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© AET 2016 and contributors 1
EMISSION FREE FOOD LOGISTICS IN CITIES BY APPLYING OPTIMAL
MODALITY MIX OF ELECTRICAL VEHICLES: THE CASE OF THE CITY
OF AMSTERDAM
Nilesh Anand
Urban Technology Group, Amsterdam University of Applied Science, Netherlands
Sharma Biharie
Urban Technology Group, Amsterdam University of Applied Science, Netherlands
Dick van Damme
Urban Technology Group, Amsterdam University of Applied Science, Netherlands
1. INTRODUCTION
One of the biggest social phenomena of the 21th century is that world cities
are growing at an unprecedented rate
i
. On the commercial side, companies
are producing increasing varieties of food items. Today’s choice at a
supermarket can be overwhelming
ii
. But every year numerous new ‘bites’ are
added, with a trend towards rare and never before popularized ingredients
iii
.
The combination of these social and commercial phenomena has resulted in a
significant increase in food logistic activities in cities. Changes in living and
working patterns have also contributed to a higher demand of food items in
cities. The supply of food items in cities – to hotels, restaurants, houses,
offices etc. – is undeniably important. Food logistics are a necessary activity
but also have a significant negative impact, especially in terms of pollution and
congestion. With more than 80% of the world’s population living in cities by
2020, growing food logistics is going to be bigger challenge for cities (Aljohani
and Thompson 2016).
The increase in the number of cities has also triggered competition between
cities for attracting investment and talent. One of the most important factors
deciding the competitiveness of the city is their smart approach to change,
integrating environmental sustainability performance with prosperity goals
iv
.
To retain or gain a competitive position in the region, cities are investigating
how to do more with less, trying to find a clever way to be sustainable and
environment-friendly. Meanwhile the cargo volume within the Netherlands
increased to over 500 million tons
v
in 2015. With a population of around 2,4
million, Amsterdam is not only the Netherlands’ biggest city but also its social
and financial hub. Amsterdam is also a famous tourist destination attracting
around 13 million
vi
visitors each year. With such large number of people living
and visiting the city, the food logistics in Amsterdam are characterized by big
trucks in small streets. Along with passenger and building materials transport,
food delivery trucks are the prime contributors to its deteriorated air quality.
Different measures (e.g. an Environmental Zone and delivery restrictions)
© AET 2016 and contributors 2
have been implemented by the municipality of Amsterdam, but no significant
improvement
vii
has been achieved.
This paper presents a quantitative study about analysing food logistics in
Amsterdam city. The research focuses on finding the optimal modality mix
using electrical vehicles in food distribution for the city of Amsterdam. For this
purpose, the food related freight is categorized in six different categories.
Next, different types of electrical vehicles are evaluated and a list of potential
vehicles was prepared based on certain criteria (e.g. cost, energy use). Data
about the food distribution activities has been collected by interviewing
wholesale distributors in the Amsterdam region. Using the data about food
distribution the optimal mix of vehicles was calculated. The study gives insight
into the use of electrical vehicles for emission free food logistic activities. It
concludes that using optimal modalities can increase the load factor up to
almost 100%.
2. RESEARCH APPROACH
Food logistics activities contribute significantly to the overall logistics activities
within city areas. Most of the vehicles delivering food items in city areas run
on conventional fuel (e.g. Petrol, Diesel). Such vehicles cause problems
related to air and noise pollution. Electric vehicles form a promising alternative
to these conventional vehicles as they emit no fumes and generate hardly any
or no noise during operation.
In this case study, we analyse the possibility of “electrifying” the logistics
activities by replacing conventional vehicles with electrical vehicles.
Consequently, this study focuses on finding the optimal modality mix of
electrical vehicles for food logistics in the city of Amsterdam, within its A10
ring. Figure 1 gives overview research framework.
Figure 1. Overview of the research framework
In the first step the food logistics activities in the Amsterdam city is estimated.
For that number of vehicles delivering food items is estimated. There is a
© AET 2016 and contributors 3
huge variety of the food items are delivered in the urban areas. However, to
select electrical vehicles for replacing traditional vehicles, we must know the
standard goods sizes. Accordingly, in the next step standard shipment size (in
terms of roll container, beer keg…) is found out. In the following step, electric
vehicle selection is done based in specific criteria. Using information from
earlier steps, optimal mix of using electrical vehicles is calculated. Finally, the
results are explained and recommendations are given.
