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Flotation restricted environmental stimulation therapy and napping on mood state and muscle soreness in elite athletes: A novel recovery strategy?
Abstract
Relaxation techniques and napping are very popular strategies amongst elite athletes recovering from the psychophysiological demands of training and competition. The current study examined a novel relaxation technique using restricted environmental stimulation therapy in a flotation tank (FLOAT). FLOAT involves reducing the level of environmental stimulation while achieving a sense of near weightlessness through floating in an enclosed, warm, saline-dense water tank. Sixty elite, international-level athletes (28 male, 32 female) across a range of 9 sports, completed a ∼45 min FLOAT session following exercise training for their sport. Pre and post FLOAT, athletes filled out a multidimensional mood-state questionnaire (MDMQ) containing 16 mood-state variables as well as a question on perceived muscle soreness. Group data were analysed for pre to post FLOAT for all measured variables. Further analyses were performed on all variables for athletes that napped during FLOAT (n = 27) and compared to those that did not nap (n = 33). A single FLOAT session significantly enhanced 15 of the 16 mood-state variables (p < 0.05) and also lowered perceived muscle soreness (p < 0.01). Small (n = 3) to moderate (n = 6) effect sizes in favour of napping for 9 of the 16 mood-state variables were found when compared to the no nap group. FLOAT may be an effective tool for both physical and psychological recovery following training in elite athletes. Furthermore, napping in combination with FLOAT may provide additional benefits to enhance certain mood-state variables. This study serves as a pilot study for future research into the performance recovery of elite athletes following FLOAT.
... Lilly reported that FR likely dampens the arousal of the central nervous system by eliminating external stimuli and reducing the gravitational effects on the body, leading to the attenuation of psychophysiological stress. 4 Researchers reported that FR might aid in the treatment of interrelated health disorders, such as chronic pain, hypertension, insomnia, rheumatoid arthritis, anxiety, and depression, as well as improvement in complex skill acquisition. [4][5][6] Recently, FR has also been used by elite competitive athletes as a technique for recovering from the physical and mental stresses incurred during high-intensity (load) performance training. ...
... 4 Researchers reported that FR might aid in the treatment of interrelated health disorders, such as chronic pain, hypertension, insomnia, rheumatoid arthritis, anxiety, and depression, as well as improvement in complex skill acquisition. [4][5][6] Recently, FR has also been used by elite competitive athletes as a technique for recovering from the physical and mental stresses incurred during high-intensity (load) performance training. 4,7,8 Various stress-related measures have also been reported to improve following FR, such as those of brain waves (e.g., alpha, theta), and reductions in epinephrine levels, renin activity values, resting heart rate, blood pressure measurements, adrenocorticotropic hormone levels, and urinary and plasma cortisol levels. ...
... [4][5][6] Recently, FR has also been used by elite competitive athletes as a technique for recovering from the physical and mental stresses incurred during high-intensity (load) performance training. 4,7,8 Various stress-related measures have also been reported to improve following FR, such as those of brain waves (e.g., alpha, theta), and reductions in epinephrine levels, renin activity values, resting heart rate, blood pressure measurements, adrenocorticotropic hormone levels, and urinary and plasma cortisol levels. 3,4,9 Positive outcomes from FR in healthy participants and those with chronic stress-related conditions are well documented in the literature. ...
The flotation-restriction environmental stimulation technique (FR) may have utility as a recovery tool for improving performance in elite competitive athletes and Special Operations Forces Operators (SOs). Studies suggest that FR may ameliorate various neurophysiological disorders and improve performance in recreational and elite athletic populations. We sought to understand whether there is evidence to support the use of FR to enhance physiological and psychological performance parameters in the SO population and to provide postulations as to the mechanisms of action of FR therapy. We performed an online literary search of publications dating from 1982 to 2021 and identified 34 sources addressing the aims, depending on population and condition or conditions, being treated. The reported physiological and psychological benefits of FR range from immediate to lasting 4 months. Overall, eight to twelve FR treatment sessions of from 40 to 90 minutes each may provide variable long-term benefits. The associated synergistic benefits of FR may be attributed to its thermal, chemical, and mechanical effects but deserve further exploration. Based on the current evidence, FR may serve as an effective performance-recovery therapy for improving pain, sleep, and performance measures (e.g., marksmanship and physical performance) in trained, untrained, and healthy adults. Future research focusing on FR as a unimodal recovery intervention is warranted in a specialized group of SOs.
... The studies were published between 2009 and 2020 and consisted of 3489 participants. 5,6,8, Both males and females were included in 35.1% (n = 13) of studies, 5,6,8,29,30,32,[34][35][36]41,48,50,51 8.1% (n = 3) of studies included females exclusively, 37,38,57 and 48.6% (n = 18) studies included males only. [24][25][26]31,33,37,40,42,43,[45][46][47]49,[52][53][54][55][56] Three studies (8.1%) did not report sex. ...
... 27,28,44 The mean age of athletes was 23±4 years. Study designs were as follows: cross-sectional (n = 6), [25][26][27][28][29][30] longitudinal/cohort (n = 14), 5,6,[31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39]41,57,58 randomized experimental (n = 14), 24,[42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][52][53][54][55][56] and non-randomized experimental (n = 3). 8,48,50 Athletes participated in 11 different sports (ie, karate, judo, netball, rowing, rugby, running, soccer, swimming, shooting marksmanship, track and field, and ultramarathon). ...
... Study designs were as follows: cross-sectional (n = 6), [25][26][27][28][29][30] longitudinal/cohort (n = 14), 5,6,[31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39]41,57,58 randomized experimental (n = 14), 24,[42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][52][53][54][55][56] and non-randomized experimental (n = 3). 8,48,50 Athletes participated in 11 different sports (ie, karate, judo, netball, rowing, rugby, running, soccer, swimming, shooting marksmanship, track and field, and ultramarathon). ...
