prevalent in areas with less than 50% of cultivated land (p = 0.043). Prevalence rates increased with decreasing altitudes being significantly higher below 400 m above sea level (20.6%, 95% CI 15.2–26.9%), while all samples collected above 900 m asl were negative. Eggs of Toxocara sp. (12.1%), Taeniidae (10.5%), Capillaria spp. (8.3%), Trichuris vulpis (5.5%), hookworms (5.3%), Toxascaris leonina (1.3%) and Strongyloides sp. (0.4%) were furthermore identified. Taeniid eggs were positively and Capillaria spp. negatively associated with the amount of cultivated land. The prevalence rates based on our fecal analyses were generally lower compared with previous studies from Switzerland which were based on fox necropsies. However, the grid cell–based sampling scheme with replicable transects for fox feces collection proved to be a suitable, non-invasive method for parasitic large-scale surveys providing information on the relative infectious pressure for the local dog population.
... This opens numerous avenues of investigation, including diet, disease, stress level, habitat use, and population dynamics (Kohn and Wayne 1997). The counting of pellet groups is the most commonly used method for estimating ungulate abundances and has been described as very accurate due to the well-established correlation between number of pellet groups and individuals (Campbell et al. 2004;Putman 1984). Species-level identification of fecal pellets has traditionally relied upon assessment of morphometric variables like length, width, weight, the number of pellets per group, and various derivatives, e.g., the length/width ratio and volume. ...
Pellet counts are widely used to monitor ungulates but rely on the assumption that pellets of different species are correctly identified in the field. Recent studies question this assumption using DNA barcoding techniques to check field identification rates. For Europe, which is undergoing a rapid shift towards more diverse ungulate assemblages, such an assessment is still missing. Using DNA barcoding on 3889 fecal samples from nine ungulate species in four European countries, we found average field misidentification rates varied from 0.6% for horse (Equus ferus) to 41.1% for roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). Most identification errors occurred between similar-sized species from the same taxonomic family. For a subset of samples from Sweden, we looked at the effect of dung morphometry, observer experience, and season on species identification success. Dung morphometry clearly distinguished moose (Alces alces) but not red (Cervus elaphus), roe, and fallow deer (Dama dama). Experienced observers performed better than novices for red and fallow deer although still making significant identification errors (26% and 17% incorrectly identified). Identification success was higher during spring and winter (= 86%) than summer and autumn (= 74%). We question pellet counts as an accurate monitoring tool where similar-sized species coexist and monitoring relates to the whole community. For this increasingly common situation across Europe, DNA testing or camera traps may be a better alternative. Pellet counts remain useful where only few species with clearly different dung morphology coexist (e.g., moose and roe deer) or when focused on species with distinctive dung morphology (e.g., moose).
Context
Camera traps are widely used in ecological studies, including analyses of habitat use. However, the relationships between animal spatial behavior and landscape features obtained with camera traps have seldom been compared to those obtained with more established methods.
Objectives
We evaluated the use of camera trap data to predict habitat use in red deer Cervus elaphus by comparing them to GPS telemetry data, used as a benchmark.
Methods
Within a 100 km² study area in the Stelvio National Park (Italy), we collected red deer presence data from 50 camera traps from 2019 to 2023. In addition, 23 deer (15 females and 8 males) were equipped with global positioning system collars. For both types of data, we modeled presence/absence as a function of environmental variables using a generalized linear mixed modeling approach. Model estimates were compared in terms of directionality of the effects and of predicted habitat suitability.
Results
We found a higher concordance of effect directionality and predicted suitability for females than for males, possibly due to limited sample size in the latter. Discrepancies were found in specific habitat relationships and may be due to inherent differences between telemetry-based and camera trap-based data.
Conclusions
Our results suggest that camera trap data can capture coarse-scale patterns of habitat use, whereas telemetry data are more suitable for finer-scale analyses. The choice of which method to use depends on the research objectives.
Understanding species' dietary ecology and interspecific interactions is crucial for multi‐species conservation planning. In Central Asia and the Himalayas, wolves have recolonized snow leopard habitats, raising considerable concern about resource competition between these apex predators. Using micro‐histological analysis of prey species remains (e.g., hair) in their fecal samples, we determined the prey composition, dietary niche breadth, and the extent of diet overlap between these two apex predators in Shey Phoksundo National Park, Nepal. We analyzed 152 scat samples collected along 89 survey transects from April to June 2021. Our findings reveal a significant overlap in their diets (Pianka's index = 0.93), with snow leopard and wolf scats containing the remains of 11 and 10 prey species, respectively. However, the interspecific difference in prey selection was apparent, with significant deviations between observed and expected prey use indicating non‐random prey selection relative to availability: Snow leopards exhibited a higher occurrence of wild prey items in their diet (55.28%), primarily blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) (24.83%), whereas wolves relied predominantly on domestic livestock (67.89%), with goats (Capra hircus) accounting for over one‐fourth of their diet (29.15%). Yaks (Bos grunniens) comprised a significant portion of the biomass consumed by both predators, with higher for wolves (43.68%) than snow leopards (36.47%). Overall, the narrow dietary niche breadth with high overlap indicates potential resource competition between snow leopards and wolves. However, a comprehensive understanding of resource competition will require further study on other axes of niche partitioning, including habitat and time. Nevertheless, the region's low prey richness means that, with increasing human influence, any reduction in wild prey or increase in livestock could intensify competition between snow leopards and wolves, which could have implications for livestock depredation.
