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Intimate Partner Violence and the Duluth Model: An Examination of the Model and Recommendations for Future Research and Practice

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Greg Bohall
Greg Bohall
Greg Bohall
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Mary-Jo Bautista
Mary-Jo Bautista
Mary-Jo Bautista
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Sabrina Musson at University at Buffalo, State University of New York
Sabrina Musson
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Abstract

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a global health concern. Given the complexity of the act of violence coupled with the difficulty of stabilizing the perpetrator and victim, assessment and intervention continue to be substandard. The Duluth Model is the predominant intervention for perpetrators of IPV; however, it continues to be controversial and has received significant criticism due to its narrow scope. The objective of this article is to identify the components of the Duluth Model and compare to the advances in behavioral sciences in order to implement a change in treatment for perpetrators of IPV.
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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Intimate Partner Violence and the Duluth Model:
An Examination of the Model and Recommendations
for Future Research and Practice
Greg Bohall
1
&Mary-Jo Bautista
2
&Sabrina Musson
3
Published online: 11 October 2016
#Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016
Abstract Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a global health
concern. Given the complexity of the act of violence coupled
with the difficulty of stabilizing the perpetrator and victim,
assessment and intervention continue to be substandard. The
Duluth Model is the predominant intervention for perpetrators
of IPV; however, it continues to be controversial and has re-
ceived significant criticism due to its narrow scope. The ob-
jective of this article is to identify the components of the
Duluth Model and compare to the advances in behavioral
sciences in order to implement a change in treatment for per-
petrators of IPV.
Keywords Intimate partner violence .Duluth model .
Domestic violence .Partner violence .Professional ethics
Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a serious, yet preventable
international public health concern. IPV is the self-reported
experience of physical and/or sexual violence by a current or
former partner since the age of 15 years old (World Health
Organization [WHO] 2013); stalking and psychological ag-
gression were later added as types of IPV (Breiding et al.
2015). In their effort to understand the global impact that
IPV encompasses, WHO (2013) obtained global and regional
estimates of physical and/or sexual IPV based on data
extracted from 79 countries and 2 territories. The global life-
time prevalence of IPV among ever-partnered women was
found to be 30 %. The highest prevalence was in the
African, Southeast Asia, and Eastern Mediterranean WHO
regions where approximately 37 % of ever-partnered women
reported IPVat some point in their lives.
Data regarding male victims of IPV may be significantly
underreported due to the perception of the public and law
enforcement. Men who report IPV may be seen as cowardly,
feel embarrassed, and/or fear being laughed at or scorned
(Shuler 2010). Furthermore, few men report their abuse to
law enforcement due to the fear of disbelief and support ser-
vices offered (Allen-Collinson 2009). As a result, male vic-
tims do not freely admit being a victim of IPV at the hands of
females and, therefore, do not seek professional intervention
(Barber 2008). In their review of the previous 10 years of IPV
research, Desmarais et al. (2012)identifiedthatapproximately
one in five men has experienced physical violence in an inti-
mate relationship. This serious international public healthcon-
cern warrants further exploration into our prevention, assess-
ment, and treatment efforts.
The Complexity of Intimate Partner Violence
Violence is a multifaceted construct. Megargee (1982) de-
scribed four domains that influence criminal violence: instiga-
tion, inhibition, habit strength, and situation. The instigation
domain is the sum of the internal influences such as
cognitions, motivations, and feelings that incline a person to
behave violently, whereas inhibition is the sum of internal
influences that decrease the likeliness that a person would
behave violently. Habit strength refers to the static history of
violent and nonviolent behavior. The situation domain
consists of the external factors that impact violence. Meloy
*Greg Bohall
gregbohallpsyd@gmail.com; gregbohall@cheservices.com
1
Department of Clinical Psychology, CHE Behavioral Health
Services, Los Angeles, CA 90010, USA
2
Applied Behavioral Alternatives, Inc., Arcadia, CA, USA
3
University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Research
Institute on Addictions, Buffalo, NY, USA
J Fam Viol (2016) 31:1029–1033
DOI 10.1007/s10896-016-9888-x
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
... Patriarchy remains a significant cultural underpinning in many South Asian communities, influencing family structures and power dynamics (Ahmad-Stout et al., 2018;Bohall et al., 2016;Tonsing & Tonsing, 2017). The patriarchal structure reinforces hierarchical relationships, rendering women vulnerable to abuse and restricting their autonomy. ...