Purpose:
The objective of this systematic review was to 1) determine how studies evaluated napping behavior in athletes (frequency, duration, timing and measurement); 2) explore how napping impacted physical performance, cognitive performance, perceptual measures (eg, fatigue, muscle soreness, sleepiness and alertness), psychological state and night-time sleep in athletes.
Methods:
Five bibliographic databases were searched from database inception to 11 August 2020. Observational and experimental studies comprising able-bodied athletes (mean age ≥12 years), published in English, in peer-reviewed journal papers were included. The Downs and Black Quality Assessment Checklist was used for quality appraisal.
Results:
Thirty-seven studies were identified of moderate quality. Most studies did not include consistent information regarding nap frequency, duration, and timing. Napping may be beneficial for a range of outcomes that benefit athletes (eg, physical and cognitive performance, perceptual measures, psychological state and night-time sleep). In addition, napping presents athletes with the opportunity to supplement their night-time sleep without compromising sleep quality.
Conclusion:
Athletes may consider napping between 20 to 90 min in duration and between 13:00 and 16:00 hours. Finally, athletes should allow 30 min to reduce sleep inertia prior to training or competition to obtain better performance outcomes. Future studies should include comprehensive recordings of nap duration and quality, and consider using sleep over a 24 hour period (daytime naps and night-time sleep period), specifically using objective methods of sleep assessment (eg, polysomnography/actigraphy).
... Flotation-restricted environmental stimulation therapy (FLOAT) is a practice that involves an individual lying supine in a light and sound proof chamber that contains a saline solution (Epson salt -Mg 2 SO 4 ) heated to skin temperature (∼34-35 • C) (Driller & Argus, 2016). This unique environment compromises the body's ability to register external stimuli produced by light, sound, and touch (Morgan, Salacinski, & Stults-Kolehmainen, 2013), resulting in the elicitation of the relaxation response (Bood et al., 2006). ...
... Research has indicated its benefits to treat numerous health-related issues such as essential hypertension (Suedfeld, Roy, & Landon, 1982), chronic headaches (Wallbaum, Rzewnicki, Steele, & Suedfeld, 1991), and as a stress management tool (Bood et al., 2006;van Dierendonck & Te Nijenhuis, 2005). Recent research has also shown that this technique may be used as a recovery strategy by athletes following exercise (Driller & Argus, 2016). However, despite the current literature in support of FLOAT as a method to treat various health related issues, reports on its efficacy on post-exercise recovery is limited, warranting further research. ...
... Perceived muscle soreness one hour following the FLOAT trial was also found to be significantly lower. A more recent study by Driller and Argus (2016) investigated the effects of FLOAT on mood-state and muscle soreness in 60 elite athletes. Following a routine training trial for their sport, participants used FLOAT for an average duration of 45-min. ...
Objective
The purpose of the current study was to examine the effects of flotation-restricted environmental stimulation therapy (FLOAT) on recovery from exercise.
Methods
Nineteen trained, male team-sport athletes (age: 21 ± 2 years) completed two trials separated by seven days; FLOAT, which included one-hour of FLOAT recovery following exercise, and CON, which included one-hour of passive recovery following exercise. Performance and pressure-to-pain algometer measures were taken pre and post exercise and the following morning. Performance measures included an isometric mid-thigh pull, countermovement jump (CMJ), a 15 m sprint, and a repeated sprint test. Perceived measures of muscle soreness (MS) and physical fatigue (PF) were recorded up to 24 h post testing. Salivary cortisol samples were collected pre and post exercise and post recovery. Sleep was monitored via wrist-actigraphy.
Results
FLOAT was found to significantly enhance CMJ (p = 0.05), 10 m sprint (p = 0.01) and 15 m sprint performance (p = 0.05) with small to moderate effects (d = 0.21–0.68) for all performance measures, except CMJ (unclear), compared to CON. The results also show significantly higher pressure-to-pain thresholds across all muscle sites (p’s < 0.01) and lower MS and PF 12 h following FLOAT (p < 0.05). All sleep measures resulted in small to large effects (d = 0.20–0.87) with a significantly greater perceived sleep quality (p = 0.001) for the FLOAT trial compared to CON. There were no significant differences and a trivial effect size between trials for changes in cortisol concentration.
Conclusion
FLOAT may prove to be an effective method of exercise recovery, improving aspects of performance, pressure-to-pain threshold, perceived MS and PF, and sleep quality.
... Pre-flotation and post-flotation session mood scores were recorded for each session [18]. Using the mood qualities relaxation and freshness, two orientating prompts "right now I feel relaxed" and "right now I feel fresh" were evaluated. ...
... Further, the post-flotation-REST mood scores were significantly greater in contrast to the pre-flotation scores. These observations are corroborated by other flotation-REST studies that have demonstrated an objective improvement in relaxation [2,18,53,55] and mood enhancement [18,52]. ...
... Further, the post-flotation-REST mood scores were significantly greater in contrast to the pre-flotation scores. These observations are corroborated by other flotation-REST studies that have demonstrated an objective improvement in relaxation [2,18,53,55] and mood enhancement [18,52]. ...
Objective
To determine whether Bispectral Index™ values obtained during flotation-restricted environment stimulation technique have a similar profile in a single observation compared to literature-derived results found during sleep and other relaxation-induction interventions.
