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Extreme Rapid Weight Loss and Rapid Weight Gain Observed in UK Mixed Martial Arts Athletes Preparing for Competition
Abstract and Figures
There is a lack of research documenting the weight-making practices of mixed-martial-arts (MMA) competitors. The purpose of the investigation was to quantify the magnitude and identify the methods of rapid weight loss (RWL) and rapid weight gain (RWG) in MMA athletes preparing for competition. Seven athletes (mean ± SD, age 24.6 ± 3.5 yrs, body mass 69.9 ± 5.7 kg, competitive experience 3.1 ± 2.2 yrs) participated in a repeated-measures design. Measures of dietary intake, urinary hydration status, and body mass were recorded in the week preceding competition. Body mass decreased significantly (p<0.0005) from baseline by 5.6 ± 1.4 kg (8 ± 1.8%). During the RWG period (32 ± 1 hours) body mass increased significantly (p<0.001) by 7.4 ± 2.8 kg (11.7 ± 4.7%), exceeding RWL. Mean energy and carbohydrate intake were 3176 ± 482 kcal·day(-1) and 471 ± 124 g·day(-1), respectively. At the official weigh-in 57% of athletes were dehydrated (1033 ± 19 mOsmol·kg(-1)) and the remaining 43% were severely dehydrated (1267 ± 47 mOsmol·kg(-1)). Athletes reported using harmful dehydration-based RWL strategies, including sauna (43%) and training in plastic suits (43%). Results demonstrated RWG greater than RWL, this is a novel finding and may be attributable to the 32 hour duration from weigh-in till competition. The observed magnitude of RWL and strategies used are comparable to those which have previously resulted in fatalities. Rule changes which make RWL impractical should be implemented with immediate effect to ensure the health, safety and wellbeing of competitors.
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... Current research into weight cutting practices has found a high prevalence of rapid weight loss (RWL) prior to official weigh-in and a high prevalence of rapid weight gain (RWG) before competition in combat sports athletes [12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20]. From the inclusion of weight classes in MMA, most athletes have also adopted the practice of weight cutting in preparation for competitive bouts [10,12,13,16,20,21]. In comparison to other combat sports, mixed martial arts athletes have demonstrated an even greater prevalence of RWL practices [16,19]. ...
... [7][8][9][10][11]. MMA athletes resort to extreme dietary restrictions and dehydration to compete in a lower weight class [9,15,17,19,[21][22][23][24]. Following a weigh-in, athletes attempt to regain as much body mass as possible before competition by rehydrating and utilizing various nutritional strategies [25]. ...
... The effects of RWL on physiological performance and fight outcome are still contested in the literature [25]. However, researchers agree that weight cutting can have serious shortterm consequences on an athlete's health [9,[16][17][18][19][20][21][26][27][28][29][30][31][32]. The dangers of weight cutting are evident from the multiple deaths of combat sports athletes partaking in RWL [33,34]. ...
Background: Although there is much literature demonstrating weight changes in professional mixed martial arts (MMA) athletes, there is minimal data comparing male and female MMA athletes. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to compare weight changes between professional male and female MMA athletes leading up to competition. Methods: One hundred and three professional flyweight MMA athletes competing for the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) were used for the study. Weight was obtained at multiple time points leading up to the competition. Two-way ANOVAs and post hoc t-tests were used, and significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. Results: ANOVA revealed there was a significant main effect of condition for weight changes (p < 0.001) and a significant main effect of sex on weight changes (p = 0.002) prior to competition. Post hoc analysis revealed that males lost more weight prior to the official weigh-in and gained more weight prior to competition when compared to females (p ≤ 0.05). Conclusion: MMA athletes lose weight prior to the official weigh-in and gain weight prior to competition. Moreover, male MMA athletes lose more weight prior to and gain more weight after when compared to female MMA athletes competing in the UFC’s flyweight division.
... Unlike gradual weight loss, "making weight" is conducted over a short period of time. It is not uncommon for fighters to lose 7% of their body weight within days of the official weigh-in [8][9][10][11][12][13]. These fighters will typically gain as much as 10% of their weight back by competition [9]. ...
... This is most likely the result of rehydration practices and glycogen repletion. Proper rehydration and weight regain practices are associated with better performance outcomes [10,40]. The average weight regained among participants was 9.5 ± 3.2%. ...
... The average weight regained among participants was 9.5 ± 3.2%. These findings are similar to those reported by Peacock et al. [9] but greater than the weight regain reported by previous studies [10,[40][41][42]. Differences in discipline, time between official weigh-in and competition and/or RWL strategies could account for the variability. ...
... The complexity of the training system optimization in Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) lies in finding the most effective and at the same time adequate to the body adaptation reserved options for using different intensity, volume, direction of physical exertion. This is used on the background of a wide range of training exercises taking into account the peculiarities of technical skills and tactical tasks [1,2,3]. Solving the problem of increasing the functional capabilities of athletes, meeting the requirements of competitive activity (especially at the professional level in MMA), is one of the priority tasks for specialists: in physical education and sports [4,5]; for scientists who study the processes of body adaptation to stress stimuli of various directions [6,7]. ...
... Machine exercises were used to ensure a reduction in injury cases and to clearly (without "cheating") determine the level of strength development. The strength exercises used during the study were performed in accordance with the generally accepted technique in power sports [2,3,18]. ...
... The problem of determining a single complex of mechanisms for optimizing training regimes of loads in Mixed Martial Arts and effective ways of correcting their main indicators, taking into account the peculiarities of the physiological processes of adaptation, individual functional capabilities of athletes, is one of the priority issues not only of trainers, high-level professional fighters, but also of scientists [2,8,14,16,21]. Determining the most optimal parameters of the intensity of power load regimes at the stage of specialized basic training in MMA is one of the main directions of this problem [3,8,10] because it will allow to maximize the functional capabilities of athletes in the shortest possible time. An important aspect of improving the training process at this stage of training is the determination of the most informative markers for assessing adaptive and compensatory reactions to training loads in the conditions of anaerobicalactate and anaerobic-glycolytic modes of energy supply of muscle activity during matches [7,9,10]. ...
Background and Study Aim. To study the influence of power load regimes different in energy supply and intensity on functional capabilities of Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) athletes.
Material and Methods. We examined 75 men aged 19±0.7 who had been practicing MMA for 4±0.8 years. The athletes were divided into 3 groups, 25 participants in each group. The study participants used power load regimes of different intensity in conditions of anaerobic-glycolytic and anaerobic-alactate energy supply of muscle activity. The study lasted 12 weeks. To assess the functional capabilities of athletes in these conditions we used the method of maximum strength development (1 RM). Control of biochemical blood parameters (creatinine, lactate dehydrogenase, testosterone) allowed determining features of adaptive and compensatory body reactions in response to loads.