3. ESTIMATION OF FOOD LOGISTICS ACTIVITIES IN AMSTERDAM
Amsterdam is the most populated city in the Netherlands. The city is home to
around 820,000 people1. Being one of the most attractive tourist destinations
in Europe, Amsterdam attracts around 13 million tourists6 every year (REF).
The local inhabitants and tourists generate a huge demand for food items in
the city. This demand in turn generates intensive food freight activities in the
city. For this research we focus on the food logistic activities within the A10
ring road of the Amsterdam (See Figure 2). Henceforth, the city of Amsterdam
basically stands for the area within the A10 ring road and south of the river IJ.
Figure 2. Geographical scope of the research – area within A10 in Amsterdam
Variety of information is used to estimate food logistics activities in the
Amsterdam city. Figure 3 gives schematic about food logistics activities
estimation. At different stages the data is validated to check the consistency in
the information used for the research. In the following text, brief explanation is
given about sources used to estimate food logistics activities in Amsterdam.
© AET 2016 and contributors 4
Figure 3. Estimation of food logistics activities
(A) VREF (Volvo Research Education Foundation) model
Using VREF model we calculated number of shipments in Amsterdam city.
Dablanc (2015) uses 0,74 shipment per employment in Paris. Assuming same
index for Amsterdam with 484,290 jobs, the total number of shipment
generated per week are around 362075. Assuming 29% of these shipments
are food (RWS data source – see explanation in (B)) related which is equal to
105002. Table 1 shows number of food related shipments using VREF
formula.
Table 1. Number of food related shipment
Detail
Number
Number of jobs
489290
Shipment per job per week
0,74
Total shipment per week
362075
Food shipment per week
105002
(B) Data from RWS - Rijkswaterstaat (Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure)
In 1995, in a survey by Rijkswaterstaat (Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure), data
about freight transportation in ton was collected. In the survey, data about
© AET 2016 and contributors 5
freight vehicles transporting all commodity type was collected. Table 2 shows
data about food freight in ton collected during survey in 1995.
Table 2. Food freight data collection by RWS
Freight detail
Ton
Total freight
459324
Total raw food freight
50483
Total processed food freight
82684
Total food freight
133167
According to the data, around 29% of the total goods transported in related to
food freight.
(C) Data from statistics bureau of Netherlands (CBS)
Every year the Statistics Netherlands bureau (CBS) collects data about freight
activities in Netherlands. Unlike the RWS survey in 1995, CBS does not
collect data for specific sectors. Therefore, the transport data are an
aggregation of all types of goods and it is not possible to know how much of
the total figure is related to food freight. CBS collects freight data in terms of
ton-km.
According to CBS data 25,300 million ton-km freight moved in year 2015 in
the Netherlands (CBS 2015). Table 3 shows data for total freight in ton-km for
Netherlands (NL).
Table 3. Total cargo in Netherlands in ton-km
Year
Total cargo in NL (ton-km)
1995
19462
2015
25300
(D) Private survey and data collection from distribution companies
Additionally, to get detail data about food logistics activities in the Amsterdam
region, a private survey was conducted. Accordingly, data was collected from
8 food suppliers. Anonymity agreement was signed with each company to not
share the data or detail of the company. The collected data is combined to get
aggregate view on food distribution activities in the city of Amsterdam.
© AET 2016 and contributors 6
Following types of information is gathered in the survey:
Average number of trucks & vans visits per retailer
Average weight of delivery to a retailer
Total number of movements or retailer delivered in Amsterdam
Average freight vehicle tour length
Average loading rate of the freight vehicle
(E) Research and statistics Amsterdam
Information about number of food selling entities (e.g. supermarket, Hotels,
Restaurants, café, …) are collected from research and statistics department of
Amsterdam region. Table 4 gives overview of total food selling entities in
Amsterdam.
Table 4. Total food selling entities in Amsterdam (within A10 ring road)
Food selling entity type
Total number
Supermarkets
150
HoReCa
1736
Food-stalls
539
Open markets
120
There are approximately 150 supermarkets in the Amsterdam. Apart from
supermarkets, HoReCa (Hotel, Restaurant, Café/Catering), Food-shops and
open markets also contribute to the food logistics activities substantially.