Results
Bispectral Index™ values were as follows: awake-state, 96.6; float session-1, 84.3; float session-2, 82.3; relaxation-induction, 82.8; stage I sleep, 86.0; stage II sleep, 66.2; and stages III–IV sleep, 45.1. Awake-state values differed from float session-1 (%difference 12.7%; Cohen’s d = 3.6) and float session-2 (%difference 14.8%; Cohen’s d = 4.6). Relaxation-induction values were similar to float session-1 (%difference 1.8%; Cohen’s d = 0.3) and float session-2 (%difference 0.5%; Cohen’s d = 0.1). Stage I sleep values were similar to float session-1 (%difference 1.9%; Cohen’s d = 0.4) and float session-2 (%difference 4.3%; Cohen’s d = 1.0). Stage II sleep values differed from float session-1 (%difference 21.5%; Cohen’s d = 4.3) and float session-2 (%difference 19.6%; Cohen’s d = 4.0). Stages III–IV sleep values differed from float session-1 (%difference 46.5%; Cohen’s d = 5.6) and float session-2 (%difference 45.2%; Cohen’s d = 5.4). Bispectral Index™ values during flotation were comparable to those found in stage I sleep and nadir values described with other relaxation-induction techniques.
Electronic supplementary material
The online version of this article (10.1186/s13104-017-2947-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
... In a 2016 pilot study with 60 elite, international-level athletes across nine sports, Matthew W.Driller (University of Waikato) and Christos K. Argus (University of Canberra) discovered that Flotation Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy (Floatation REST) could support physical and psychological recovery following training in elite athletes [1]. ...
In modern days, we often feel stressed due to various types of disturbances from the surrounding environment, from the noisy sounds from transportation to the artificial light disturbance at night. Some may think of being relieved if they become isolated from the world to get rid of all those annoyances. They might be correct, as scientists have found that the sensory deprivation tank – a floatation tank that provides restricted environmental stimulation therapy (REST) – can be helpful for physical and mental health. However, people with prolonged sensory deprivation can experience hallucinations. ***** For more information, please visit: https://mindsponge.info/posts/40 *****
... Floating is an adapted form of Flotation Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy (REST). In the latter, a client is resting in a supine position on the surface of warm water that is saturated with Epson salts (Mg 2 SO 4 ) [43]. While Flotation REST typically takes place in a closed, soundproof, and unlit container [44], in the planned trial floating will take place in the same pool as the other two interventions for reasons of optimal comparison (e.g., water and air temperatures, humidity). ...
Background
.
Low back pain (LBP) is among the most common physical ailments and its chronic manifestation is a leading cause for disability worldwide. LBP is not attributable to a known diagnosis in 85% of the cases and therefore called chronic non-specific LBP (cnLBP). Passive immersion in warm water is commonly claimed to reduce muscular tension and pain, but not yet sufficiently investigated with regard to cnLBP. The current study compares three passive aquatic interventions regarding their effects on cnLBP: floating (resting in a supine immersed position on flotation devices), WATSU (a passive hands-on treatment, in which a practitioner stands in warm water, gently moving and massaging the client), and a Spa session.
Methods
.
In this randomized cross-over clinical trial, all 24 adult participants with cnLBP will undergo the three interventions in balanced order with a washout-period of at least two weeks in between. Assessments will take place at baseline and follow-up of study and immediately before and after each intervention. Assessments cover the primary outcome self-reported current pain (Visual Analog Scale, range: 0–100 mm), other self-report questionnaires (addressing, e.g., personality traits or -states), and physiological parameters (e.g., measurement of spinal range of motion).
Discussion
.
The study adds estimates of intervention-specific effect-sizes of widespread passive aquatic interventions to cnLBP. The study also points to potential underlying pain-reducing mechanisms.
Trial registration
.
The protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Canton Bern (ProjectID: 2018–00461). Trial registration is intended at ClinicalTrials.gov.
Complementary and alternative medicine therapies can be used as adjuvant or preventive therapy, and have newer applications: cryotherapy, halotherapy, floatation therapy, and compression therapy. Nurse practitioners need to know about these therapies and their applicability to patient populations. Appropriate integration of these therapies is part of holistic care, which they strive to provide.
Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy (REST), which involves placing an individual into an environment of severely reduced stimulation for brief periods, has been subjectively reported to produce deep relaxation. The present studies determine the effects of REST-assisted relaxation in the plasma levels of several hormones including Cortisol, ACTH, luteinizing hormone (LH) and testosterone and urinary levels of Cortisol. The possible role of endogenous opioids in the mild euphoria which is frequently associated with REST-assisted relaxation was also examined in a preliminary study using an opiate antagonist, naloxone. Varied protocols in these studies with different groups of subjects included from 4 to 20 REST sessions in frequencies ranging from bi-weekly to daily. The direct hormone measurement studies utilized a baseline-treatment-follow-up design, whereas the naloxone study employed a single subject double-blind crossover design. Plasma and urinary Cortisol and plasma ACTH showed significant decreases associated with REST. Testosterone and HL levels in plasma did not change. All subjects reported that the REST experience was deeply relaxing. Naloxone treatment consistently prevented the mild euphoria associated with REST. These data suggest that REST-assisted relaxation is associated with REST. These data suggest that REST-assisted relaxation is associated with specific decreases in the activity of the pituitary-adrenal axis, and that the mild euphoria occurring in REST may be mediated by release of altered sensitivity to endogenous opioids.
The study investigated the effects of flotation Restricted Environmental Stimulation (REST) with an imagery message on the competitive performance of intercollegiate tennis players (10 men, 10 women). Pre- and posttreatment athletic performance was measured during intercollegiate competition. Posttreatment results indicated that subjects exposed to flotation REST with an imagery message performed significantly better than subjects exposed to imagery only on a measure of first service accuracy. Findings suggest that flotation REST can be used to enhance the performance of a well learned skill by athletes of high ability.