Results. During the study the 3rd group athletes showed the most pronounced increase (by 40.1%; р
... Commonly reported RWL methods include (but are not limited to) manipulation of body water, glycogen depletion and fasting (Reale et al., 2018). Previous investigations into methods of RWL have typically focused on combat sports (Artioli et al., 2016(Artioli et al., , 2010Barley, Chapman & Abbiss, 2018;Brito et al., 2012;Coswig, Fukuda & Del Vecchio, 2015;Kasper et al., 2019; Twitter Handles: @Laura_Wilson1, @cc_nutrition Matthews & Nicholas, 2017;Reale, Slater & Burke, 2017). However, despite high prevalence of RWL in PL (Nolan et al., 2020), both the magnitude and severity of RWL in PL is lower when compared with combat sports (Connor & Egan, 2019). ...
... Participants were also required to quantify, from a pre-determined list, any previously adopted methods used to elicit RWL for competition. The RWLQ was developed based on the methods of Matthews and Nicholas (2017), which had been adapted from a similar model validated in combat sports (Artioli et al., 2010). Participants completed the questionnaire and gave responses based on all RWL strategies adopted previously in preparation for a competition. ...
... The most commonly reported methods of RWL within the present study (gradual dieting, fluid restriction and water loading) are similar to findings conducted in PL athletes (Nolan et al., 2020) with similar popularity in such strategies in competitive PL athletes adopting methods of RWL (gradual dieting: 39.5%; fluid restriction: 54% and water loading: 49%; Nolan et al., 2020). Given the associated negative implications of RWL documented in combat sports (Artioli et al., 2016(Artioli et al., , 2010Barley et al., 2018;Brito et al., 2012;Connor & Egan, 2019;Coswig et al., 2015;Kasper et al., 2019;Khodaee et al., 2015;Matthews & Nicholas, 2017;Reale et al., 2018Reale et al., , 2017, it would be pertinent to examine this in other weight sensitive sports such as PL. Further research specifically within PL and additional strength-specific sports and training methods would be needed to confirm this. ...
Previous research in Powerlifting (PL) has qualitatively investigated rapid weight-loss (RWL) in PL athletes and body image, however limited research exists in quantifying such methods adopted in PL. This study aimed to assess the frequency of RWL methods are adopted by male and female PL athletes in the United Kingdom (UK) during competition preparation. A total of n = 37 (n = 19 female, n = 18 male) competitive powerlifters completed an anonymous online questionnaire assessing RWL methods. A Chi-square cross tabulation was utilised to identify any significant differences between independent and dependent variables. Multiple regression analyses were then conducted to assess the contribution of biological sex and PL category on RWL methods. Commonly reported methods of weight loss were gradual dieting (49%), fluid restriction (46%), and water loading (51%). Differences between PL category (Junior, Open, Masters One) and adopting RWL were observed (X 2 =4.220, p <0.05). PL category was a predictor of undertaking RWL (R 2 adj = 0.160, F (2, 34) = 4.429, p ≤ 0.05), whilst biological sex was a predictor of timeframe of undertaking RWL (R 2 adj = 0.123, F (2, 34) = 3.534, p ≤ 0.05). RWL strategies are adopted by PL athletes in order to make weight for competition. Despite known effects of RWL on strength performance, limited research currently exists on these strategies specifically within PL, therefore this may be a consideration for future research. Practitioners working with PL athletes may wish to consider appropriate nutrition and weight loss strategies in preparation for PL competitions.
... To ensure qualification, athletes use rapid weight loss (RWL) strategies for the official weigh-in, followed by rapid weight gain (RWG) (Kirk et al., 2020;Park et al., 2019). In fact, MMA athletes lose ∼10% of their BM in approximately seven days, half of it in the final 24 h leading up to the official weigh-in (Barley, Chapman, & Abbiss, 2019;Connor & Egan, 2019;Coswig et al., 2015;Crighton et al., 2016;Hillier et al., 2019;Matthews & Nicholas, 2017;Matthews, Stanhope, Godwin, Holmes, & Artioli, 2019). Moreover, it has been reported that MMA athletes compete with a BM up to three divisions higher than the one they officially weighed-in at (Coswig et al., 2019;Kirk et al., 2020;Matthews & Nicholas, 2017). ...
... In fact, MMA athletes lose ∼10% of their BM in approximately seven days, half of it in the final 24 h leading up to the official weigh-in (Barley, Chapman, & Abbiss, 2019;Connor & Egan, 2019;Coswig et al., 2015;Crighton et al., 2016;Hillier et al., 2019;Matthews & Nicholas, 2017;Matthews, Stanhope, Godwin, Holmes, & Artioli, 2019). Moreover, it has been reported that MMA athletes compete with a BM up to three divisions higher than the one they officially weighed-in at (Coswig et al., 2019;Kirk et al., 2020;Matthews & Nicholas, 2017). A systematic review by Mathews et al. (2019) showed that the magnitude of RWG was influenced by the type of sport, competition structure, and permitted recovery duration. ...
... A systematic review by Mathews et al. (2019) showed that the magnitude of RWG was influenced by the type of sport, competition structure, and permitted recovery duration. Hence, the use of acute and aggressive RWL strategies generally begins approximately seven days before the official weigh-in (Crighton et al., 2016;Matthews & Nicholas, 2017). ...
We aimed to analyze whether rapid weight gain (RWG) between the official weigh-in and the time of the fight was associated with fight success in MMA. A total of 700 professional MMA fights involving 1,400 weigh-ins from 21 MMA promotions regulated by the California State Athletic Commission were analyzed. Multilevel logistic regression accounting for individual (i.e., athlete) and cluster levels (i.e., fights) was used to analyze the association of all measures with a theoretical relationship with the dependent variable and without interdependency with one another (i.e., %RWG, sex, body mass division, competition level) with the fight outcome (i.e., win or loss). The odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) were calculated. The highest mean %RWG was found for the flyweight, bantamweight, featherweight, and lightweight divisions. The %RWG significantly predicted the fight outcome (ß=0.044; OR=1.045; 95%CI=1.014–1.078; p=0.005) so that for each 1% of additional RWG, the chance of winning increased by 4.5%. With the largest sample to date and in a ‘real-world’ scenario, the present results suggest that the magnitude of RWG is linked to the chance of winning in MMA combats. It is suggested that regulatory commissions, confederations, and event organizers should consider regulating RWG, considering that, despite its detrimental impact on the athletes’ health and performance, the potential advantage might stimulate athletes to invest in rapid weight loss, followed by gain after the official weigh-in to increase their chance of winning.
... The differences in recovery duration between official weigh-in and the start of the competition may affect RWG in combat sport athletes (Ceylan et al., 2021). Therefore, there are differences in RWG in different combat sport (Ceylan et al., 2021;Matthews & Nicholas, 2017;Reale et al., 2016). ...