Microhistology analyses are well-supported techniques useful for studying herbivore diet composition, but they involve the correct identification and validated relative quantification of the plant species consumed, as well as the knowledge of possible biases inherent to methods. We analyzed two methods for quantifying the relative frequency of plant cuticles using an experimental procedure from laboratory-prepared samples. The factors affecting the precision of quantification were analyzed, the minimum sampling effort to detect all plants in the experimental mixture was estimated and the practical application on a complex real sample discussed, in order to describe a simple, standardized, and reliable procedure for studies of herbivore diet composition in Mediterranean ecosystems. Ten random mixtures were prepared with combinations of 40 known plant species, in different number and dry weight percentages. A total of 100 microscopic fields, distributed across 5 slides per sample, were analyzed using both quantification methods. Statistical analysis concluded that the two methods differed significantly. Higher precision was achieved with the method based on annotating the presence/absence of each species in each microscopic field, instead of the total number of times each plant was detected in each field. The important predictors of accuracy were the complexity of the sample and the proportion of plant material in the mixtures. The number of slides and microscopic fields did not significantly impact the quantification results, and no additional species were identified beyond 25 fields in the most complex samples. Due to its greater reliability, shorter analysis time, and reduced visual effort, the first method proved to be more efficient. This method is validated and useful in diet studies of overabundant populations of deer and extensive and transhumant livestock to evaluate the impacts of herbivores on ecosystems and generate sustainable management criteria in the use of pastures toward environmental and economic sustainability.
Background
Food provides essential nutrients and energy necessary for animals to sustain life activities. Accordingly, dietary niche analysis facilitates the exploration of foraging strategies and interspecific relationships among wildlife. The vegetation succession has reduced understory forage resources ( i.e ., shrubs and herbs) available to sika deer ( Cervus nippon kopschi ). Little is known about the summer foraging strategies or the interspecific relationship between sika deer and Reeves’ muntjac ( Muntiacus reevesi ).
Methods
The present study used high-throughput sequencing and DNA metabarcoding techniques to investigate the feeding habits and interspecific relationships between sika deer and Reeves’ muntjac in our study.
Results
A total of 458 amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) were identified from fecal samples, with 88 ASVs (~19.21%) unique to sika deer and 52 ASVs (~11.35%) unique to Reeves’ muntjac, suggesting the consumption and utilization of specific food items for the two species. The family Rosaceae was the most abundant for both species, especially Rubus spp. and Smilax china . Alpha diversity (local species richness) indicated that the dietary species richness of sika deer was higher than that of Reeves’ muntjac, but the difference was not statistically significant. Sika deer also exhibited a higher evenness index ( J′ = 0.514) than Reeves’ muntjac ( J′ = 0.442). Linear discriminant effect size analysis revealed significant differences in forage plants between the two herbivores. The niche breadths of sika deer and Reeves’ muntjac were 11.36 and 14.06, respectively, and the dietary niche overlap index was 0.44. Our findings indicate the diet partitioning primarily manifested in the differentiation of food items and the proportion, which ultimately reduces the overlap of nutritional niches and helps avoid conflicts resulting from resource utilization. This study provides a deeper insight into the diversity of foraging strategies and the interspecific relationship of herbivores from the food dimension.
Simple Summary
Investigating the spatial distribution of wildlife contributes to understanding the adaptation of wildlife and conservation management. We assessed the summer spatial distribution of sika deer Cervus nippon in relation to human harvesting and other factors, such as human residences, forage abundance, and cover. Spatial distribution of deer was significantly biased to non-harvesting areas and far from residential areas, suggesting that the deer avoid riskier spaces by establishing a landscape of fear. High-quality food resources (deciduous broad-leaved trees and forbs) were more abundant in harvesting areas than in non-harvesting areas, suggesting that foraging pressure by deer reduce them. However, deer frequently used higher dwarf bamboo abundance areas, suggesting that the dwarf bamboo is an alternative food resource in non-harvesting areas. Our results suggest that human activities shifted the spatial distribution of deer to areas far from human activities, such as subalpine/alpine zones, which may increase damage to vulnerable ecosystems due to severe foraging pressure.
Abstract
It has been known that harvesting by humans strongly influences individual within-home range habitat selection of many deer species; however, little is known about the effect of harvesting on coarse-scale habitat selection (i.e., spatial distribution). We examined the summer spatial distribution of sika deer Cervus nippon in relation to human harvesting and other factors, such as human residences, forage abundance, and cover, using pellet group counts at Mount Fuji, central Japan, in 2018. In the study area, harvesting is conducted at medium elevation areas throughout the year, but not at high or low elevation areas where access is difficult or harvesting is prohibited. Spatial distribution of deer was significantly biased to non-harvesting areas and far from residential areas, suggesting that they avoid riskier spaces by establishing a landscape of fear. High-quality food resources (deciduous broad-leaved trees and forbs) were more abundant in harvesting areas than in non-harvesting areas, suggesting that foraging pressure by deer reduce them. However, there were no differences in abundances of more fibrous dwarf bamboo between harvesting and non-harvesting areas, and spatial distribution of deer was significantly biased to higher dwarf bamboo abundance areas, suggesting that the dwarf bamboo is an alternative food resource in non-harvesting areas where supplies of high-quality food were limited. Our results suggest that human harvesting pressure and residences shifted the spatial distribution of deer from the montane forests to subalpine/alpine zones, which may increase damage to vulnerable ecosystems due to severe foraging pressure.