Key Points
Central fatigue is accepted as a contributor to overall athletic performance, yet little research directly investigates post-exercise recovery strategies targeting the brainCurrent post-exercise recovery strategies likely impact on the brain through a range of mechanisms, but improvements to these strategies is neededResearch is required to optimize post-exercise recovery with a focus on the brain
Post-exercise recovery has largely focused on peripheral mechanisms of fatigue, but there is growing acceptance that fatigue is also contributed to through central mechanisms which demands that attention should be paid to optimizing recovery of the brain. In this narrative review we assemble evidence for the role that many currently utilized recovery strategies may have on the brain, as well as potential mechanisms for their action. The review provides discussion of how common nutritional strategies as well as physical modalities and methods to reduce mental fatigue are likely to interact with the brain, and offer an opportunity for subsequent improved performance. We aim to highlight the fact that many recovery strategies have been designed with the periphery in mind, and that refinement of current methods are likely to provide improvements in minimizing brain fatigue. Whilst we offer a number of recommendations, it is evident that there are many opportunities for improving the research, and practical guidelines in this area.
22 expert collegiate basketball players were exposed to either imagery training only or restricted environmental stimulation (REST) with imagery training. The REST group showed significantly better performance on both objective game performance and coaches' blind ratings.
In this study we investigated the value of flotation Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy (REST) as a stress-management tool. We focused on the physiological effects of REST, its influence on well-being, and on performance. Twenty-seven studies published in 25 articles or book chapters were included in a meta-analysis. The total number of participants was 449, with a mean age of 29 years (ranging between 20 and 45). Sixty-four percent was male and 36% was female. The results showed that REST has positive effects on physiology (e.g., lower levels of cortisol, lower blood pressure), well-being, and performance. The pre–post mean effect size and the overall randomized control group effect size were relatively strong. This suggests that despite some limitations of the original studies, flotation REST can be a useful stress management tool in addition to or instead of other stress management tools.
Sleep has numerous important physiological and cognitive functions that may be particularly important to elite athletes. Recent evidence, as well as anecdotal information, suggests that athletes may experience a reduced quality and/or quantity of sleep. Sleep deprivation can have significant effects on athletic performance, especially submaximal, prolonged exercise. Compromised sleep may also influence learning, memory, cognition, pain perception, immunity and inflammation. Furthermore, changes in glucose metabolism and neuroendocrine function as a result of chronic, partial sleep deprivation may result in alterations in carbohydrate metabolism, appetite, food intake and protein synthesis. These factors can ultimately have a negative influence on an athlete's nutritional, metabolic and endocrine status and hence potentially reduce athletic performance. Research has identified a number of neurotransmitters associated with the sleep-wake cycle. These include serotonin, gamma-aminobutyric acid, orexin, melanin-concentrating hormone, cholinergic, galanin, noradrenaline, and histamine. Therefore, nutritional interventions that may act on these neurotransmitters in the brain may also influence sleep. Carbohydrate, tryptophan, valerian, melatonin and other nutritional interventions have been investigated as possible sleep inducers and represent promising potential interventions. In this review, the factors influencing sleep quality and quantity in athletic populations are examined and the potential impact of nutritional interventions is considered. While there is some research investigating the effects of nutritional interventions on sleep, future research may highlight the importance of nutritional and dietary interventions to enhance sleep.
Purpose
To evaluate the effectiveness of different recovery strategies on repeat cycling performance where a short duration between exercise bouts is required.
Methods
Eleven highly trained cyclists (mean ± SD; age = 31 ± 6 y, mass = 74.6 ± 10.6 kg, height = 180.5 ± 8.1 cm) completed 4 trials each consisting of three 30-s maximal sprints (S1, S2, S3) on a cycle ergometer, separated by 20-min recovery periods. In a counterbalanced, crossover design, each trial involved subjects performing 1 of 4 recovery strategies: compression garments (COMP), electronic muscle stimulation (EMS), humidification therapy (HUM), and a passive control (CON). The sprint tests implemented a 60-s preload (at an intensity of 4.5 W/kg) before a 30-s maximal sprint. Mean power outputs (W) for the 3 sprints, in combination with perceived recovery and blood lactate concentration, were used to examine the effect of each recovery strategy.
Results
In CON, S2 and S3 were (mean ± SD) –2.1% ± 3.9% and –3.1% ± 4.2% lower than S1, respectively. Compared with CON, COMP resulted in a higher mean power output from S1 to S2 (mean ± 90%CL: 0.8% ± 1.2%; possibly beneficial) and from S1 to S3 (1.2% ± 1.9%; possibly beneficial), while HUM showed a higher mean power output from S1 to S3 (2.2% ± 2.5%; likely beneficial) relative to CON.
Conclusion
The authors suggest that both COMP and HUM may be effective strategies to enhance recovery between repeated sprint-cycling bouts separated by ~30 min.
Several psychological techniques have been used in an effort to enhance sports performance, including pre-game rehearsal, psycho-physiological arousal (psyching-up), biofeedback, and anxiety reduction by relaxation. Procedures such as visuo-motor behavioral rehearsal, hypnosis and guided imagery, have been either developed or adapted specifically for performance improvement (Garver, 1977; Hall & Erffmeyer, 1983; Lee & Hewitt, 1987; Suinn, 1986; Wojcikiewicz & Orlick, 1987). The findings favor mental practice as effective in performance enhancement but all of these interventions have been disappointing in terms of the magnitude of positive change produced.
The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether or nor the floating form of Restricted Environmental Stimulation Technique (REST) may be exploited within the field of competitive archery to reinforce primary process (inner-directed) orientation and thereby enhance the quality of coaching and training. Floatation REST consists of a procedure whereby an individual is immersed in a water-tank filled with saltwater of an extremely high salt concentration. The experiment was performed over the course of two weekends with a 6-week interval. Twenty participating archers, 13 male and 7 female, were recruited. The between-group factor was “adjudged skill.” The within-group factor was provided by an Armchair condition in which the participants sat in an armchair for 45 min after which they were required to shoot four salvo series of three shots each, as a comparison to the Flotation-Rest condition whereby the participants were required to lie in a floating-tank for 45 min just prior to shooting. Results indicated that: (a) the participants experienced less perceived exertion during marksmanship in the floating condition, (b) the elite archers performed more consistently in the Flotation-REST condition, (c) the least and most proficient archers had lower muscle tension in the Extensor Digitorum in the Flotation REST condition.