... The Power and Control Wheel for Immigrant Women has eight strategies: (a) economic abuse; (b) emotional abuse; (c) intimidation; (d) economic abuse; (e) exploiting residence or citizenship privileges; (f) sexual abuse; (g) threats; and (h) employing children. Among these elements, the "Employing Children" category highlights the ways in which perpetrators employ tactics involving children to maintain power and control over their partners (Bohall et al., 2016). Understanding the nuanced ways in which children are utilized within the dynamics of DV against South Asian women is critical. ...
... Incorporating the Power and Control Wheel into the discussion broadens our understanding of the complex manifestations of abuse faced by South Asian women. Recognizing these tactics is essential for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers working towards effective interventions and support systems tailored to the specific needs of this population (Bohall et al., 2016) (Fig. 1). ...
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Purpose To gain knowledge and understanding about the lived experiences involving children exposed to domestic violence (DV) from the perspective of abused South Asian women in the United States (U.S). The authors postulate that by learning more about these experiences we can contribute to the literature and help service providers create more inclusive and culturally responsive services for abused South Asian women and children. Methods In-depth telephonic interviews were conducted with 14 abused South Asian women in the U.S. to understand their experiences involving their children. Thematic analysis was conducted by the authors to understand the perceptions of South Asian mothers about their responses when children were involved. Results The following themes emerged: (1) manipulation and control; (a) contentious custody battles with limited resources (b) son preference (c) deeming the mother unfit (2) the impact of abuse on children. Conclusion It is important for clinicians to understand the ways in which power and control are utilized by South Asian perpetrators to control women and use children as pawns in the context of intersecting identities of gender, immigration status and racial-ethnic background.
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... Essentially, it reflected CC concepts as elements of IPV before CC was a term coined by Stark in 2006. The Duluth Model utilizes the Power and Control Wheel as a visual representation of elements of CC and IPV that occur collectively or independently to create patterned experiences of abuse (Bohall et al., 2016;Domestic Abuse Intervention Programs, 2017). In other words, the Duluth Model's Power and Control Wheel represents patterns of abusive behavior that are the combined collective experiences of women in abusive relationships. ...
... The Duluth Model will be utilized as a measure of CC and IPV that is widely accepted within the domestic violence community systems that are tasked with understanding what IPV is and the interplay of behaviors that create abusive relational systems. The Duluth Model has roots in batterer's intervention programs to assist abusers in recognizing how their behavior and thoughts contributed to abuse (Bohall et al., 2016;Pence & Paymar, 2003). It has been found to be effective in identifying elements of power and control and predicable patterns that are present in IPV relationships (Burge et al., 2015). ...
... In CC/IPV, autonomy is not rewarded, and when victims come to counseling, they require empowerment opportunities that are reflected through counselor patience and understanding. Unequal power and control contribute to the creation of CC/IPV (Allen, 2007;Bohall et al, 2016;Domestic Abuse Intervention Programs, 2017). Critical Feminist Theory utilizes identification of that unequal, gendered power and control dynamic, brings it to light to examine it, and encourages action and social change to rectify it (Kushner & Morrow, 2003). ...
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... Intimate partner violence (IPV) is defined as any form of physical, psychological, or sexual violence carried out between current or former intimate partners (Bohall et al., 2016). Both men and women can perpetrate IPV; however, research suggests that women are significantly more likely to experience IPV victimization (Tanha et al., 2009). ...
... As CC commonly occurs in the early stages of many intimate relationships that become physically violent (Graham-Kevan & Archer, 2008), researchers suggest that interventions targeting CC may be effective in stopping the progression to physical aggression (West & Wandrei, 2002). However, many current interventions targeting IPV/CC appear to be ineffective (Bohall et al., 2016;Herman et al., 2014;Stark & Hester, 2018). For example, perpetrator programs have high attrition rates and low efficacy in reducing recidivism (Dutton & Corvo, 2007;Gondolf, 2000). ...