Current global change scenarios demand knowledge on how anthropogenic impacts affect ecosystem functioning through changes in food web structure. Frugivorous mesocarnivores are a key link in trophic cascades because, while their abundance and behaviour are usually controlled by apex predators, they can provide high‐quality seed‐dispersal services to plant communities. Thus, the recent rewilding of large carnivores worldwide can trigger cascading effects for plants.
We investigated the top‐down effects of an apex predator (Iberian lynx Lynx pardinus) on seed‐dispersal services mediated by two mesocarnivore species (red fox Vulpes vulpes and stone marten Martes foina) at the plant community level by comparing areas with and without lynx in a Mediterranean mountain range in Southern Spain.
We collected scats of mesocarnivores (n = 1575) to assess frugivory and seed dispersal of 15 plant species over two consecutive fruiting seasons and two habitat types (open and forest). Specifically, we assessed the effect of lynx presence on (i) seed occurrence and fleshy‐fruit biomass per scat, (ii) number of scats containing seeds and (iii) diversity of dispersed seeds.
The quantity and diversity of dispersed seeds drastically decreased under predation risk for both mesocarnivore's species. Seed dispersal by stone martens was negatively affected by the presence of lynx, with a marked reduction in the number of scats with seeds (93%) and the diversity of dispersed seeds (46%). Foxes dispersed 68% fewer seeds in open habitats when coexisting with lynx, probably leading to differential contributions to seed‐dispersal effectiveness among habitats.
Our study reveals a novel trophic cascade from apex predators to plant communities. The behavioural responses of frugivorous mesocarnivores to predation risk and the reduction in the intensity of their faecal deposition pattern are probably related to their lower abundance when co‐occurring with apex predators. While rewilding apex predators is a successful conservation tool, attention should be paid to cascading effects across food webs, particularly where frugivore megafauna is missing and mesocarnivores provide unique services to plants.
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Wild boar Sus scrofa is increasing in numbers and extending its distribution across Europe and is difficult to control due to high reproductive potential. Dietary quality is a main determinant of wild boar population dynamics, and the extent to which they rely on human‐provided food provide a key to limit their distribution. Yet, we lack data on wild boar diet from northern Europe. Here we use DNA‐metabarcoding of faecal samples (n = 50) to determine wild boar diet during fall and winter in Norway. We mainly aimed to quantify the extent to which wild boar relies on natural or human‐provided food sources. A secondary aim was to determine whether diet varies with individual characteristics (sex, age or weight), season (winter or fall), and between the two regions with wild boar in Norway. We found a high degree of diet variability between individuals. Individuals consuming high amounts of edible fungi consumed low amounts of plant material. The (heavier) male wild boars consumed 50% more human provided food than the (lighter) female wild boars. There was no clear effect of age, season (winter versus fall), or region on diet with the sample size available. The negative correlation between plants and fungi in each sample suggests that using multiple primers targeting different taxa can provide quantitative diet information, and points to an important role of fungi (truffles) during winter and fall. The large individual variation in diet may reflect opportunistic feeding tactics in Scandinavian boreal forests, driven by a lack of acorns and few crops. Our study has relevance for understanding limitations of wild boars at their northern distribution range in Europe, and thus also provides important information for management.
Habitat use data are key to understanding species ecology and extinction risk. However, such information is lacking for the elusive deer species of Neotropical region. In this context, fecal sampling has emerged as an alternative tool, in which development and evaluation are essential to obtaining unbiased ecological data. We aimed to compare data from GPS-tracked animals and fecal sampling using scat detection dogs to evaluate the noninvasive performance of this method in habitat selection analysis. We carried out the study in the Brazilian Pantanal, where we monitored six free-living Gray Brocket Deer (Mazama gouazoubira) with GPS collars for 1 year (average of 584 GPS locations/animal) and collected fecal samples (n = 649) simultaneously along a set of transects designed for a scat detection dog survey. We evaluated habitat selection using the chi-square test in an availability/utilization analysis and submitted both data to a bootstrap procedure to assess its precision and accuracy with increasing sample size. GPS data indicated habitat selection at a fine utilization scale, in which savanna and cerrado were preferred and open grassland habitat was avoided. Exclusive fecal sampling also indicated habitat selection, revealing the preference for cerrado and avoidance of open grassland. The GPS and fecal habitat utilization estimates did not differ significantly and fecal sampling increased precision and accuracy with increased sample size, reaching minimal values once n = 200 which should be considered a sufficient survey effort. The similarity between the two methods suggested the reliability of fecal sampling, as long as a standardized sampling design is used. This noninvasive sampling framework can provide previously unavailable ecological data for threatened Neotropical deer as well as other elusive species.
It is highly anticipated to explore low-priced raw materials for preparing nitrocellulose (NC). The use of low-priced raw materials reduces environmental pollution while utilizing waste. In this paper, it is fascinating to prepare NC for propellants based on giant panda feces. The synthesis of NC based on giant panda feces and bitter bamboo stems as raw materials were labeled as P-NC and B-NC, respectively. Compared with cotton-based NC (NC12.5%), P-NC has certain advantages in decomposition heat, burning flame and speed, and mechanical properties. However, this advantage is very slight. The gastrointestinal digestion of giant pandas shortens the time for extracting α-cellulose. P-NC and B-NC are very similar in structure and properties, except that P-NC maintains a higher degree of crystallinity. The results show that P-NC can replace cotton-based NC in terms of performance for propellants. It should be emphasized that this paper is based on the use of animal excrement, which not only protects the environment and saves resources, but also reduces the workload of the staff at the giant panda conservation base. In addition, this paper also provides us with a new idea about waste utilization.