Flotation restricted environmental stimulation technique (R.E.S.T.) involves compromising senses of sound, sight, and touch by creating a quiet, dark environment. The individual lies supine in a tank of Epsom salt and water heated to roughly skin temperature (34-35oC). This study was performed to determine if a one hour flotation R.E.S.T. session would aid in the recovery process following maximal eccentric knee extensions and flexions. Twenty-four untrained male students (23.29 ± 2.1 yr, 184.17 ± 6.85 cm, 85.16 ± 11.54 kg) participated in a randomized repeated measures cross-over study. The participants completed two exercise and recovery protocols: a one hour flotation R.E.S.T. session and a one hour seated control (passive recovery). After isometric muscle strength testing, participants were fatigued with eccentric isokinetic muscle contractions (50 repetitions at 60o/sec) of the non-dominant knee extensors and flexors. Blood lactate, blood glucose, heart rate, OMNI-rating of perceived exertion (OMNI-RPE), perceived pain, muscle soreness and isometric strength were collected before exercise, post-treatment, and 24 and 48 hours later. A multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) found that treatment had a significant main effect on blood lactate, while subsequent univariate ANOVAs found statistical significance with the immediate post treatment blood lactate measures. The results indicate flotation R.E.S.T. appears to have a significant impact on blood lactate and perceived pain compared to a one hour passive recovery session in untrained healthy males. No difference was found between conditions for muscle strength, blood glucose, muscle soreness, heart rate, or OMNI-RPE. Flotation R.E.S.T. may be utilized for recreational and professional athletes to help reduce blood lactate levels after eccentric exercise.
Background:
Training recovery is vital for adaptation and performance, and to avoid cumulative fatigue and symptoms associated with overtraining. The use of cold-water immersion (CWI) as a recovery strategy is common; however, the physiological and biochemical rationale behind its use remains unclear. This study aimed to assess the relationship between body temperature responses to water immersion and individual perception of recovery, with subsequent exercise performance.
Methods:
Twelve male rugby players participated in a 3-week cross-over trial where an intense 60 min conditioning session was followed immediately by 15 min of either 14°C CWI, 30°C warm-water immersion (WWI) or passive control (CON) recovery intervention. Postexercise body temperatures and subjective ratings of the recovery intervention were recorded and subsequently related to performance in a 5×40 m repeated sprint protocol undertaken 24 h later.
Results:
CWI induced large reductions in core body temperature postimmersion (effect size (ES) range 1.05-3.21) and improved subsequent sprint performance compared to WWI (ES 1.04±0.84) and CON (ES 1.44±0.84). Both the degree of temperature decrease at 60 min postimmersion (r=0.6948; p=0.0121) and the subjective rating of the recovery intervention (r=0.5886; p=0.0441) were related to subsequent sprint performance. A very strong linear correlation was observed when these two factors were integrated (r=0.7743; p=0.0031).
Conclusion:
A combination of physiological and psychological indices provides an improved indication of subsequent performance and suggests an important role of individual perception in enhancing training recovery.
This study aimed to investigate long-term effects of the flotation-REST (restricted environmental stimulation technique) 4 months after treatment. Seventy patients, 54 women and 16 men, participated, diagnosed as having stress-related pain. Twenty-six participants had also the diagnosis of burnout depression. Participants were randomly assigned in equal numbers to either a control group or a flotation-REST group and participated in a total of 12 flotation-REST or control sessions. Results indicated that pain areas, stress, anxiety, and depression decreased, whereas sleep quality, optimism, and prolactin increased. Positive effects generally maintained 4 months after treatment, but prolactin returned to initial levels. It was concluded that flotation tank therapy is an effective method for the treatment of stress-related pain. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy (REST), which involves placing an individual into an environment of severely reduced stimulation for brief periods, has been subjectively reported to produce deep relaxation. The present study determines the effects of REST-assisted relaxation on plasma cortisol, ACTH, and luteinizing hormone (LH). These parameters were also measured in a group exposed to a similar relaxation paradigm, but without REST (non-REST). Each subject experienced two baseline sessions (1 and 2), four REST (or non-REST) relaxation sessions (3, 4, 5, 6), and two follow-up sessions (7 and 8). Pre- and postsession plasma hormone levels were measured in sessions 1, 2, 5, and 8. Both REST and non-REST subjects reported that the experience was relaxing. During the treatment period (session 5) pre- to postsession changes in cortisol and ACTH, but not in LH, were significantly greater for the REST group than for the non-REST group. Plasma cortisol level also decreased across sessions in the REST group, with levels in sessions 5 and 8 significantly lower than the baseline (sessions 1 and 2). Non-Rest subjects showed no change in plasma cortisol across sessions. No significant change in plasma ACTH or LH occurred across sessions in the REST or non-REST groups, although ACTH showed a decreasing trend. These data demonstrate that repeated brief REST-assisted relaxation produces a relaxation state associated with specific decreases in pituitary-adrenal axis activity.
This study was designed to compare the effects of two different relaxation techniques, namely progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) and autogenic relaxation (AGR) on moods of young soccer players.
sixteen adolescent athletes (mean age: 14.1 ± 1.3) received either PMR or AGR training. Using Profile of Mood States- Adolescents, their mood states were measured one week before relaxation training, before the first relaxation session, and after the twelfth relaxation session.