... The same amount of weight regain was presented by both women (1.5%) and men (2.1%) boxers who have one hour to refeed and rehydrate between the weigh-in and the competition (Reale et al., 2017b). However, athletes from mixed martial arts show a higher level of RWG (approximately 12%) due to prolonged recovery time between the weigh-in and the competition or having no weight regain limit (Matthews & Nicholas, 2017;Matthews et al., 2019). ...
... Severely dehydrated athletes can rehydrate during RWG (Matthews & Nicholas, 2017). However, judo athletes in the present study could not improve their hydration status during the recovery period even though they presented RWG and lower USG. ...
This study aimed to investigate the sex differences in short-term weight change and hydration status in judo athletes. Thirty-five men and 15 women judo athletes voluntarily participated in this descriptive and repeated measures design study. Body mass, urine-specific gravity (USG), and body composition of the athletes were measured at the official weigh-in and the competition day's morning. Body mass of the athletes increased during recovery time between official weigh-in and before the competition (time factor; F 1-48 = 71.81, p < 0.001), this increase was higher in men athletes compared to women athletes (time-sex interaction; F 1-48 = 6.56, p = 0.01). With RWG, USG values of the women and men athletes decreased (time factor; F 1-48 = 8.53, p = 0.005). However, most of the athletes were still in significant or serious dehydration state. Unchanged values of total body water rates (TBW) supported dehydration in athletes before the competition (time factor, F 1-48 = 2.9, p = 0.091; time-sex interaction; F 1-48 = 2.4, p = 0.122). The findings of the study indicated that RWG was higher in men athletes compared to women athletes, but hydration status was not affected by sex factor.Notwithstanding 15 hours of recovery between official weigh-in and the start of the competition, judo athletes were still in dehydrated state despite remaining within the limit set for RWG.
... At the other end of the spectrum, some sports (e.g., professional boxing and MMA) offer substantial recovery time (up to 32 h) between the weigh-in and event, with almost unlimited opportunities for preevent fluid and food intake. While such sports allow the athlete to be well-fueled and hydrated prior to competition, these conditions support a culture of extreme BM manipulation (24), as evidenced by mean BM gain of up 10% and individual values of 20% BM gain during the recovery period (25)(26)(27)(28). Indeed, there may be a link between the amount of postweigh-in rapid weight gain (RWG) and the duration of the recovery period (4,29). ...
... Typically, RWL has limited impact on FM or FFM, although changes in body water may cause artifacts in assessments of body composition via various modalities and some loss of fat-free dry solid mass can occur in as little as 4 days (42,43). While specific BM management practices vary according to sport and athlete caliber, the majority of athletes engage in both chronic and acute strategies (3,22,24,25,29,31,44). ...
... However, a singular focus on these practices to facilitate larger amounts of weight loss (>3% BM reduction) may have substantial negative implications to health and performance. According to recent surveys of RWL practices among athletes, the concerning strategies of vomiting and use of banned diuretics and diet pills have a low prevalence of use (3,24,25). However, the use of thermally stressful environments like saunas to elicit sweat losses remains common (3,24,25). ...
Weight-category sports are defined by the requirement of a weigh-in before competition to provide performance equity and reduced injury risks by eliminating size discrepancies. Athletes in these sports try to gain a theoretical advantage by competing in weight divisions that are lower than their day-to-day body mass (BM), using a combination of chronic strategies (body-fat losses) and acute manipulations over a period of hours to days before weigh-in ("making weight"). Strategies to support safer practices include minimal competition weight classification based on preseason body composition, reductions in the period between weigh-in and competition, and prohibition of unhealthy weight loss techniques. At an individual level, expert guidance by a sports nutrition professional can help an athlete to establish a pragmatic and long-term approach to BM management, recognizing the nuances of their sport, to achieve favorable outcomes for both health and performance.
... Rapid weight loss (RWL) is frequently practiced in sports that have weight class restrictions [1,2]. For example, in mixed martial arts (MMA), the percentage of body mass lost by these athletes is usually ~5% to 10% in the week prior to competition [3][4][5][6][7][8][9]. To achieve losses of this magnitude, RWL strategies that reduce body water stores (e.g. ...
... A means of passive fluid loss known as hot baths is often employed as part of weight-making practices in combat sports [3,[9][10][11][12][13]. ...
... Absent an effect of the addition of salt under the conditions employed in our two studies, because there were six participants common to both studies, it was possible to explore the effect of all participants were classified as dehydrated based on a urine osmolality of >700 mOsmol/kg [21]. This finding is consistent with typical methods of RWL resulting in 100% of MMA athletes being dehydrated to various degrees at an official weigh-in [3,28]. Body mass and hydration assessment performed on Morning Day +1 ...
Hot water immersion is used by athletes in weight category sports to produce rapid weight loss (RWL) by means of passive fluid loss, and often is performed with the addition of Epsom salts (magnesium sulphate). This study investigated the magnitude of body mass losses during hot water immersion with or without the addition of salt, with the temperature commencing at 37.8°C and being self-adjusted by participants to their maximum tolerable temperature. In a crossover design, eight male MMA athletes (29.4 ± 5.3 y; 1.83 ± 0.05 m; 85.0 ± 4.9 kg) performed a 20 min whole-body immersion followed by a 40 min wrap in a warm room, twice in sequence per visit. During one visit, only fresh water was used (FWB), and in the other visit, magnesium sulphate (1.6% wt/vol) was added to the bath (SWB). Prior to each visit, 24 h of carbohydrate, fibre and fluid restriction was undertaken. Water temperatures at the end of the first and second baths were ~39.0°C and ~39.5°C, respectively. Body mass losses induced by the hot bath protocols were 1.71 ± 0.70 kg and 1.66 ± 0.78 kg for FWB and SWB, respectively (P = 0.867 between trials, d = 0.07), and equivalent to ~2.0% body mass. Body mass lost during the entire RWL protocol was 4.5 ± 0.7%. Under the conditions employed, the magnitude of body mass lost in SWB was similar to FWB. Augmenting passive fluid loss during hot water immersion with the addition of salt may require a higher salt concentration than that presently utilised.
... Rapid weight loss (RWL) is frequently practised in sports that have weight class restrictions (Khodaee, Olewinski, Shadgan, & Kiningham, 2015;Reale, Slater, & Burke, 2017a), including combat sports such as mixed martial arts (MMA) (Barley, Chapman, & Abbiss, 2019;Matthews, Stanhope, Godwin, Holmes, & Artioli, 2019). The weight-making practices of MMA athletes have recently been a subject of much interest (Andreato et al., 2014;Barley, Chapman, & Abbiss, 2018;Connor & Egan, 2019;Coswig, Fukuda, & Del Vecchio, 2015;Coswig et al., 2019;Crighton, Close, & Morton, 2016;Hillier et al., 2019;Jetton et al., 2013;Kasper et al., 2019;Matthews & Nicholas, 2017). Notably, the prevalence and magnitude of the RWL process is greater in MMA than other combat and weight category sports (Barley et al., 2019;Matthews et al., 2019), with the %body mass loss usually~5% to 10% in the week prior to competition (Barley et al., 2018;Coswig et al., 2015Coswig et al., , 2019Crighton et al., 2016;Hillier et al., 2019;Matthews & Nicholas, 2017). ...