We propose a design‐based strategy to exploit pellet group counts performed within plots of a prefixed size using the clearance count technique with the purposes of analyzing habitat selection, mapping the pellet group presence throughout the study area, and estimating the abundance of deer populations. As is customary in design‐based inference, the strategy is free of model assumptions, and the precision and statistical consistency of the proposed estimators are determined by the probabilistic sampling scheme adopted to locate plots. The unique necessary assumptions are the absence of migratory movements during the survey period, the accurate recording of the number of pellet groups deposited within sample plots between the 2 visits, and a precise approximation of the daily defecation rate of the population. In addition to these assumptions, which can be attained by a suitable design of the survey, the statistical soundness of the strategy rests on the use of tessellation stratified sampling, a stratified sampling scheme that ensures an even distribution of plots throughout the study area. The scheme also allows for the estimation of the standard errors and the construction of confidence intervals without involving any other assumptions. We applied this strategy in summer 2019 in a protected area of a Mediterranean coastal region to estimate the density of a fallow deer ( Dama dama ) population. We estimated the corresponding standard error considering the uncertainty entailed by the estimation of the daily defecation rate, with the purpose of performing reliable monitoring. The proposed strategy provided precise estimates of deer abundance and is readily implementable in the field, standardized, and easily repeatable over time, thus allowing reliable monitoring and comparisons across time and space, which are fundamental attributes for management of deer populations.
Studies on resource utilisation by carnivores are essential as they aid in assessing their role in a community, by unravelling predator–prey relationships. Globally, prey depletion is one of the primary causes of declining Asiatic wild dog (dhole) populations. Therefore, it is essential to examine their diet across their range. Our study presents insights into dhole feeding ecology across multiple sites from the central Indian landscape of Maharashtra, India, for the first time. We conducted scat analysis using a subset of genetically identified scats and collected additional data from kills observed while tracking radio-collared dholes and other known packs from 2 study sites. We analysed 861 scats, and 191 dhole kills to identify species and age class of prey. We estimated the relative contribution of various prey, utilising non-linear biomass models of prey consumption. Overall, wild ungulates like sambar and chital were the principal prey in terms of biomass (sambar 61.08%; chital 19.08%) and number of prey consumed (sambar 39.28%; chital 13.83%). An analysis of kill data also suggested that dholes strongly preferred the two deer species; and differential selection of age classes was observed at the 2 study sites. Our study can potentially help manage and conserve this important population of an endangered carnivore.
Fire is rampant throughout subtropical South and Southeast Asian grasslands. However, very little is known about the role of fire and pyric herbivory on the functioning of highly productive subtropical monsoon grasslands lying within the Cwa climatic region. We assessed the temporal effect of fire on postfire regrowth quality and associated pyric‐herbivory in the subtropical monsoon grasslands of Bardia National Park, Nepal. Every year, grasslands are burned as a management intervention in the park, especially between March and May. Within a week after fire, at the end of March 2020, we established 60 m × 60 m plots within patches of burned grassland in the core area of the Park. We collected grass samples from the plots and determined physical and chemical properties of the vegetation at regular 30‐day intervals from April to July 2020, starting from 30 days after fire to assess postfire regrowth forage quality. We counted pellet groups of cervids that are abundant in the area for the same four months from 2 m × 2 m quadrats that were permanently marked with pegs along the diagonal of each 60 m × 60 m plot to estimate intensity of use by deer to the progression of postfire regrowth. We observed strong and significant reductions in crude protein (mean value 9.1 to 4.1 [55% decrease]) and phosphorus (mean value 0.2 to 0.11 [45% decrease]) in forage collected during different time intervals, that is, from 30 days to 120 days after fire. Deer utilized the burned areas extensively for a short period, that is, up to two months after fire when the burned areas contained short grasses with a higher level of crude protein and phosphorus. The level of use of postfire regrowth by chital (Axis axis) differed significantly over time since fire, with higher intensity of use at 30 days after fire. The level of use of postfire regrowth by swamp deer (Rucervus duvaucelii) did not differ significantly until 90 days after fire, however, decreased significantly after 90 days since fire. Large‐scale single event fires, thus, may not fulfil nutritional requirements of all species in the deer assemblage in these subtropical monsoon grasslands. This is likely because the nutritional requirements of herbivores differ due to differences in body size and physiological needs—maintenance, reproduction, and lactation. We recommend a spatiotemporal manipulation of fire to reinforce grazing feedback and to yield forage of high quality for the longest possible period for a sustainable high number of deer to maintain a viable tiger population within the park. Given the widespread use of fire as a cost‐effective grassland management tool in subtropical monsoon grasslands in the Cwa climate region, it is important to realize that the positive benefit of a single event fire for the conservation of large herbivores is time specific, as the effect of fire on forage quality perhaps lasts only for short period.
Maintaining gene flow among fragmented habitat patches is critical for the long‐term persistence of wild species. Landscape genetics tools are often used to understand the impact of landscape features on gene flow among fragmented populations. The ability to detect the relationship between gene flow and landscape depends on the power of the genetic tools used, which increases with the number of genotyped loci. Next‐generation sequencing (NGS) based methods allow genotyping of a high number of loci but are challenging to implement for non‐invasive samples, which are commonly used in conservation genetics research. Here we assess the impact of landscape heterogeneity on jungle cat (Felis chaus) movement using genome‐wide single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers obtained from fecal samples, using a methylation‐based DNA (MBD) enrichment method. We successfully genotyped 20 jungle cat individuals at 2246 SNP loci and compared our results to a previous study that used microsatellite markers and 93 individuals. Our results demonstrate the efficiency and robustness of the MBD enrichment approach with fecal samples in generating genome‐wide data for endangered and cryptic species of conservation concern. Our landscape analyses revealed that roads and human‐dominated land‐use negatively impact jungle cat movement in central India. We explicitly quantified the uncertainty in our analyses and concluded that several thousand SNPs from fewer individuals provide more power than tens of microsatellites from more individuals, in quantifying the effects of landscape on gene flow. Our results provide insight into the impacts of anthropogenic habitat modification on an often‐ignored small carnivore species. Insights on connectivity for such species can help policymakers and wildlife managers move beyond connectivity contingent on charismatic species to devise holistic landscape‐level management plans for multiple carnivores.