(F) Open data from Department of Infrastructure, Traffic and Transport (DIVV
- Dienst Infrastructuur Verkeer en Vervoer)
In Netherlands, the Department of Infrastructure, Traffic and Transport
provides open data. This data source gave information about number of
freight vehicles in the city of Amsterdam. Accordingly, around 29070 vehicles
enters Amsterdam region. Since, Around half of the vehicles go to Amsterdam
west port, Schiphol airport and flower auctions. Therefore effectively 50 % of
the vehicles entering Amsterdam region goes to with A10 ring road. Since we
are interested in only food –freight vehicles we assume that 29% of total
freight vehicle is food-freight vehicles. 29% index comes from source RWS
(B).
© AET 2016 and contributors 7
Table 5. Food related freight vehicles
Freight vehicle types
Number
Total freight vehicles
14535
Total trucks
1615
Total vans
12920
Total food freight
4215
Total food freight trucks
468
Total food freight vans
3747
3.1 Validation of food logistics data for Amsterdam
Food freight ton-km in Amsterdam [G & H]
From VREF model (Wolmar 2012) we get the number of food related
shipments delivered in Amsterdam city. Combining this information with
average number kilometre driven during a good delivery (tour length) and
average weight of delivery (obtained from private survey source D), we can
calculate total ton-km
Total food freight in ton-km = Number of shipments * Average tour length *
Average weight of delivery (ton)
Table 6. Food freight using VREF and survey information
Detail
Number
Food shipment per year
18827879
Average tour length (km)
62
Average shipment weight (kg)
300
Average shipment weight (Ton)
0.3
Total food freight (ton-km)
350198553.1
On the other hand, from survey of RWS we got percentage share of food
freight in total freight. As per CBS, around 25300 million ton-km cargo was
moved in NL for year 2015. For Amsterdam the share is 4,7 % (TLN 2014)
and therefore this figure is 1,189 million ton-km. Assuming 29% - based on
the RWS data from 1995 - of this ton-km is related to food freight then total
food freight ton-km for Amsterdam is around 344 million ton-km. We assume
© AET 2016 and contributors 8
that share of food freight remain unchanged. Thus, total food freight (ton-km)
in Amsterdam within A10 is as shown in Table 7.
Food freight vehicles in the Amsterdam [I &F]
From the VREF formula, we estimate that around 105002 food related
shipments are moved during a week. As per the private survey, a delivery
vehicle carries average 5 shipments. Combining these two numbers gives
approximately 21000 vehicles per day. The delivery is made during 6 days of
a week and therefore it can be said that around 3500 vehicles per day drive
food related cargo in Amsterdam. This number matches with the data
collected by DIVV as described in source (F)
Table 8. Food freight vehicles in Amsterdam
Food shipment per week
105002
Shipment per vehicle
5
Vehicles per week
21000
Vehicles per day
3500
Food freight vehicles in the Amsterdam [F & J]
The goods are delivered during six days of a week. According to the private
survey, an average 1.2 vans visits food selling entity for goods delivery every
day. This figure translates to one van a day and one extra van per week
delivers goods to a food selling entity.
Additionally, on average 0,28 truck delivers goods every day to the food
retailer. That means in addition to vans, from one to two trucks a week also
delivers goods to a food retailer. Based on that Table 9 gives estimation about
total number of food freight vehicles entering Amsterdam for food delivery.
Table 7. Total food freight in Amsterdam based on CBS data
Year
Total freight (ton-km)
1995
265 million
2015
344 million
© AET 2016 and contributors 9
Table 9. Total number of food freight vehicles entering Amsterdam
Food selling entity type
Total number
Truck
Van
Total vehicles
Supermarkets
150
42
173
215
HoReCa
1736
486
1996
2482
Food-stalls
539
151
620
771
Open markets
120
34
138
172
Total
2545
713
2927
3640
As per the information from DIVV described in table 5, around 3747 vehicles
deliver food freight in the Amsterdam. This number is very close to the
estimation made using number of food retailer and information obtained from
private survey.
4. INFRASTRUCTURE CONSTRAINT FOR FREIGHT VEHICLES IN TIME
WINDOW (SPACE/TIME)
Freight vehicles cause congestion not only when they are on the road but also
when parked for loading or unloading goods. In this section we evaluate
whether current loading unloading infrastructure is sufficient for freight
vehicles in the city of Amsterdam. In Amsterdam, there are limited
loading/unloading spots for freight vehicles. With approximately 15000 freight
vehicle entering in the city every day it is difficult to find parking place for each
freight vehicle.