... The weight-making practices of MMA athletes have recently been a subject of much interest (Andreato et al., 2014;Barley, Chapman, & Abbiss, 2018;Connor & Egan, 2019;Coswig, Fukuda, & Del Vecchio, 2015;Coswig et al., 2019;Crighton, Close, & Morton, 2016;Hillier et al., 2019;Jetton et al., 2013;Kasper et al., 2019;Matthews & Nicholas, 2017). Notably, the prevalence and magnitude of the RWL process is greater in MMA than other combat and weight category sports (Barley et al., 2019;Matthews et al., 2019), with the %body mass loss usually~5% to 10% in the week prior to competition (Barley et al., 2018;Coswig et al., 2015Coswig et al., , 2019Crighton et al., 2016;Hillier et al., 2019;Matthews & Nicholas, 2017). At both professional and amateur levels, these athletes are using strategies that reduce body water stores (e.g., water loading, fluid restriction, and increasing sweat losses through heat exposure) as the predominant methods of RWL (Barley et al., 2018;Connor & Egan, 2019;Hillier et al., 2019). ...
... A means of passive fluid loss known as hot baths has been briefly mentioned as part of weight-making practices in a number of case and small cohort studies (Brandt et al., 2018;Kasper et al., 2019;Matthews & Nicholas, 2017;Pettersson, Ekstrom, & Berg, 2013). We recently identified hot baths as a highly prevalent method of RWL in MMA athletes with 76% of a cohort of n = 29 male fighters reporting using hot baths "always" or "sometimes" (Connor & Egan, 2019). ...
Hot water immersion, known as a hot bath, is used by MMA athletes to produce rapid weight loss (RWL) by means of passive fluid loss. This study investigated the magnitude of body mass losses using a standardized hot bath protocol with or without the addition of salt. In a crossover design, eleven male MMA athletes (28.5 ± 4.6 y; 1.83 ± 0.07 m; 82.5 ± 9.1 kg) performed a 20-min immersion at 37.8°C followed by a 40-min wrap in a warm room. This bath and wrap was performed twice per visit. During one visit, only fresh water was used (FWB), and in the other visit, magnesium sulphate (1.6% wt/vol) was added to the bath (SWB). Prior to each visit, 24 h of carbohydrate, fibre, and fluid restriction was undertaken as part of the RWL protocol. Body mass losses induced by the hot bath protocols were 1.63 ± 0.75 kg and 1.60 ± 0.80 kg for FWB and SWB, respectively, and equivalent to ~2.1% body mass. Under the conditions employed, the magnitude of body mass loss in SWB was similar to FWB. However, further research should explore bathing in a temperature that is consistent with that habitually used by fighters, and/or higher concentrations of salt.
... Competitors are required to obtain a selected body mass during an official precompetition weigh-in, a process known as "making weight" (22). With knowledge of a recovery window before competition (,1-36 hours), athletes acutely move down a weight class and undergo subsequent rapid body mass gain to achieve a perceived performance advantage over lighter opponents (21,32). Various strategies to induce RWL with the goal of "making weight" have been documented within the literature, many of which focus on acute loss of body water (fluid restriction, water loading, and sweating via increases in body temperature) (24,27,28). ...
... It is recognized that in professional sport, sports nutrition professionals are commonly an important part of a multidisciplinary sports science support team (18). A key role of the sports nutritionist is providing counseling to athletes regarding evidence-based weight-gain and weight-loss methods (21). Subsequently, it has been shown that professional MMA athletes who reported using the guidance of a registered nutritionist reported using the lowest number of RWL methods, indicating efficiency in approach (25). ...
Gee, TI, Campbell, P, Bargh, MJ, and Martin, D. Rapid weight loss practices within Olympic weightlifters. J Strength Cond Res 37(10): 2046-2051, 2023-Rapid weight loss (RWL) practices are common among athletes to "make weight" for a chosen bodyweight class. This study's purpose was to investigate RWL prevalence, magnitude, and methods within Olympic weightlifters from Great Britain. Subjects (n 5 39, male 5 22, female 5 17) were recruited from International Weightlifting Federation lifting populations (mandatory two-hour competition weigh-in). Subjects were categorized into competitive groups based on Sinclair coefficient total (high, mid, low) and also gender (male, female). The validated Rapid Weight Loss Questionnaire was used to establish RWL magnitude and practices. Of respondents, 33 of 39 (84.6%) had purposely acutely reduced body mass to compete, a higher proportion present within females (94.1%) than males (77.3%). The cohort's mean habitual precompetition acute body mass loss was 3.8 6 1.7% and the "rapid weight loss score" (RWLS) was 23.6 6 9.5. Across competitive groups there were no significant differences in habitual or highest precompetition body mass loss, postcompetition body mass gain or RWLS (p. 0.05). However, females attributed a significantly greater "highest" relative precompetition body mass loss compared with males (7.4 vs 4.9%, p 5 0.045). For RWL methods used, frequencies of "always" and "sometimes" were reported highest for "restricting fluid ingestion" (81.8%), "gradual dieting" (81.8%), and "water loading" (54.5%). The prevalence of RWL is high among competitive Olympic weightlifters, and especially within the sampled female athletes. Magnitude of RWL was similar across different standards of athlete; however, female lifters demonstrated a higher maximum precompetition RWL.
... However, weight cutting is a more prevalent aspect in MMA than many other combat and grappling sports [13][14][15], as research demonstrates over 90% of MMA athletes use rapid weight loss techniques [14,16]. Research suggests an MMA athlete may lose up to 10% of their body mass prior to a weigh-in [8][9][10][11][12]17], and may regain most of that lost weight in the time between the weigh-in and the fight competition [18][19][20]. This in theory supports the idea that an athlete with a weight advantage may confer a competitive advantage in certain combat sports and contexts [10,12,19,21]. ...
... The data also demonstrate that athletes will lose approximately 5.7% of their total body weight 48 h pre-weigh-in and approximately 4.4% of their total body weight in the final 24 h of weight cutting preweigh-in. Previous research has suggested that athletes will regain most of that weight that was lost prior to competition [18][19][20]. Moreover, it was suggested that athletes could gain nearly 5.5 kg of bodyweight prior to competition [29]. ...