Mixed ANOVA revealed no significant interaction effects and no significant main effects in any of the subscales. However, significant main effects for testing sessions were found for confusion, depression, fatigue, and tension subscales. Post hoc tests revealed post-intervention reductions in the confusion, depression, fatigue, and tension subscale scores.
These two relaxation techniques induce equivalent mood responses and may be used to regulate young soccer players' mood states.
The present study comprised two meta-analyses of published studies that used the Profile of Mood States (POMS) to investigate relationships between mood and athletic achievement (n = 13) and between mood and performance outcome (n = 16). Results showed that effect sizes (ESs) for the level of achievement metaanalysis were minimal (Weighted Mean ES = .10, SD = .07), a finding consistent with a previous meta-analysis by Rowley, Landers, Kyllo, and Etnier (1995). Larger effects were found for the performance outcome meta-analysis (Weighted Mean ES = .31, SD = .12). Effects were moderate for vigor, confusion, and depression, small for anger and tension, and very small for fatigue. All effects were in the direction predicted by Morgan's (1985) Mental Health Model. Effects were larger in sports of short duration, in sports involving open skills, and where performance was judged using self-referenced criteria. Findings suggest that the POMS has utility in the prediction of performance outcome but not in the prediction of level of achievement.
The aim of this study was to develop and test the practical utility of a perceived recovery status (PRS) scale. Sixteen volunteers (8 men, 8 women) performed 4 bouts of high-intensity intermittent sprint exercise. After completion of the baseline trial, in a repeated-measures design, subjects were given variable counterbalanced recovery periods of 24, 48, and 72 hours whereupon they repeated an identical intermittent exercise protocol. After a warm-up period, but before beginning each subsequent bout of intermittent sprinting, each individual provided their perceived level of recovery with a newly developed PRS scale. Similar to perceived exertion during exercise, PRS was based on subjective feelings. The utility of the PRS scale was assessed by measuring the level of agreement of an individual's perceived recovery relative to their performance during the exercise bout. Perceived recovery status and change (both positive and negative) in sprint performance during multiple bouts of repeated sprint exercise were moderately negative correlated (r = -0.63). Additionally, subjects were able to accurately assess level of recovery using the PRS scale indicated by correspondence with negative and positive changes in total sprint time relative to their previous session. The ability to detect changes in performance using a noninvasive psychobiological tool to identify differences in performance was independent of other psychological and physiological markers measured during testing, because there were no differences (p > 0.05) among ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), heart rate, blood lactate concentration, or session RPE values among any of the performance trials. Although further study is needed, current results indicate a subjective approach may be an effective means for assessing recovery from day to day, at least under similar conditions.
A study of a sample provides only an estimate of the true (population) value of an outcome statistic. A report of the study therefore usually includes an inference about the true value. Traditionally, a researcher makes an inference by declaring the value of the statistic statistically significant or nonsignificant on the basis of a P value derived from a null-hypothesis test. This approach is confusing and can be misleading, depending on the magnitude of the statistic, error of measurement, and sample size. The authors use a more intuitive and practical approach based directly on uncertainty in the true value of the statistic. First they express the uncertainty as confidence limits, which define the likely range of the true value. They then deal with the real-world relevance of this uncertainty by taking into account values of the statistic that are substantial in some positive and negative sense, such as beneficial or harmful. If the likely range overlaps substantially positive and negative values, they infer that the outcome is unclear; otherwise, they infer that the true value has the magnitude of the observed value: substantially positive, trivial, or substantially negative. They refine this crude inference by stating qualitatively the likelihood that the true value will have the observed magnitude (eg, very likely beneficial). Quantitative or qualitative probabilities that the true value has the other 2 magnitudes or more finely graded magnitudes (such as trivial, small, moderate, and large) can also be estimated to guide a decision about the utility of the outcome.
Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy (REST), which involves placing an individual into an environment of severely reduced stimulation for brief periods, has been subjectively reported to produce deep relaxation. The present study determines the effects of REST-assisted relaxation on plasma cortisol, ACTH, and luteinizing hormone (LH). These parameters were also measured in a group exposed to a similar relaxation paradigm, but without REST (non-REST). Each subject experienced two baseline sessions (1 and 2), four REST (or non-REST) relaxation sessions (3, 4, 5, 6), and two follow-up sessions (7 and 8). Pre- and postsession plasma hormone levels were measured in sessions 1, 2, 5, and 8. Both REST and non-REST subjects reported that the experience was relaxing. During the treatment period (session 5) pre- to postsession changes in cortisol and ACTH, but not in LH, were significantly greater for the REST group than for the non-REST group. Plasma cortisol level also decreased across sessions in the REST group, with levels in sessions 5 and 8 significantly lower than the baseline (sessions 1 and 2). Non-Rest subjects showed no change in plasma cortisol across sessions. No significant change in plasma ACTH or LH occurred across sessions in the REST or non-REST groups, although ACTH showed a decreasing trend. These data demonstrate that repeated brief REST-assisted relaxation produces a relaxation state associated with specific decreases in pituitary-adrenal axis activity.
This study controlled for relaxation and guided imagery confounds noted in much previous research on enhancement of human performance using the restricted environmental stimulation technique (REST). Dry flotation REST was used where subjects lay ("floated") on a salt-water-filled bladder in a sound-attenuated, light-free chamber. 9 men and 3 women in a rifle marksmanship training course, exposed to dry-flotation REST, showed significantly higher rifle marksmanship scores than the university students who as matched controls were exposed to relaxation (9 men and 3 women). Further, only the former showed a significant pre- to posttest improvement in scores, which suggests REST's positive effects on marksmanship go beyond the induction of relaxation by hypnosis. The results support hypotheses summarized in 1982 by Barabasz regarding potentiation by REST of internally generated imagery and subsequent improvement observed in a nonREST posttest environment.