Furthermore, Amsterdam has implemented time-window for logistics activities.
During this limited time freight delivery guy must make delivery to multiple
receivers. Each delivery requires the drive to park the vehicle, unload the
goods, deliver the goods and load any goods to be taken back in the vehicles.
In addition, we also made eight observations – during time-window to check
the daily practice of food logistics activities. We choose eight streets in
Amsterdam that have highest density of HoReCa and supermarkets. We
found that freight vehicles take on average from 20 min (if small truck) to 60
min (if big truck – FTL) for goods delivery. This clearly indicates that the
freight delivery companies must operate in with very strict time-window which
does not allow wasting time in finding proper parking place.
The conventional trucks (small and big) are difficult to maneuver and park in
the narrow streets of the Amsterdam. Moreover, the trucks have goods for
© AET 2016 and contributors 10
multiple deliveries and thus the driver has to get into truck to get the delivery.
This whole operation takes long time.
The current situation indicates that the freight vehicles cannot be fit into time
and space constraints. The space is limited to fit the flux of the vehicles in the
time-window implemented by the municipality. To solve this problem time-
space constraint must be relaxed by implementing following measures in
following directions:
Increase number of parking places – relaxing space constraint
Widen the time window – relaxing time constraint
Reduce the vehicle size – space constraint
Since there is already physical space constraint, implementing first solution is
not possible physically as well as economically. The time window can be
relaxed; however, often the super markets and HoReCa points have their own
preferred time-window to get goods delivered (Quak 2014). They prefer to get
goods be delivered early in the morning before the business opens so that
goods are available for the consumers.
A smaller vehicle can reduce the delivery operation time. A smaller vehicle is
easy to park and easy to get the goods out of the vehicle. Additionally, the city
of Amsterdam is promoting green deal zero emission and is aiming to reduce
carbon emission in cities to 0% by 2030. This can be achieved only if non-
conventional (e.g. electrical, hydrogen-cell) vehicles are used for the goods
delivery (Melo, Baptista et al. 2014).
5. STANDARD FREIGHT UNIT FOR FOOD LOGISTICS
The private survey of the food suppliers covers suppliers who supply to
approximately more than 60% of the Amsterdam food retailers (e.g. Super
markets, HoReCa, Open markets etc.). Based on the private survey of the
food item suppliers, it is found that generally food is delivered in the six
patterns. Table 10 gives details about these six categories. Accordingly, these
six types of freight units are considered as standard food freight units (SFFU)
for food logistics activities.
© AET 2016 and contributors 11
Table 10. Standard food freight unit for food logistics
Type
Standard food freight units (SFFU)
Detail
1
Euro pallets or Roll containers
(FTL) City DC to city outskirt
2
Euro pallets or Roll containers
(FTL) from City DC to a single
client in the city
3B
Euro pallets or Roll containers
(LTL) From City DC to multiple
clients
4
Carcass
From City DC to multiple
clients
9
Beer keg (20/50 Liter)/Crate
From City DC to multiple
clients
10
Crate and/or Tray
From City DC to multiple
clients
6. E-VEHICLE SELECTION FOR FOOD LOGISTICS
Electric vehicles (EV) are making their way into logistics. This is true
particularly for last-mile deliveries. Cities are becoming more and more aware
of and focused on livability and emission free city areas, thus implementing
new measures such as low emission zones to curtail the emission and also
encouraging the use of emission free vehicles (e.g. electrical vehicles) within
urban areas (Quak and Nesterova 2014).
One of the biggest factors affecting the use of the e-vehicles is the purchase
cost. In this research, we are evaluating how to apply optimal modality mix of
electrical vehicles for food logistics in Amsterdam. There are multiple electrical
vehicles available in market. However, the e-vehicle should be a good fit for
food logistics activities. Moreover, the e-vehicle should be economically viable
for the companies. To narrow the list of possible e-vehicle for food logistics we
start with certain criteria. If the e-vehicle meets these criteria, only then it can
be considered for further evaluation. These criteria are listed below.
1. The modality is an existing vehicle that is already one year proven in
daily practice.
2. The modality is completely emission free and is authorized for use in
the Netherlands.