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With rates of coercive control (CC) increasing, there is a need to ensure that intervention programs are underpinned by evidence-based research. Current interventions are scarce, with their efficacy rarely established. Most current interventions appear to rely on victims seeking support from formal sources/agencies, despite suggestions that victims are more likely to confide in people they know, such as their friends. Researchers suggest that a victim’s friends may provide an effective source of support and intervention. The aim of this study was to fill the gap in the literature exploring whether the closeness of the relationship to the victim, bystander gender, and bystander concerns influenced attitudes toward intervening in CC situations. The study used an experimental design, whereby participants were randomly allocated to read a vignette depicting a CC scenario involving a friend, colleague, or stranger, and quantitative methods were used to examine bystanders’ willingness and concerns about intervening. The sample was 340 Australian participants (229 female, 111 male), recruited from social media, namely community Facebook groups. The results indicated that friends were significantly more willing to intervene than colleagues or strangers, while strangers reported the highest concerns about intervening. Females reported significantly higher willingness to intervene than men despite also reporting higher concerns. Exploratory analysis of concerns about intervening revealed that the participants were most concerned about risk of harm and their beliefs in their ability to successfully intervene. These findings have implications for bystander intervention programs and campaigns, including offering a range of potential directions to enhance intervention program content.
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... Therefore, these early PIPs are based on a gender perspective with a psychoeducational approach aimed at modifying the attitudes of male perpetrators toward women (Butters et al., 2021;Dutton & Corvo, 2007;Gannon et al., 2019). Although the Duluth model adopts an educational format, it also includes cognitive-behavioral techniques (Bohall et al., 2016). Years later, Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) emerged as an alternative to the Duluth model. ...
The Effectiveness of Intervention Programs for Perpetrators of Intimate Partner Violence with Substance Abuse and/or Mental Disorders: A Systematic Review
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2024
  • TRAUMA VIOLENCE ABUS
Despite the high prevalence and severity of intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration among men with mental health (MH) problems and substance use (SU), there is limited evidence on the most effective ways to reduce IPV within these groups. Hence, the present systematic review aims to evaluate the effectiveness of psychological interventions for male IPV perpetrators with MH issues and SU problems. Five databases (B-On, Pubmed PsycInfo, Science Direct, and Scopus) were searched for studies examining the effectiveness of IPV interventions. Twenty-three studies met the inclusion criteria, with 13 interventions described. Interventions were grouped into (1) specific interventions for SU among IPV perpetrators (k = 8), (2) nonspecific interventions for SU among IPV perpetrators (K = 3), and (3) specific interventions targeting MH among IPV perpetrators (k = 2). Cognitive behavioral therapy and motivational interviewing techniques were the most common approaches. Both specific and nonspecific programs addressing SU problems showed some positive effects on perpetrators’ behavior and attitudes. However, data from the two intervention programs focusing on MH showed reduced symptoms and re-assaults but without significant differences between the conditions. Despite methodological shortcomings in the studies, the specific and nonspecific interventions targeting SU and IPV show promise, which hinders drawing firmer conclusions. Nonetheless, further research is necessary to deepen our understanding of the MH impact interventions on IPV perpetrators.
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... The aim of this feminist perspective is to shift the blame from women, increase their safety, and hold male perpetrators accountable. For instance, the Duluth Model (Pence & Paymar, 1993) provides re-education to men alongside measures to make women safe and remains widely implemented worldwide (Bohall et al., 2016). The victim/perpetrator paradigm dominates professional practice and public policy in the UK, as illustrated in the Government's recent "Tackling Violence Against Women and Girls" policy (2021). ...
Heteronormative discourse: Therapist social constructions of intimate partner violence in queer relationships
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  • Mar 2024
Researchers have suggested the victim/perpetrator paradigm for understanding intimate partner violence (IPV) is limited when considering queer relationships. Instead, some propose a poststructural feminist approach as better suited for understanding the complexities involved. However, in the UK, this approach is rarely adopted. We therefore put a poststructural feminist approach to research into practice. Despite IPV occurring in queer relationships at similar or higher levels compared to heterosexual relationships, queer individuals rarely use mainstream IPV services, owing to real and perceived barriers, and access local therapy services instead. However, outside of queer-specific services in city-centre areas, there is little knowledge of the approaches used or the outcomes achieved by these therapeutic services. Our research contributes to addressing this knowledge gap. We investigate how therapists make sense of IPV in queer relationships, conducting five semistructured interviews with therapists working in small-town/rural settings in Southwest England. Despite claims of inclusivity and liberal humanist values, our Foucauldian discourse analysis highlights the dominance of a heteronormative discourse in the therapists’ accounts, and shows how heterosexual privilege is embedded in a range of discourses deployed. In light of these findings, we explore implications for practice and areas for future research in this underresearched area.