Previous research has demonstrated that professional mixed martial arts (MMA) athletes employ a variety of weight manipulation strategies to compete at given weight classes. Although there is much literature demonstrating weight manipulation methods, minimal research exists analyzing how much weight MMA athletes lose prior to the official weigh-in. Moreover, there is minimal research examining how much weight professional MMA athletes gain between the official weigh-in and competition. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to analyze weight loss/regain in professional MMA athletes. Data collected from 616 professional MMA athletes (31.1 ± 4.0 yrs.; 177.1 ± 4.7 cm) competing for the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) between 2020 and 2022 were used for the study. The athlete’s weight was obtained 72 h, 48 h, and 24 h prior to the official weigh-in, at the official weigh-in, and prior to competition. Random effects analysis was utilized to compare weight at a variety of time points between different weight classes. All statistics were analyzed, and significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. There is a significant (p ≤ 0.05) difference between weight classes and time points in professional MMA. MMA athletes decrease body weight significantly prior to the official weigh-in. MMA athletes increase body weight significantly between official weigh-in and competition. Based on these data, it appears that MMA athletes average a weight loss of nearly 7% within 72 h prior to the official weigh-in. The data also suggest that athletes gain nearly 10% of total weight between the official weigh-in and competition.
... One method of heat exposure used to induce passive fluid loss is hot water immersion (HWI), which is often employed as part of weight-making strategies in combat sports (Pettersson et al. 2013;Matthews and Nicholas 2017;Brandt et al. 2018;Connor and Egan 2019;Kasper et al. 2019;Park et al. 2019;Gordon et al. 2021). Colloquially known as hot baths, this method typically involves short-duration HWI followed by 'wrapping' in warm clothing for a period of time before further exposures to HWI and wrapping (Connor et al. 2020;Kasper et al. 2019). ...
... Therefore, despite the loss of ~ 5.3% of body mass in ~ 28 to ~ 30 h, blood markers had returned to values similar to baseline after ~ 24 to ~ 26 h of recovery. In practice, the time from weigh-in until official competition in professional MMA is usually longer, i.e., ~ 30 to ~ 36 h, but even with a longer time-period for rehydration, the majority of MMA athletes have been observed to be hypohydrated up to 2 h before competition (Jetton et al. 2013;Matthews and Nicholas 2017). Based on these observations, regain of body mass alone was suggested as potentially not being a good indicator of returning to a euhydrated state, but there is some debate about the validity of the classification of hypohydration through assessment of hydration status by spot analysis with urine measures Barley et al. 2020). ...
Purpose
To investigate the effects of rapid weight loss (RWL), incorporating comparison of hot water immersion (HWI) in fresh or salt water, on changes in body mass, blood markers, and indices of performance in mixed martial arts athletes.
Methods
In a crossover design comparing fresh water (FWB) to salt water (SWB; 5.0%wt/vol Epsom salt) bathing, 13 males performed 20 min of HWI (~ 40.3 °C) followed by 40 min wrapped in a heated blanket, twice in sequence (2 h total). Before bathing, ~ 26 to ~ 28 h of fluid and dietary restriction was undertaken, and ~ 24 to ~ 26 h of a high carbohydrate diet and rehydration was undertaken as recovery.
Results
During the entire RWL process, participants lost ~ 5.3% body mass. Body mass lost during the 2 h hot bath protocol was 2.17 ± 0.81 kg (~ 2.7% body mass) and 2.24 ± 0.64 kg (~ 2.8% body mass) for FWB and SWB, respectively (P = 0.647 between trials). Blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, sodium, chloride, hemoglobin, and hematocrit were increased (all P < 0.05), and plasma volume was decreased (~ 14%; P < 0.01), but did not differ between FWB and SWB, and were similar to baseline values after recovery. No indices of performance (e.g., countermovement jump, isometric strength, and functional threshold power) were impacted when RWL was followed by the recovery process.
Conclusion
Under the conditions of this hot bath protocol, fluid loss was not augmented by the addition of ~ 5.0%wt/vol of Epsom salt during HWI, and RWL of ~ 5.3% body mass followed by > 24 h of recovery did not impact indices of performance.
... The negative influence on physiological, physical performance, or psychological markers due to RWL remains, even after 24 h of recovery [73]. These problems might occur regardless of the time interval between weigh-in and the fight itself, as physiological parameters such as hydration status, salivary nitrate, and energy availability may not be restored enough [3,65,68,74]. Possibly, this behaviour is encouraged by the time between the official weigh-in and the fight (i.e., 12 to 32 h), which allows for weight recovery so that an athlete fights one to two categories above the official weigh-in [3,74]. ...
... These problems might occur regardless of the time interval between weigh-in and the fight itself, as physiological parameters such as hydration status, salivary nitrate, and energy availability may not be restored enough [3,65,68,74]. Possibly, this behaviour is encouraged by the time between the official weigh-in and the fight (i.e., 12 to 32 h), which allows for weight recovery so that an athlete fights one to two categories above the official weigh-in [3,74]. ...
This review aimed to analyze the findings in the literature related to Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) through an exploratory systematic review and to present the state of the art from a multifactorial perspective. The review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA statement, with a search performed in the Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science databases. Participants were competitive athletes (amateurs or professionals) of regional, national, or international levels. Of the 2763 registries identified, 112 studies met the eligibility criteria. The pooled sample size and age were 20,784 participants, with a mean age of 27.7 ± 6 years for male and 28.9 ± 3 years for female, with the vast majority of athletes being male (94.9%). MMA athletes were 17.2% amateurs, 73.8% professionals, and 9% were not reported. The scientific literature related to MMA reported injuries (n = 28), weight loss (n = 21), technical and tactical analysis (n = 23), physical fitness (n = 8), physiological responses and training characteristics (n = 13), psychobiological parameters (n = 12), and interventions applied to MMA athletes (n = 7). Therefore, this exploratory systematic review presents practitioners and researchers with seven broad summaries of each facet of performance of importance in this population of athletes.
... 2,13,14 Furthermore, it has been reported that following RWG, athletes may remain dehydrated based on urine osmolarity and urine specific gravity measurements despite recovering almost all body mass losses. [15][16][17] Additionally, total hemoglobin mass, blood volume, and blood glucose concentrations may be impaired before competing. 18,19 As such, the RWL and RWG associated with weight cutting may impact exercise capacity and have consequences for match performance. ...
... 1,14 Furthermore, a longer period of time (≥48 h) 55 may be required to completely recover from the RWL phase of weight cutting. Indeed, others [15][16][17]25 have shown significant cellular dehydration in combat sport athletes post-RWG between 24 and 36 hours. This may be due to a possible discrepancy between regain of body mass and complete cellular rehydration following RWL. ...