3. The producer of the modality has been in existence for two years as a
company.
4. Bucket Size, capacity and shape shall be such that the modality can
handle multiple types of cargo.
© AET 2016 and contributors 12
5. The total cost of operation TCO (e.g. purchase, operational) should not
be more than twice that of comparable diesel vehicle
The goal was to have at least one example of seven main vehicle types
(bicycle, tricycle, scooter, sidewalk mini-car, car, van and truck) being
represented in the evaluation in order to get a perfect mix. Although that
anticipated goal was not met, four main size types (super small, small,
medium and large) made it to the next stage. Based on these pre-stated
requirements six (out of 20) vehicles were considered for evaluation in the
second stage. See Table 11 for the details about the selected vehicles.
Table 11. Electrical vehicles that passed the selection criteria
EV
Vehicle
Driving range with
full charge
1
Bakfiets XL Cool [very small]
30 km
2
E-Cool Cargocycle v2 [small]
30 km
3
E-mini (Goupil G3 Cool Box) [small]
70 km
4
Cool (Renault e-NV200 Visia) [medium]
119 km
5
BYD T5 Li-Fe-Fosfaat-accu truck [large]
360 km
6
EMOSS CM1620 truck [large]
184 km
6.1 Optimal modality mix for food logistics
To select the optimal mix of vehicles for food logistics out of these six
vehicles, we evaluated them with respect to Total Cost of Ownership (TCO),
Energy Consumption Value (EV) and Personnel cost (PC). TCO is a machine
(i.e. vehicle) costs, EV is material (i.e. electricity needed for machine) and PC
is cost associated with men. Following text gives detail about these different
costs used for the calculating total expenses associated with the use of a
specific EV.
© AET 2016 and contributors 13
Table 12. Optimal modality mix of electrical vehicles for food freight logistics
© AET 2016 and contributors 15
Machine Total cost of ownership: Purchase cost, MRO (maintenance, repair,
overhaul), charger unit (faster charging units are more expensive)
Material Energy consumption value: Amount of kWh used in moving the
assigned cargo. The cost of energy is assumed at 0.12 Euro/kwh.
Men Personnel cost: Yearly costs for manning the vehicle(s). It is assumed
that EV1 and 2 (see table 11) can be driven by inexperienced person without
having driving license and therefore less cost for driver. For EV3 and 4, a
person with driving license is needed whereas for EV5 and 6 an experienced
truck driver is necessary.
Based on the costs associated with machine, material and men, four types of
EVs are found best suitable for the food logistics activities. Following table
gives overview of the optimal modality of electrical vehicles for food logistics.
The table 12 shows goods delivery pattern and respective electrical vehicle
selected for the making delivery.
Accordingly, for the delivery on the outskirt of the city diesel vehicle is suitable
due to longer distance travel. For the load up to eight Roll containers or four
Euro pallets, BYD T5 truck is best suitable due to size and speed. For smaller
load up to three Roll containers Goupil G3 box is the choice. Cargocycle V2
can deliver goods up to one Roll containers or four carcass or beer kags or
crate combination as shown in the table. Finally for delivering smaller items in
trays or crate Bakfiets XL is a suitable choice.
7. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Food is one most important commodity for people. It makes the supply of food
items to hotels, restaurants, houses, offices etc. undeniably important logistics
activity. Food logistics is a necessary activity but also have a significant
negative impact, especially in terms of pollution and congestion. With more
than 80% of the world’s population living in cities by 2020, growing food
logistics is going to be bigger challenge for cities. Amsterdam is not only the
Netherlands’ biggest city but also its social and financial hub. Amsterdam is
also a famous tourist destination attracting around millions of visitors each
year. With such large number of people living and visiting the city, the food
logistics in Amsterdam are characterized by big trucks in small streets
delivering food freight but also contributing to pollution and congestion.
© AET 2016 and contributors 16
This paper presents a quantitative study about analysing food logistics in
Amsterdam city. The research focuses on two objectives. First objective is to
estimate the food logistics activities in the city of Amsterdam. To achieve this
objective, data is gathered from different sources and analysed to estimate
food freight in ton-km and freight vehicles coming to Amsterdam to deliver
food freight. The estimated values are validated with other data sources.