The overtraining syndrome affects mainly endurance athletes. It is a condition of chronic fatigue, underperformance, and an increased vulnerability to infection leading to recurrent infections. It is not yet known exactly how the stress of hard training and competition leads to the observed spectrum of symptoms. Psychological, endocrinogical, physiological, and immunological factors all play a role in the failure to recover from exercise. Careful monitoring of athletes and their response to training may help to prevent the overtraining syndrome. With a very careful exercise regimen and regeneration strategies, symptoms normally resolve in 6-12 weeks but may continue much longer or recur if athletes return to hard training too soon.
This quantitative meta-analysis sought to determine the effectiveness of occupational stress-reducing interventions and the populations for which such interventions are most beneficial.
Forty-eight experimental studies (n = 3736) were included in the analysis. Four intervention types were distinguished: cognitive-behavioral interventions, relaxation techniques, multimodal programs, and organization-focused interventions.
A small but significant overall effect was found. A moderate effect was found for cognitive-behavioral interventions and multimodal interventions, and a small effect was found for relaxation techniques. The effect size for organization-focused interventions was nonsignificant. Effects were most pronounced on the following outcome categories: complaints, psychologic resources and responses, and perceived quality of work life.
Stress management interventions are effective. Cognitive-behavioral interventions are more effective than the other intervention types.
The aim of this study was to determine the effects of a post-lunch nap on subjective alertness and performance following partial sleep loss. Ten healthy males (mean age 23.3 years, s = 3.4) either napped or sat quietly from 13:00 to 13:30 h after a night of shortened sleep (sleep 23:00-03:00 h only). Thirty minutes after the afternoon nap or control (no-nap) condition, alertness, short-term memory, intra-aural temperature, heart rate, choice reaction time, grip strength, and times for 2-m and 20-m sprints were recorded. The afternoon nap lowered heart rate and intra-aural temperature. Alertness, sleepiness, short-term memory, and accuracy at the 8-choice reaction time test were improved by napping (P < 0.05), but mean reaction times and grip strength were not affected (P > 0.05). Sprint times were improved. Mean time for the 2-m sprints fell from 1.060 s (s(x) = 0.018) to 1.019 s (s(x) = 0.019) (P = 0.031 paired t-test); mean time for the 20-m sprints fell from 3.971 s (s(x) = 0.054) to 3.878 s (s(x) = 0.047) (P = 0.013). These results indicate that a post-lunch nap improves alertness and aspects of mental and physical performance following partial sleep loss, and have implications for athletes with restricted sleep during training or before competition.
Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy (REST) has been used for many years by researchers and members of the public to produce relaxation and related benefits. Since flotation REST reportedly enhances attainment of a relaxed yet focused state, it was hypothesized that in combination with Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) training, flotation REST would have a beneficial effect on chronic muscle contraction headache sufferers. Six men and twenty-five women who experienced at least three muscle contraction or tension headaches per week were randomly assigned to one of 4 conditions in the 4 week program: soundproof room, flotation tank and room, tank plus PMR, or room plus PMR. Mean reductions from the baseline headache index (measure of frequency, intensity and duration) across groups were 32% at end of treatment, 15% at 2 months, 31% at 4 months, and 57% at 6 months. The flotation TANK + PMR Training group reported the greatest reduction (74%) at 6 months. No significant differences were found between intervention conditions. There was a significant difference within subjects across time.
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic, progressive inflammatory disease of unknown etiology. It is a leading cause of long term disability with approximately 60% of the patients becoming disabled within 10 years (Whisler & Rothsmich, 1985). This disease, which commonly shows onset in the 20–55 age range, involves a systemic inflammation of the synovial membranes of joints as well as joint capsules, tendons, and tendon sheaths (O’Sullivan, Cullen, & Schmitz, 1981). It appears that the synovial membrane undergoes a local autoimmune response causing increased vascular permeability and collection of cellular blood elements. The infiltration causes the synovial membrane to become thickened and multicellular. As the disease progresses, chronic synovitis develops and destruction of cartilage and subchondral bone occurs.
There is an emerging research and clinical tool which may facilitate the exploration of interrelationships between mind and physiology. This tool is Restricted Environmental Stimulation Technique or (REST). This chapter will introduce you to the psychophysiological framework of REST by presenting some basic human research studies which we have performed over the past 10 years. There are several REST formats which have been investigated, with the two most common being chamber (room) REST and flotation REST. In the former, an individual is in solitude in a room with greatly limited external contact for an extended period (24 hours). In flotation REST, the individual lies supinely for 30–60 minutes in thermoneutral, buoyant fluid with minimal photic, auditory and tactile stimulation.
Every year between 33% and 42% of adults experience insomnia (Bixler, Kales, Soldatos, Kales, & Healy, 1979; Mellinger, Balter, & Uhlenhuth, 1985). The inability to get adequate sleep is a symptom that can be either primary or secondary in nature. Seven of nine subclasses are considered secondary. Only two are thought of as primary insomnias; that is, insomnias with no obvious underlying cause, such as a medical or psychiatric condition (Association of Sleep Disorder Centers [ASDC], 1979). The second most common insomnia to be treated is “persistent, psychophysiological insomnia” (Coleman, Roffwarg, & Kennedy et al., 1982).
Athletes competing at the highest level, should optimally balance training and competition stress with adequate recovery. However, athletes are not always aware of the available recovery options. This study investigated the recovery modalities currently used by elite South African sports persons. Research questions focused on types and frequency of recovery strategies used by players from four different sport codes (hockey, netball, rugby and soccer), as well as from different levels of participation. A total of 890 elite South African team sport players (507 males; 383 females) completed a questionnaire, specifically designed for the study. Results showed that recovery modalities are used to varying degrees by players from the four different sport codes, as well as from different levels of participation. The postmatch recovery modality used the most by hockey, netball and soccer players was an active cool-down. Rugby players used a strategy for rehydration the most. The frequency of using an active cool-down and rehydration was not affected by level of participation. There seems to be an increased need for player and coach education regarding recovery modalities.