Weight cutting in combat sports is a prevalent practice whereby athletes voluntarily dehydrate themselves via various methods to induce rapid weight loss (RWL) to qualify for a lower weight category than that of their usual training body weight. The intention behind this practice is to regain the lost body mass and compete at a heavier mass than permitted by the designated weight category. The purpose of this study was to quantitatively synthesize the available evidence examining the effects of weight cutting on exercise performance in combat-sport athletes. Following a systematic search of the literature, meta-analyses were performed to compare maximal strength, maximal power, anaerobic capacity, and/or repeated high-intensity-effort performance before rapid weight loss (pre-RWL), immediately following RWL (post-RWL), and 3 to 36 hours after RWL following recovery and rapid weight gain (post-RWG). Overall, exercise performance was unchanged between pre-RWL and post-RWG ( g = 0.22; 95% CI, −0.18 to 0.62). Between pre-RWL and post-RWL analyses revealed small reductions in maximal strength and repeated high-intensity-effort performance ( g = −0.29; 95% CI, −0.54 to −0.03 and g = −0.37; 95% CI, −0.59 to −0.16, respectively; both P ≤ .03). Qualitative analysis indicates that maximal strength and power remained comparable between post-RWL and post-RWG. These data suggest that weight cutting in combat-sport athletes does not alter short-duration, repeated high-intensity-effort performance; however, there is evidence to suggest that select exercise performance outcomes may decline as a product of RWL. It remains unclear whether these are restored by RWG.
... Cases of more significant weight cuts are recognized, although, and are a reality of certain sports, such as Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) (Barley et al., 2018). In British athletes preparing for an MMA event, Matthews and Nicholas (2017) observed that the loss in the pre-competition week was close to 8% of the body mass. However, 32 h after weighing, the athlete's recovery was about 11.7%. ...
... According to Coswig et al. (2019), the ability to regain weight is associated with competitive success in MMA. These more significant magnitude weight cuts should be analyzed to assess the effect on performance measures following a standard recovery period (Matthews and Nicholas, 2017;Coswig et al., 2019). A significant number of athletes can lose more than 5% of their body mass, which could be potentially dangerous for the participant's health and safety and detrimental for physical performance (Barley et al., 2018;Coswig et al., 2019). ...
Given the relevance of the effects that weight loss can generate on the physical performance in athletes, this study performed a systematic review with meta-analysis of the published literature on rapid weight loss (RWL) and examined its impact on the physical performance in Official Olympic combat sports athletes. The "Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis" (PRISMA) guidelines were followed to ensure an ethical and complete reporting of the findings. PubMed, SPORT Discus, and EBSCO were the electronic databases explored for article retrieval and selection. The following string was applied: "RWL" OR "weight loss" OR "weight reduction" AND "judo" OR "wrestling" or "taekwondo" or "boxing" AND "performance." Based on the quality analysis, conducted according to the "Tool for the assessment of study quality and reporting in exercise training studies" (TESTEX), ten articles achieved a score >6 points. The meta-analysis showed a significant difference in pre-vs. post-weight loss (p = 0.003) and no effects in pre-vs. post-power and strength performance analysis (p > 0.05 for both results). Based on our systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature, RWL up to ≤5% of the body mass in less than 7 days does not influence performance outcomes in Official Olympic combat athletes with weight classes, considering the strength and power measures.
... 9 Common forms of RWL are fluid restriction, dehydration by sweating, diuretics, laxatives, and "waterloading"-a method by which large volumes of fluid are consumed to manipulate renal hormones (eg, aldosterone) and urine output, resulting in further weight loss. 10,11 These strategies can lead to hypohydration and, subsequently, alterations to renal function, 12 immunoendocrine status, 13 brain ventricular volume, and metabolic activity. 14 Both cellular dehydration, induced by hypohydration or "water-cutting," and concussive events have been reported to impair central nervous system function. ...
... 21 Symptoms pertaining to heat stress and hypohydration are also reported to include headaches, dizziness, and increased perception of fatigue. 18,22 Despite the incidence of concussions and abundant use of RWL among combat athletes, 10,23 to date, there has been no study of both selfreported concussion and RWL symptoms in combat athletes or evaluation of their interrelationships. Therefore, the aims of this survey were to (1) investigate the differences in RWL and concussion symptom onset and recovery between combat sports and (2) evaluate the relationships between concussion and RWL symptoms among combat athletes who have previously suffered from a concussion and undergone RWL before competition. ...
Objective:
There is a high incidence of concussion and frequent utilization of rapid weight loss (RWL) methods among combat sport athletes, yet the apparent similarity in symptoms experienced as a result of a concussion or RWL has not been investigated. This study surveyed combat sports athletes to investigate the differences in symptom onset and recovery between combat sports and evaluated the relationships between concussion and RWL symptoms.
Design:
Cross-sectional study.
Setting:
Data were collected through an online survey.
Participants:
One hundred thirty-two (115 male athletes and 17 female athletes) combat sport athletes.
Interventions:
Modified Sport Concussion Assessment Tool (SCAT) symptom checklist and weight-cutting questionnaire.
Main outcome measures:
Survey items included combat sport discipline, weight loss, medical history, weight-cutting questionnaire, and concussion and weight-cutting symptom checklists.
Results:
Strong associations (rs = 0.6-0.7, P < 0.05) were observed between concussion and RWL symptoms. The most frequently reported symptom resolution times were 24 to 48 hours for a weight cut (WC; 59%) and 3 to 5 days for a concussion (43%), with 60% to 70% of athletes reporting a deterioration and lengthening of concussion symptoms when undergoing a WC. Most of the athletes (65%) also reported at least one WC in their career to "not go according to plan," resulting in a lack of energy (83%) and strength/power (70%).
Conclusions:
Rapid weight loss and concussion symptoms are strongly associated, with most of the athletes reporting a deterioration of concussion symptoms during a WC. The results indicate that concussion symptoms should be monitored alongside hydration status to avoid any compound effects of prior RWL on the interpretation of concussion assessments and to avoid potential misdiagnoses among combat athletes.
... Also, the authors concluded that the change of time in official weigh-in from the day before the matches to the same day is a useful precaution that can prevent athletes from severe weight loss and weight gain. In mixed martial arts (MMA) athletes, AWG was much higher compared to judo and wrestling (7.4±2.8 kg, ~11.7%) (Matthews & Nicholas, 2017) which has been clearly supported by previous studies with evidence that MMA athletes resort to extreme rapid weight loss and gain before competition (Hillier et al., 2019;Jetton et al., 2013;Matthews & Nicholas, 2017). In line with our findings, Pettersson and Berg (2014) also stated higher magnitude of AWG in evening weigh-in group compared to morning weigh-in group. ...