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"There Is No Peace", "We Are Just Persevering": Triggers, Manifestations, and Consequences of Intimate Partner Violence Against Men in Kenya
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Intimate partner violence (IPV) within heterosexual relationships affects both men and women, yet an in-depth description of IPV against men in developing countries is still limited. This study explored community perceptions of male IPV victimization in an informal settlement in Nairobi, Kenya. We conducted 12 focus group discussions (FGDs) with 118 ever-married participants (59 men and 59 women), divided into 6 FGDs for each gender. We performed thematic analysis using NVivo software. This article presents three main themes that emerged during data analysis: (a) triggers, (b) manifestations, and (c) consequences/effects of IPV against men. Both male and female participants perceived male IPV victimization as a significant concern in the community. The poor living conditions, coupled with alcohol use, seemed to be major underlying factors, often forming the basis of spousal conflict. Emotional abuse, including denial of basic needs, acts of humiliation, and coercive control, were the most frequently cited forms of violence. The consequences of what was considered IPV against men affected victims and their families including the violent female spouses, children, and the society at large. These effects upset the health, economic, and social spheres of life with some retriggering male IPV, thus creating a vicious cycle of abuse. Notably and of concern, IPV against women was highlighted as a consequence of male victimization. Although we set out to explore community perceptions, study participants openly shared their experiences of male IPV perpetration and victimization. These findings underscore the importance of recognizing men as potential victims of IPV and contextualizing IPV prevention strategies targeting the urban poor with the goal of designing and implementing policies and interventions that address IPV holistically.
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Au Québec et ailleurs, la responsabilisation des auteurs de violence conjugale (AV) compte parmi les principes-clés des actions visant à contrer la violence conjugale. Un des objectifs des programmes destinés aux auteurs de violence consiste d’ailleurs à les amener à reconnaître leur violence et ses conséquences et à en accepter la pleine responsabilité. L’identification des meilleures pratiques pour ce faire reste cependant à réaliser. Avec l’objectif de cerner les principales dimensions de la responsabilisation et de dégager des meilleures pratiques, une recherche-action, s’appuyant sur les savoirs d’expérience, a été réalisée avec des organismes québécois offrant des programmes pour les auteurs de violence conjugale. Quatre groupes de discussion, dix entrevues individuelles et des observations dans trois organismes ont été réalisés. Les résultats amènent à conceptualiser la responsabilisation comme un processus comprenant cinq dimensions principales, à rendre compte d’une trentaine d’interventions permettant de les travailler avec les auteurs de violence et à cibler certains défis. Ces résultats sont discutés en considération de l’environnement sociopénal dans lequel le travail clinique auprès des AV s’inscrit, de même qu’en considération d’une perspective à la fois rétrospective, centrée sur les gestes passés, et prospective, tournée vers un projet de vie sans violence.
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Using Complexity Science to Examine Three Dynamic Patterns of Intimate Partner Violence
Article
Full-text available
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Introduction: The partner violence literature describes 3 dominant models of dynamics of partner aggression: cycle of violence, family systems theory, and Duluth model (power and control wheel). Complexity science describes 3 patterns of system dynamics: periodic, chaotic, and random. Are these parallel patterns? In this analysis, investigators calculated dynamic patterns (periodic, chaotic, and random) using 84 daily reports of male-to-female aggression and assessed the "fit" between time-series-derived patterns of male partners' violent behaviors and literature-based models of violence dynamics. Method: Participants were 200 women in moderately violent intimate relationships who completed a telephone survey about their relationships every day for 12 weeks. They also completed baseline and end-of-study surveys and maintained telephone contact with the study team weekly. Of 200 participants, 135 women provided enough data to be assigned to period, chaotic, or random groups. Results: Group membership included 16 women in periodic, 40 in chaotic, and 79 in random groups. Consistent with the cycle of violence, periodic women found violence to be predictable and controllable. Consistent with the Duluth model, women in the random group found violence to be unpredictable and out of their control, occurring with high frequency. The chaotic group had the lowest frequency and severity of violence, lowest stress and arguments, and the highest marital satisfaction. Discussion: The most common dynamic pattern in partner violence is random, which exhibits high frequency and unpredictability of aggression. Complexity science suggests interventions in random systems have unpredictable outcomes, posing great challenges for clinicians who work with victims of violence. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Male victims of intimate partner violence have become an issue of concern within United States of America. Research has found that approximately 3.8 women and 1.3 men per 1,000 are victims of intimate partner violence each year. Even though collaborative professions to criminal justice such as nursing, social work, counseling, and psychology have began to discuss male victims of intimate partner violence; scholars within criminal justice have conducted limited empirical research, which has revealed the need for further studies by criminologists. This article examines the review of literature concerning the male victims of domestic violence by their female intimate partners. Introduction Domestic violence or intimate partner violence has been an ugly scourge in American society for many years. In the 1970s, various feminist groups brought domestic violence into the general conversation of America and through many protests into the criminal justice system (Carney, Buttell, & Dutton, 2007; Dutton, 2007; and Minaker & Snider, 2006). For this reason, the vast majority of individuals who report incidents of domestic violence are women; however, men have also been found to be victims of intimate partner violence. Unfortunately, intimate partner violence policy has constituted limits to the male victims of this crime. The criminal justice system continues to ignore issues arising from this steadily growing problem. In this article, the male victim's experience has been described through the conflict theoretical perspective, as the experience in relation to American society and its criminal justice system. This article examines this problem through a review of literature.