Mammals have experienced a massive decline in their populations and geographic ranges worldwide. The sloth bear, Melursus ursinus (Shaw, 1791), is one of many species facing conservation threats. Despite being endangered in Nepal, decades of inattention to the situation have hindered their conservation and management. We assessed the distribution and patterns of habitat use by sloth bears in Chitwan National Park (CNP), Nepal. We conducted sign surveys from March to June, 2020, in 4 × 4 km grids (n = 45). We collected detection/non‐detection data along a 4‐km trail that was divided into 20 continuous segments of 200 m each. We obtained environmental, ecological, and anthropogenic covariates to understand determinants of sloth bear habitat occupancy. The data were analyzed using the single‐species single‐season occupancy method, with a spatially correlated detection. Using repeated observations, these models accounted for the imperfect detectability of the species to provide robust estimates of habitat occupancy. The model‐averaged occupancy estimate for the sloth bear was 69% and the detection probability was 0.25. The probability of habitat occupancy by sloth bears increased with the presence of termites and fruits and in rugged, dry, open, undisturbed habitats. Our results indicate that the sloth bear is elusive, functionally unique, and widespread in CNP. Future conservation interventions and action plans aimed at sloth bear management must adequately consider their habitat requirements. The current distribution and determinants of habitat use by the sloth bear in a protected area from Nepal are clarified using an occupancy method.
Multi-cropping was vital for provisioning large population centers across ancient Eurasia. In Southwest Asia, multi-cropping, in which grain, fodder, or forage could be reliably cultivated during dry summer months, only became possible with the translocation of summer grains, like millet, from Africa and East Asia. Despite some textual sources suggesting millet cultivation as early as the third millennium BCE, the absence of robust archaeobotanical evidence for millet in semi-arid Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq) has led most archaeologists to conclude that millet was only grown in the region after the mid-first millennium BCE introduction of massive, state-sponsored irrigation systems. Here, we present the earliest micro-botanical evidence of the summer grain broomcorn millet ( Panicum miliaceum ) in Mesopotamia, identified using phytoliths in dung-rich sediments from Khani Masi, a mid-second millennium BCE site located in northern Iraq. Taphonomic factors associated with the region’s agro-pastoral systems have likely made millet challenging to recognize using conventional macrobotanical analyses, and millet may therefore have been more widespread and cultivated much earlier in Mesopotamia than is currently recognized. The evidence for pastoral-related multi-cropping in Bronze Age Mesopotamia provides an antecedent to first millennium BCE agricultural intensification and ties Mesopotamia into our rapidly evolving understanding of early Eurasian food globalization.
Every macropod population is unique in terms of the combination of species, site and management goals, so there is no universal ‘best’ method for surveying populations. We distinguish between different measures of abundance and the confidence a manager can place in them. We examine the separate components of survey methods: the survey platform, mode of detection and form of sampling. We also review the range of current methods available and highlight new developments, including their assumptions and limitations. To guide managers in choosing a method for their management context, we provide a decision matrix based on the behavioural ecology of the target species, the structure of habitat at the site and the porosity of the site boundary. To promote current best practice, we describe in detail four standard counting methods: direct count, sweep count, faecal accumulation rate and distance sampling.
American black bears (Ursus americanus Pallas, 1780) are opportunistic foragers, and across most of their range in North America, their diet is predominantly vegetation with limited consumption of vertebrates and invertebrates. However, they are also predators of ungulates, especially neonates, with regional variation in the amount of predation pressure they exert. We used scat analysis to examine the diet of black bears during the calving season in a moose (Alces alces (Linnaeus, 1758)) – woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou (Gmelin, 1788)) system in the Boreal forest of northern Ontario, Canada. Bears consumed herbaceous plants (46.5%), fruits and (or) seeds (20.0%), moose (3.3% adults; 4.3% calves), American beaver (Castor canadensis Kuhl, 1820; 8.5%), and insects (mostly ants; 4.2%). Bears had the highest consumption of moose and beaver in early spring, before switching to a more vegetation-dominated diet. We did not detect evidence of caribou consumption. Based on our results, black bear consumption of moose, particularly neonates, may warrant further investigation.