... Also, the authors concluded that the change of time in official weigh-in from the day before the matches to the same day is a useful precaution that can prevent athletes from severe weight loss and weight gain. In mixed martial arts (MMA) athletes, AWG was much higher compared to judo and wrestling (7.4±2.8 kg, ~11.7%) (Matthews & Nicholas, 2017) which has been clearly supported by previous studies with evidence that MMA athletes resort to extreme rapid weight loss and gain before competition (Hillier et al., 2019;Jetton et al., 2013;Matthews & Nicholas, 2017). In line with our findings, Pettersson and Berg (2014) also stated higher magnitude of AWG in evening weigh-in group compared to morning weigh-in group. ...
This study aimed to investigate the effect of weigh-in time on hydration status and acute weight gain (AWG). Twenty-seven men judo athletes and 23 men wrestlers voluntarily participated in this study. Body mass and urine specific gravity (USG) of the athletes were measured just before official weigh-in and competition. Two-way analysis of variance (split-plot ANOVA) with repeated measurements (time x sport) were used to determine differences in AWG and USG between groups and measurement times. In case of significant difference between sports, t-tests were applied. There was a significant main effect of time (p<0.01, ES=0.25) on USG. A significant difference was found in USG between official weigh-in and start of the competition in wrestlers (p<0.01) but not in judo athletes. There was significant difference in AWG and AWG% between sports (p<0.01). Moreover, most of the athletes presented high level of dehydration before both official weigh-in and competition. In conclusion, judo athletes could not rehydrate as much as wrestlers despite 15h of recovery. It can be suggested that the period between official weigh-in and competition would be shortened to prevent non-optimal hydration status and rapid weight gain, with caution to allow sufficient recovery period.
... In any case, some authors [64] suggest that observed windows of 32 h for recovery could promote aggressive "weight-making" strategies, involving a clear risk to an athlete's well-being. ...
Most combat sports (CS) are structured in weight categories, and it is very common to carry out body weight adjustment strategies in order to compete in lower weight categories. For this reason, different rapid weight loss (RWL) strategies are usually performed to pass the pre-competition weigh-in test, and then a replenishment of fluids and carbohydrate-rich foods is conducted in an attempt to recover the weight and avoid a performance loss. In this context, no clear references have been found on whether these types of strategies have negative effects, impairing the athlete's combat and/or physical performance. For this reason, the aim of this study was to review the scientific literature on the effect of rapid weight reduction strategies on the performance of CS athletes. A literature search was performed through four different databases (PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science and ScienceDirect). Four inclusion criteria were established as follows: (1) the subjects had to be competitors in the CS and carry out RWL strategies; (2) at least two measurement points, that is, normal conditions and dehydration condition; (3) measurements in a real competition or simulating the same conditions; (4) original research articles written in English or Spanish and available in full text. Finally, a total of 16 articles were finally included in this research. All subjects (n = 184) were athletes from combat disciplines, with a minimum of 3-4 years of practice, as well as with certain experience in RWL. Six of the studies reported that an RWL strategy of around 5% of body weight loss did not affect performance parameters. However, the other ten studies with RWL between 3 and 6% or even higher reported negative effects or impairments on different parameters related to performance and/or athlete's psychophysiology, such as perceived fatigue, mood states, strength and power production, as well as changes in hormonal, blood and urine parameters, body composition, or the kinematics of the technical gesture. Although there is still no clear answer to the issue approached in this research, in general terms, it seems that in order to guarantee an acceptable athletic performance of the competitor, the weight loss should not exceed 3% to ≤5% of body weight together with ≥24 h for adequate (or at least partial) recovery and rehydration processes. In addition, it is highly recommended to lose weight progressively over several weeks, especially focusing on competitions lasting several days, as well as multiple rounds or qualifying stages.
... In any case, some authors [64] suggest that observed windows of 32 h for recovery could promote aggressive "weight-making" strategies, involving a clear risk to an athlete's well-being. ...
Most combat sports (CS) are structured in weight categories, and it is very common to carry out body weight adjustment strategies in order to compete in lower weight categories. For this reason, different rapid weight loss (RWL) strategies are usually performed to pass the pre-competition weigh-in test, and then a replenishment of fluids and carbohydrate-rich foods is conducted in an attempt to recover the weight and avoid a performance loss. In this context, no clear references have been found on whether these types of strategies have negative effects, impairing the athlete's combat and/or physical performance. For this reason, the aim of this study was to review the scientific literature on the effect of rapid weight reduction strategies on the performance of CS athletes. A literature search was performed through four different databases (PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science and ScienceDirect). Four inclusion criteria were established as follows: (1) the subjects had to be competitors in the CS and carry out RWL strategies; (2) at least two measurement points, that is, normal conditions and dehydration condition; (3) measurements in a real competition or simulating the same conditions; (4) original research articles written in English or Spanish and available in full text. Finally, a total of 16 articles were finally included in this research. All subjects (n = 184) were athletes from combat disciplines, with a minimum of 3-4 years of practice, as well as with certain experience in RWL. Six of the studies reported that an RWL strategy of around 5% of body weight loss did not affect performance parameters. However, the other ten studies with RWL between 3 and 6% or even higher reported negative effects or impairments on different parameters related to performance and/or athlete's psychophysiology, such as perceived fatigue, mood states, strength and power production, as well as changes in hormonal, blood and urine parameters, body composition, or the kinematics of the technical gesture. Although there is still no clear answer to the issue approached in this research, in general terms, it seems that in order to guarantee an acceptable athletic performance of the competitor, the weight loss should not exceed 3% to ≤5% of body weight together with ≥24 h for adequate (or at least partial) recovery and rehydration processes. In addition, it is highly recommended to lose weight progressively over several weeks, especially focusing on competitions lasting several days, as well as multiple rounds or qualifying stages.
... The resulting greater BM post weigh-in may be coincidental to physiological recovery enabling more successful performance. [26][27][28] Subgroup variation at the international standard of MMA is notable in the context of previous findings of RWG having no statistically relevant effect at the "international" standard of MMA. 14,23 Our results among international MMA opponents suggest RWL/RWG methods used to have similar effects for both winners and losers. ...
Purpose:
Combat-sport athletes commonly undergo rapid weight loss prior to prebout weigh-in and subsequently rapid weight gain (RWG) prior to competition. This investigation aimed to evaluate the effect of RWG and weight differential (WD) between opponents on competitive success.
Methods:
A retrospective cohort study was performed using data from professional mixed martial arts (MMA) and boxing events held between 2015 and 2019. The primary outcome was RWG (relative and absolute) between weigh-in and competition stratified by bout winners and losers. Binary logistic regression was used to explore the relationships among bout outcome, RWG, and WD between competitors on the day of their bout.
Results:
Among 708 MMA athletes included, winners regained more relative body mass (8.7% [3.7%] vs 7.9% [3.8%], P < .01) than losers. In 1392 included male boxers, winners regained significantly more relative body mass (8.0% [3.0%] vs 6.9% [3.2%], P < .01) than losers. Each percentage body mass increase resulted in a 7% increased likelihood of victory in MMA and a 13% increase in boxing. The relationship between RWG and competitive success remained significant in regional and male international MMA athletes, as well as boxers. WD predicted victory in international mixed martial artists and boxers. WD predicted victory by knockout or technical knockout in international MMA athletes and regional boxers.