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Allen-Collinson, J (2009) A marked man: A case of female-perpetrated intimate partner abuse, International Journal of Men’s Health, 8 (1): 22-40.
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Concepts of intimate partner abuse and violence are shifting, complex, situational and multifaceted. Whilst women’s narratives of abuse have provided much needed insights into the subjective experience of intimate partner abuse, men’s accounts of female perpetrated abuse have been slower to emerge, generating much controversy and hostility. This paper seeks to add to a small, but developing qualitative literature on male victims’ accounts of intimate abuse and violence. Drawing on case study data, the article charts some of the salient themes emerging from a series of in-depth interviews and the personal diary of an abused heterosexual male victim. It explores the congruence with elements of other accounts of intimate abuse and violence. The paper concludes with a discussion of the ways in which male victims of intimate abuse might be understood within contemporary frameworks of masculinity.
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Do Duluth Model Interventions With Perpetrators of Domestic Violence Violate Mental Health Professional Ethics?
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Full-text available
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  • ETHICS BEHAV
In spite of numerous studies of program outcomes finding little or no positive effect on violent behavior, the Duluth model remains the most common program type of interventions with perpetrators of domestic violence. In addition, Duluth model programs often ignore serious mental health and substance abuse issues present in perpetrators. These and other issues of possible threat to mental health professional ethics are reviewed in light of the court-mandated, compulsory nature of most Duluth model programs and client and victim expectations for program efficacy.
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ASGW Best Practice Guidelines: An Evaluation of the Duluth Model
Article
  • Sep 2012
Group work is often a preferred method of intervention when treating perpetrators of domestic violence. The Domestic Abuse Intervention Project Duluth Model is one of the most common treatment programs for men who have perpetrated domestic violence (Pence & Paymar, 200316. Pence , E. , & Paymar , M. ( 2003 ). Creating a process of change for men who batter: An education curriculum . Duluth , MN : Domestic Abuse Intervention Project . View all references), yet the intervention remains highly debated within the literature. This article reviews the status of the debate and offers an analysis of the Duluth Model through the lens of the Association for Specialists in Group Work Best Practice Guidelines (2008). In addition, this article provides suggestions for the use of group work methodology to enhance understanding related to the benefits and limitations of the Duluth Model.
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Negotiating Hegemonic Masculinity in a Batterer Intervention Program
Article
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Domestic violence represents a crucial underpinning of women's continued subordination, which is why much scholarly and activist energy has been expended in designing, implementing, and evaluating programs to reduce it. On the basis of three years of fieldwork, the authors analyze the interactional processes through which masculinity was constructed in one such program. They find that facilitators had success in getting the men to agree to take responsibility, use egalitarian language, control anger, and choose nonviolence, but the men were successful in resisting taking victims' perspectives, deflecting facilitators' overtures to be emotionally vulnerable, and defining themselves as hardworking men entitled to a patriarchal dividend. The authors' analysis contributes to understandings of how hegemonic masculinity is interactionally constituted, and it adds evidence to the debate about such programs' effectiveness by raising the issue of how well the program met its goal of transforming masculinity.
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