p>High density of herbivore populations can lead to intense foraging competition and depletion of food consequently lowering diet quality and population performance. We tested for the effects of the density of eastern black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis michaeli) in nine in situ populations of 0.01–0.7 individuals per km2 density range on the quality of their diet while controlling for plant available moisture and plant available nutrients. We used faecal calcium, phosphorus, copper and zinc concentrations as proxy indices for dietary quality from 473 fresh faecal samples obtained from 77 adult animals in situ, after determining a positive faeces-diet mineral correlation in feeding trials with black rhinoceros in zoos. Some populations surpassed 70%–80% of their estimated maximum stocking densities expected to cause impact on forage. However, we did not find significant correlation between rhino population density and dietary quality, as measured via faecal mineral nutrient content. This suggests that black rhinoceros may have sufficient behavioural plasticity to adjust their diet to cover their nutritional requirements when density increases. Instead, 1-month lagged plant available moisture, reflecting precipitation over the 4 weeks preceding each sampling effort, significantly explained the mineral concentrations in the faeces. By contrast, plant available nutrients had no effect.</p
Understanding and predicting large-scale ecological responses to global environmental change requires comparative studies across geographic scales with coordinated efforts and standardized methodologies. We designed, applied, and assessed standardized protocols to measure tundra herbivory at three spatial scales: plot, site (habitat), and study area (landscape). The plot- and site-level protocols were tested in the field during summers 2014–2015 at 11 sites, nine of them consisting of warming experimental plots included in the International Tundra Experiment (ITEX). The study area protocols were assessed during 2014–2018 at 24 study areas across the Arctic. Our protocols provide comparable and easy to implement methods for assessing the intensity of invertebrate herbivory within ITEX plots and for characterizing vertebrate herbivore communities at larger spatial scales. We discuss methodological constraints and make recommendations for how these protocols can be used and how sampling effort can be optimized to obtain comparable estimates of herbivory, both at ITEX sites and at large landscape scales. The application of these protocols across the tundra biome will allow characterizing and comparing herbivore communities across tundra sites and at ecologically relevant spatial scales, providing an important step towards a better understanding of tundra ecosystem responses to large-scale environmental change.
The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) is a key prey species in Mediterranean ecosystems. However, it is also considered a pest on many oceanic islands, even though its true abundance and ecological effects on different island habitats are poorly understood. We present data on rabbit abundance for the best-preserved habitats of the Canary Islands, Spain (National Parks), including ecosystems differing in climate, topography, plant species richness and composition. Three methods of assessing rabbit abundance from faecal pellet density are compared to ascertain the best method to compare highly distinct habitats. The Cleaning method was used during spring, summer, autumn and winter to check whether there were differences in pellet degradation among habitats that could prevent comparisons between them. Rabbit abundance is determined by complex interactions among abiotic and biotic factor. Despite differences in climate conditions, the results obtained for rabbit density with fast methods correlated well with the slow Cleaning method. The Circular method was the most useful to work with for extensive sampling in different habitats. The best models for explaining rabbit density for all habitat types combined included tree cover, abiotic and topographic and climatic variables. Thus, factors influencing rabbit density vary depending on habitat type with Macaronesian laurel forests being the ecosystem least likely to be invaded by rabbits. The present study highlights that rabbits reach damaging densities for plant conservation in most areas on the Canary Islands.
Mammalogy as a discipline was pursued in Mexico since the mid-17 th century. However, Mexican researchers were involved primarily in the mid-20 th century, when national scientific journals were established to emphasize research on mammals. In 2010, the Asociación Mexicana de Mastozoología, A. C., initiated the journal Therya. Therya has now completed its first decade of publication, and in this work, we analyze the articles and scientific notes published in Therya, focused on the studies of mammals in Mexican territory, including researchers and institutions, to describe the path that mammalogy has taken in recent years in Mexico. This synthesis therefore serves as a frame of reference for future mammalogy studies. We compiled all papers published in Therya during the period 2010-2019. We built a database gathering information from these publications such as authors, institutions and states of origin, study areas, capture methods, topics and taxa studied. We excluded from the analyses research outside of Mexico. We did a descriptive statistics analysis including mean, proportions, percentage and trends for each and all the sections. Therya has published 181 articles and 52 scientific notes on mammals distributed in Mexico. The majority of authors and institutions were from Mexico City. The states of southeastern Mexico were the most used as a study area, particularly Oaxaca and Chiapas. The orders Carnivora and Cetartiodactyla were the most studied, mainly using indirect methods. Trapping methods were most commonly used for small mammals. The least studied orders were Eulipotyphla, Cingulata, and Pilosa. The most studied topics are ecology, diversity, conservation and distribution. Therya has become one of the most important journals about mammal research in Mexico. Research in mammalo-gy, as reflected in the pages of Therya, is based in academic institutions with the metropolitan area of Mexico City, reflecting the institutional infrastructure and age, and possibly institutional budgetary factors. The southeast portion of the country is well studied due to the existence of regional institutions, as well as to the concentration of high biodiversity. The least studied regions of Mexico may be the result of a reduced number of research groups and social insecurity. Much research is focused on small mammals, making Sherman traps and mist nets the most used trapping methods; carnivores and cetartiodactyls are the most studied groups, using indirect study methods reducing study costs and effort. Ecology, diversity and distribution are the most studied topics, these studies allow the development of management plans. En México la mastozoología tiene registro desde mediados del siglo XVII, con investigadores mexicanos involucrados desde mediados del siglo XX, siendo a finales de éste cuando se establecieron las primeras revistas nacionales con énfasis en mamíferos. En 2010 la Asociación Mexicana de Mastozoología, A. C., creó la revista científica Therya, que en 2019 completó su primera década de publicación. En este trabajo analizamos los artículos y notas científicas de Therya, enfocándonos en estudios en el territorio mexicano y los investigadores e instituciones que los realizan, para describir la trayectoria de la mastozoología en México en años recientes. Compilamos todas las publicaciones de la re-vista Therya entre 2010-2019. Construimos una base de datos recopilando la información de autores, instituciones y estados de procedencia, áreas de estudio, métodos de captura, temas y taxones. Excluimos las investigaciones que no incluyeran al territorio mexicano como área de estudio. Finalmente realizamos un análisis descriptivo incluyendo los promedios, proporciones, porcentajes y tendencias más representativas. Therya ha publicado 181 artículos y 52 notas científicas de mamíferos distribuidos en México. La mayoría de los autores e instituciones pro-vienen de la Ciudad de México. El sureste de México, principalmente Oaxaca y Chiapas, es más frecuente como área de estudio. Los órdenes más estudiados fueron Carnivora y Cetartiodactila, principalmente por métodos indirectos. Métodos de trampeo se utilizaron frecuentemente para pequeños mamíferos. Eulipotyphla, Cingulata y Pilosa cuentan con pocos estudios. Los temas más estudiados son ecología, diversidad, conservación y distribución. Therya se ha pocisionado como una de las revistas más importantes sobre investigación de mamíferos en México. La mastozoología, como se refleja en Therya, se ha desarrollado principalmente por instituciones con mayor antigüedad, infraestructura y presupuesto institucional. El sureste del país es más estudiado debido a la existencia de instituciones regionales además de la alta concentra-ción de biodiversidad. Las regiones menos estudiadas pueden relacionarse con la falta de grupos de investigación cercanos y la inseguridad. Muchas investigaciones se concentran en pequeños mamíferos, haciendo de las trampas Sherman y redes de niebla los métodos de trampeo más utilizados; carnívoros y cetartiodáctilos son los grupos más estudiados usando métodos de estudio indirecto que reducen los costos y es-fuerzo de estudio. La ecología, diversidad y distribución son los temas más estudiados, que pueden apoyar el desarrollo de planes de manejo.