There are approximately 3500 vehicles (e.g. vans, trucks) enters Amsterdam
every day for food freight delivery. These conventional vehicles are large in
size and runs of fossil fuel creating environmental issues. Such vehicle also
takes more time for delivery operation due to its size – taking more time for
parking etc.
A smaller vehicle can reduce the delivery operation time. A smaller vehicle is
easy to park and easy to get the goods out of the vehicle. The city of
Amsterdam is promoting green deal zero emission and is aiming to reduce
carbon emission in cities to 0% by 2030. To achieve this goal, Amsterdam
wants to promote use of non-conventional (e.g. electrical, hydrogen-cell)
vehicles are used for the goods delivery. Accordingly, the second objective of
this research is to find electrical vehicle modality mix that can efficiently
replace the conventional vehicles for food distribution activities. For this
purpose, the food related freight is categorized in six different categories.
Next, different types of electrical vehicles (20 vehicles in total) are evaluated
and a list of potential vehicles was prepared based on certain criteria (i.e. size,
reliability). The potential vehicles selected in the first round are analysed with
respect to economic aspects (i.e. purchase cost, maintenance cost, personnel
cost) and environmental aspects (i.e. energy consumption). Using the data
about food distribution the optimal mix of vehicles was calculated. At this
stage where electrical vehicles have very high purchasing value, for the
economic aspect, the base of analyse was not to find vehicle making more
profit. The criterion was that the use of vehicle should not result in loss. The
vehicles are also selected based on the least energy consumption. Finally, the
vehicles are selected considering its size so that it can accommodate different
types of food freight cargo. Thus, the optimal modality mix is found to satisfy
economic, environmental, physical constraints. The study gives insight into
the use of electrical vehicles for emission free food logistic activities. It
concludes that using optimal modalities can increase the load factor up to
almost 100%.
© AET 2016 and contributors 17
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aljohani, K. and R. G. Thompson (2016). "Impacts of logistics sprawl on the
urban environment and logistics: Taxonomy and review of literature." Journal
of Transport Geography.
CBS (2015). Transport en mobiliteit 2015.
Dablanc, L. (2015). THREE PARIS MASTER PLANS,WHERE DOES
FREIGHT FIT IN? VREF-URBAN FREIGHT PLATFORM, Urban Freight
Conference, Gothenburg.
Melo, S., et al. (2014). "Comparing the use of small sized electric vehicles
with diesel vans on city logistics." Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences
111: 1265-1274.
Quak, H. and N. Nesterova (2014). "Towards zero emission urban logistics:
Challenges and issues for implementation of electric freight vehicles in city
logistics." Sustainable Logistics (Transport and Sustainability, Volume 6)
Emerald Group Publishing Limited 6: 265-294.
Quak, H. J. (2014). "Access Restrictions and Local Authorities’ City Logistics
Regulation in Urban Areas." City Logistics: Mapping The Future 177.
TLN (2014). Tansport in cijfers 2014.
Wolmar, C., Ed. (2012). URBAN FREIGHT FOR LIVABLE CITIES :HOW TO
DEAL WITH COLLABORATION AND TRADE-OFFS. Future Urban Transport
Conference -Urban Freight for Livable Cities.
© AET 2016 and contributors 18
NOTES
i
SOURCES : http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/most-cities-unprepared-for-coming-population-boom/ and
http://www.who.int/gho/urban_health/situation_trends/urban_population_growth_text/en/
ii
SOURCES : https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/oct/21/choice-stressing-us-out-dating-partners-monopolies ;
http://www.ift.org/food-technology/past-issues/2015/april/features/the-top-ten-food-trends.aspx?page=viewall
iii
SOURCE : http://www.globalfoodforums.com/food-news-bites/2016-food-trends/
iv
SOURCES : http://www.mckinsey.com/global-themes/urbanization/how-to-make-a-city-great and
https://www.weforum.org/reports/competitiveness-cities/
v
SOURCE: https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/nieuws/2016/25/record-aan-goederen-vervoerd-in-nederland (CBS, 2016)
vi
SOURCE: Kerncijfers Amsterdam 2016, pages 18 and 35 (Municipality of Amsterdam – OIS, 2016)
vii
SOURCES: Hoe vervuild is onze lucht?, pages 10-11 (Milieudefensie, 2014); https://www.nsl-monitoring.nl/ and
https://milieudefensie.nl/luchtkwaliteit/hoe-vervuild-is-de-lucht-in-mijn-straat