The present study was an attempt to evaluate the relaxation potential of the recently introduced ‘dry’ float environment and to compare it systematically with the ‘wet’ float environment available for 20 years. In a balanced design, 10 female and 14 male young adult subjects spent one hour in a wet tank and one hour in the same tank modified to be a dry tank. Pre-/post-change measures included heart rate and POMS and SPI scales. Extensive post-float interview data were also obtained. Both environments were found to be relaxing and pleasant and both were associated with heart rate decreases. The wet tank, however, was somewhat superior in each of these regards and especially so for female subjects. Brief discussion is made of the use of these two environments for purposes of therapeutic intervention.
Basic research has documented reliable changes in emotional. cognitive, behavioral, and psychophysiological functioning as the effects of two related techniques that drastically reduce the level of environmental stimulation: chamber and flotation restricted environmental stimulation therapy (REST). Studies applying these findings in medical. psychotherapeutic, and behavioral health contexts have shown reductions in stress and inappropriate behavior among patients suffering from drug-induced mania. agitation, autism, and Alzheimer's syndrome; reduced phobic symptoms; Significantly lower relapse in habit modification interventions (e.g., smoking, alcohol intake, and weight loss); improved stress management and the amelioration of tension headaches, insomnia, and other stress-related symptoms; reduction of chronic pain; and better muscle control among cerebral palsy patients and others. The broad benefits of chamber and flotation REST. used alone or in combination with other intervention techniques, warrant further investigation and clinical use.
The previous paper (Suedfeld et al., 1982, pp. 553–559) reported the use of Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy (REST) in treating hypertension. This paper reports the response of two patients to 24 hr of a similar treatment offered as an adjunct to a weight-control program. In both patients blood pressure dropped immediately following the REST session and remained lower for up to 9 months. The initial drop in blood pressure was independent of weight loss. These results are interpreted in terms of a psychobiological model of self-regulation.
The relationship of sleep to post-exercise recovery (PER) and athletic performance is a topic of great interest because of the growing body of scientific evidence confirming a link between critical sleep factors, cognitive processes, and metabolic function. Sleep restriction (sleep deprivation), sleep disturbance (poor sleep quality), and circadian rhythm disturbance (jet lag) are the key sleep factors that affect the overall restorative quality of the sleep state. This article discusses these theoretic concepts, presents relevant clinical cases, and reviews pilot data exploring the prevalence of sleep disturbance in two groups of high-performance athletes.
The restricted environmental stimulation technique or REST is a method of relaxation where the level of environmental sensory inputs is kept very low. A particular REST technique called tank flotation, or flotation REST, consists of 1 h sessions in a tank containing water with a high salt content and maintained at 35.5 degrees C. In this protocol, five normal subjects were studied before and during 2 h after a 60 min flotation REST session and a control session of 60 min in a supine position on a bed. Cortisol, thyreostimulating hormone (TSH), thyroxine (T4), prolactin, melatonin, luteinizing hormone (LH), growth hormone (GH), beta-endorphin, vasopressin (ADH), gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and homovanillic acid (HVA) were measured in plasma. HVA, 5-hydroxy-indoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) and vanylmandelic acid (VMA) were measured in urine. There were no changes in hormones concentrations that could be attributed to flotation REST. The urinary excretion of VMA was lower after the flotation REST session. The psychological consequences of flotation REST were more easily demonstrated than the neuroendocrine changes that are assumed to reflect the state of relaxation. Flotation REST increased subjective levels of sedation and euphoria. The possible mechanisms by which flotation REST induces relaxation are discussed.
The aim of the study is to examine the effects of a 20 min nap in the mid-afternoon on mood, performance and EEG activities.
Seven young adults who had normal sleep-wake habits without habitual daytime napping participated in the study. They underwent Nap and No-nap conditions at intervals of 1 week. After a nocturnal sleep recording (00:00-08:00 h), their EEG recordings during relaxed wakefulness, and their mood, performance and self-ratings of performance level were measured every 20 min from 10:00 to 18:00 h. For the nap condition, they went to bed at 14:00 h and were awakened when 20 min had elapsed from the onset of sleep stage 1. For the No-nap condition, they took a rest without sleep by sitting on a semi-reclining chair.
All of the subjects were awakened from sleep stage 2 during the nap. The 20 min nap improved the subjective sleepiness, performance level and self-confidence of their task performance. The nap also suppressed EEG alpha activity during eyes-open wakefulness.
The results suggest that a short 20 min nap in the mid-afternoon had positive effects upon the maintenance of the daytime vigilance level.
While the effects of a short nap on performance and arousal level have been well investigated, less attention has been paid to its effects on mood status. The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of a short nap and natural bright light exposure on mood status. Participants were 16 healthy females who were on average 38.1 (SD = 2.68) yr old. From 11:00 to 12:00, the participants carried out a set of tasks twice with baseline lighting (<100 lux). From 12:40 to 13:10, they were subjected to three experimental conditions: control (<100 lux), natural bright light (>2,000 lux), and a 20-min nap. From 13:10 to 16:10, the tasks were repeated six times with the baseline lighting. To measure mood status, multiple visual analogue scales (to measure anxiety, sadness, anger, confusion, apathy, fatigue, and sleepiness) and the Mood Check List 3 (MCL-3) (to derive "pleasantness", "satisfaction" and "relaxation") were employed. The results showed that brief (30 min) natural bright light exposure improved one dimension of mood status, "pleasantness". A short nap also improved dimensions of mood status ("pleasantness", "satisfaction", and "relaxation"). These results suggest that the proper application of both natural light and a short nap shifts the mood status to the positive/favorable side.
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