Increasing population density can increase infectious disease risk and thus reduce population growth and size. Host-parasite interactions of threatened animals that remain in small protected forest fragments therefore need to be monitored carefully. Due to extreme conservation efforts, the mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei) population in the 450-km2 Virunga Massif has more than doubled since 1973, reaching 604 individuals in 2016. To better understand changes in the transmission risks of soil-borne and other enteric pathogens for mountain gorillas, we determined defecation outputs of different age-sex classes and the diurnal variation in feces deposition. We weighed 399 wet fecal samples deposited at nest sites and on trails between nest sites by gorillas of varying age and sex, determined by lobe diameter, from five social groups (n = 58 gorillas) that range in the Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda. We found increasing daily average defecation outputs with increasing age-sex class (infants, 435 g; juveniles, 1346 g; medium-sized gorillas, 2446 g; silverbacks, 3609 g). Gorillas deposited two– to threefold the amount of feces at nest sites compared to on trails, suggesting that nest sites may function as hotspots for enteric pathogen infections through direct contact or when gorillas ingest foods contaminated with infectious larvae during site revisits in intervals matching the maturation period of environmentally transmitted gastrointestinal parasites. In combination with ranging and demographic data, these findings will enable the modeling of spatiotemporal variation in soil contamination and infectious disease risk for Virunga gorillas as their population density continues to increase.
Diet is important for understanding the ecology and evolution of populations. When examining animals’ diets, the lowest taxonomic rank (i.e., species level) is generally used. However, it is questionable whether dietary description varies with respect to the plant taxonomy or with the extent of plant species diversity in landscapes. We studied the diet of the Alpine mountain hare (Lepus timidus varronis) by analyzing the botanical composition of fecal pellets and comparing the results with the availability of food plants. Overall, Alpine mountain hares selected ligneous plants, whereas grasses were neutrally consumed or avoided. Plant identification at the genus and family level revealed the most information, whereas little additional information was gleaned by identifying food plants at the species level. In low-diversity spruce forests and at higher elevations, hares exhibited greater diet breadth compared to high-diversity vegetative mosaics or at lower elevations, even if they had access to the same types of plants. This is likely due to the hares’ need to diversify their diet when plant quantity is low. Greater diet breadth and selection of a larger number of different plant types at the beginning of the plant vegetation growth period suggested that more food plants suitable for Alpine mountain hares were available during this time compared to the end of the vegetation period.
Scientific research requires selection of accurate research methodology to generate evidence based findings. In a study conducted by Puri et al. (2020) titled “The balancing act: Maintaining leopard–wild prey equilibrium could offer economic benefits to people in a shared forest landscape of central India” the authors have reported occupancy estimate of common leopard without incorporating false positive detections. Such results can be highly inaccurate with an error rate of 50–80%. The authors also identified common leopard scats based on morphological attributes through field surveys which have often been critiqued to be erroneous. Morphological compared with molecular identification of leopard scats can have potential error rates which might range between (7–100%) leading to flawed assessment of leopard diet and implications for conserving large carnivores within human-dominated landscapes of South Asia. Evidence based research provides solutions to adopt strategies and aids conservation of endangered wildlife. Results based on inaccurate methods can mislead decision makers and further exaggerate conclusions drawn. Human-leopard conflicts are a major conservation challenge with implications for human wellbeing, livelihoods and large carnivore coexistence within shared landscapes of South Asia. Studies focused on understanding such human-predator interactions should adhere to correct documentation of facts rather than exaggerating falsified information. We further recommend that research based on proper scientific methods be adopted while providing information on large carnivores within human-dominated landscapes.
Evaluating the population status of elusive and rare species is a challenge for wildlife managers and conservationists. A promising method that has been used is faecal pellet counting applied to the faecal standing crop (FSC) method. The FSC method estimates population density based on faecal pellets counted in a given area by using parameters such as defecation rate and faecal persistence, which vary according to the environment. The search for faeces has become more effective with the help of scat detection dogs, which have a better detection rate compared to humans. Therefore, we aimed to incorporate the sampling effectiveness of scat detection dogs as parameters in FSC methods. For this purpose, two experiments were conducted to evaluate the detectability of Mazama faeces related to their distance from a search transect and their age (time since deposition). Our results show that incorporating scat detection dog parameters can result in density estimates three times higher than those reached without incorporating the detection dog parameters in FSC methods.
Biased sampling could affect the results due to the pseudoreplication from the same animal and the spatial heterogeneity of food distribution although sampling methods are not always well discussed in studies of fecal analysis for animal food habits. We investigated the effects of biased sampling in sample size, collection site and its surrounding environment on the fecal analysis using the point frame (%PF) and the frequency of occurrence (%FO) methods of island raccoon dogs Nyctereutes procyonoides, which are opportunistic in food habits and defecate at fixed latrines. Our analyses showed that when the sample size was <30 and <50 in %PF and %FO, respectively, a significant bias was observed, and if the fecal sampling environment was restricted to the inland area, a significant bias occurred even if the sample size was <50 and <70 in %PF and %FO, respectively. If the sampling point was restricted to a specific latrine or the seashore, a significant bias in the dietary analysis could not be eliminated even if the sample size was artificially increased to 100. To avoid biases, spatially biased sampling to collect many feces from a specific latrine should be avoided. It seemed necessary to collect 30 and 40 fecal samples in %PF and %FO, respectively, from different latrines.
The mitigation of ecological/economic impacts of wild boar Sus scrofa is one of the most challenging issues in wildlife management worldwide. Monitoring population density and impact of wild boar is crucial to plan appropriate management actions to reduce its density, environmental impact and epidemiological risk, as well as to evaluate control effectiveness. In 2018-2019, we used plot-based faeces counts, coupled with specific estimates of daily defecation rates, to estimate wild boar density and rooting activity in natural/semi-natural habitats, in a Mediterranean protected area. Daily defecation rate was 6.7 faeces/individual, much lower than that of ruminants. We obtained estimates of 70.0-70.5 faeces/km2 , corresponding to wild boar densities of c. 10.5 individuals/km2 (relative standard error: 18%) in both years. Low daily defecation rates and skewed distribution frequencies of wild boar faeces should be considered to plan surveys with an adequate sampling design and intensity. Faeces abundance and rooting activity peaked in ecotones, i.e. open areas at the interface of wood patches, whereas they did not differ between other habitat types, suggesting a fine-scale concordance between the two indicators. Long-term monitoring is needed to assess relationships between indicators of impact and abundance at a broad scale. Our work shows how to undertake simultaneously wild boar density estimates and impact assessment in natural environments, which is particularly important for protected areas and/or habitats of conservation concern across the globally distributed Mediterranean biome.
DNA extracted from fecal samples contains DNA from the focal species, food, bacteria and pathogens. Most DNA quantification methods measure total DNA and cannot differentiate among sources. Despite the desirability of noninvasive fecal sampling for studying wildlife populations, low amounts of focal species DNA make it difficult to use for next-generation sequencing (NGS), where accurate DNA quantification is critical for normalization. Two factors are required prior to using fecal samples in NGS libraries: (1) an accurate quantification method for the amount of target DNA and (2) a determination of the relative amount of target DNA needed for successful single nucleotide polymorphism genotyping assays. Here, we address these needs by developing primers to amplify a 101 bp region of the nuclear F2 gene and a quantitative PCR (qPCR) assay that allows the accurate quantification of the amount of polar bear ( Ursus maritimus ) DNA in fecal extracts. We test the assay on pure polar bear DNA extracted from muscle tissue and find a high correlation between fluorometric and qPCR quantifications. The qPCR assay was also successfully used to quantify the amount of DNA derived from polar bears in fecal extractions. Orthologs of the F2 gene have been identified across vertebrates; thus, similar qPCR assays could be developed for other species to enable noninvasive studies.
Background
The Mountain Pygmy-possum ( Burramys parvus ) is a critically endangered marsupial, endemic to alpine regions of southern Australia. We investigated the diet of a recently discovered population of the possum in northern Kosciuszko National Park, NSW, Australia. This new population occurs at elevations well below the once-presumed lower elevation limit of 1,600 m.
Goals and Methods
Faecal material was analysed to determine if dietary composition differed between individuals in the newly discovered northern population and those in the higher elevation southern population, and to examine how diet was influenced by rainfall in the southern population and seasonal changes in resource availability in the northern population.
Results and Discussion
The diet of B. parvus in the northern population comprised of arthropods, fruits and seeds. Results indicate the diet of both populations shares most of the same invertebrate orders and plant species. However, in the absence of preferred food types available to the southern population, individuals of the northern population opportunistically consumed different species that were similar to those preferred by individuals in higher altitude populations. Differing rainfall amounts had a significant effect on diet, with years of below average rainfall having a greater percentage composition and diversity of invertebrates. Seasonal variation was also recorded, with the northern population increasing the diversity of invertebrates in their diet during the Autumn months when Bogong Moths ( Agrotis infusa ) were absent from those sites, raising questions about the possum’s dependence on the species
Conclusions
Measurable effects of rainfall amount and seasonal variation on the dietary composition suggest that predicted climatic variability will have a significant impact on its diet, potentially impacting its future survival. Findings suggest that it is likely that B. parvus is not restricted by dietary requirements to its current pattern of distribution. This new understanding needs to be considered when formulating future conservation strategies for this critically endangered species.
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