Conclusion:
This analysis of combat-sport athletes indicates that RWG and WD influence competitive success. These findings raise fair-play and safety concerns in these popular sports and may help guide risk-mitigating regulation strategies.
... One of the treatments of particular concern for this injury is Kinesio Taping (KT). In this study, Kinesio Taping investigated the effect of three KT methods on the performance of CAI athletes [1]. Hunt et al.'s team believes that injury to the distal ligament of the tibia and fibula is indicative of long-term ankle dysfunction. ...
Martial arts routines originated in China and are a traditional sport of the Chinese nation. They are one of the outstanding sports culture representatives in China since ancient times. Excessively difficult movements in some martial arts routines during competitions or training can cause athlete injuries. The purpose of this article is to study the effect of proprioceptive training of ankle joints on preventing ankle injuries in martial arts athletes. Can ankle strength training and ankle proprioceptive training combined with strength training improve the dynamic and static balance of football players? This article analyzes the mechanism and causes of martial arts athletes’ injuries and proposes treatment methods for ankle injuries. In the experimental part of this article, 16 martial arts athletes (8 males and 8 females) were selected as research objects, and they were randomly divided into 4 male and female experimental groups and 4 control groups. The experimental group received ankle muscle strength training for 6 weeks, and the control group received ankle muscle strength training and ankle proprioception training. The experimental results prove that ankle proprioceptive training can improve the dynamic and static balance of martial arts athletes and can effectively prevent the occurrence of ankle injury. In this paper, the dynamic balance ability in the biped standing state with eyes closed was tested, and the reductions of the stability index in the front and back directions of the control group and the experimental group were 0.03 and 0.2, respectively. It can be seen that the stability training effect of the experimental group was obvious.
... The process of rapid weight loss is not a good strategy for optimizing the performance of martial arts athletes and is harmful to health (Fortes et al., 2017;Kons et al., 2017). Athletes reported using dangerous dehydrationbased RWL strategies, including saunas (43%) and training in plastic clothing (43%) resulted in 57% of athletes being dehydrated and 43% experiencing extreme dehydration (Matthews & Nicholas, 2017). Another study with a total subject of 12 male judo athletes and at least 18 years of age used the RWL method by reducing body weight ± 4.0 kg, the day before a special competition, food and fluid restrictions were the most frequently carried out by judo athletes so that this study has warned staff professionals (coaches and other staff) involved with combat athletes to ensure appropriate and gradual weight loss strategies during the competition period to determine the relationship between athlete diet and exercise volume/intensity in specific and nonspecific tasks (Kons et al., 2017). ...
Martial athletes use the rapid weight loss (RWL) method as a strategy to lose weight quickly before competing. This study was conducted to examine the prevalence of the magnitude of the impact of the RWL method used as a way to lose weight by running using a sauna suit on the physical, physiological, psychological, and performance conditions of martial athletes. The population in this study were martial arts athletes throughout Indonesia. This study uses a descriptive method by collecting data through a questionnaire instrument on google Forms which is distributed to martial athletes, especially in the fighting class. The results of the identification through the instrument were then analyzed using descriptive statistics. The results n this study were 88 martial arts athletes using the weight loss method by running using a sauna suit. The impact that occurred on athletes all experienced more than one impact of RWL on the athlete's physical condition, physiological, psychological, and performance of martial athletes which included athletes experiencing 19% of martial arts athletes experiencing muscle cramps, 26% of athletes' body temperature increasing, 7% increasing heart rate, 1% athletes experience dyspnea, 3% athletes experience injuries, 8% athletes feel irritable/increased temperament, 49% athletes experience increased fatigue, 16% athletes experience decreased performance, 9% athletes experience stress, and 17% athletes feel their sports interest is reduced.
... (~11.7%) from official weigh-in to an hour before the competition [39]. Another study by Alderman et al. [40] stated that wrestlers gained an average of 3.4 kg or 4.81% gain of body mass between official weigh-in and competition. ...
Objectives
The International Judo Federation (IJF) implemented new regulations in an attempt to regulate rapid weight loss in 2013. The body weight of the athletes cannot be more than 5 % higher than the upper limits of their weight categories at the weight check for randomly selected athletes from each weight category before the competition. However, there is a lack of studies demonstrating rapid weight loss and hydration status of elite judo athletes in a real match atmosphere under the current refereeing rules. Thus, this study aimed to examine body mass and hydration changes of elite judo athletes a week before the competition, official weigh-in, and 24 hours after competition.
Methods
Eight high-level male judo athletes voluntarily participated in this study. Body mass and urinary measures of hydration status were collected a week before, at the official weigh-in and 24-hour post-weigh-in.
Results
One-way repeated-measures ANOVA showed a significant main effect of time on body mass (p<0.001). Body mass decreased by 5.4±0.7 kg or 6.8% from a week before the competition to official weigh-in (p<0.001) and increased by 3.0±1.1 kg or 4.2% from official weigh-in to 24-h post-competition (p<0.001). A significant effect of time was also found in both urine specific gravity (USG) (p<0.001) and urine colour (UC) among measurements (p=0.001). Athletes’ USG values were at the highest level (USG=1.030±0.001) at the official weigh-in while they decreased significantly at 24-hour post-competition (USG=1.017±0.007).
Conclusion
The results showed that elite judo athletes resort to rapid weight loss and present dehydration despite the established regulations by IJF.
... and 43% are severely dehydrated (1267 ± 47 mOsmol.kg-1). The dehydration process is carried out in a dangerous way (saunas and plastic clothes 43%:43%) (Matthews & Nicholas, 2017). ...
Dehydration is a case that will happen when exercising. The allowed dehydration level for a single exercise for health is still uncertain. Based on a review of research, dehydration up to 2% can lower mood but has not decreased aerobic performance. Information on the allowed level of dehydration to maintain exercise and performance still needs to be done. The research method used was an experimental pre-test post-test method. This study compared 2.2% and 2.8% dehydration levels on 400 meters running performance. The population of this study was all Sports Coaching Education students class of 2017 and 2018. The sample grouping was administered randomly into two groups. The first group was the 2.2% dehydration group consisted of 16 students. The second group was the 2.8% dehydration group consisted of 25 students. The dehydration process was conducted passively by doing sunbathing while using a raincoat. Bodyweight was measured before dehydration up to several times to reach the desired level of dehydration. The measurement of the 400-meter run was carried out before weight measurement and after dehydration. The data were analyzed by Mann-Whitney U test. The results of the data analysis concluded that there was no difference in the 400-meter run performance at the two levels of dehydration. Dehydration between 2.2% level and 2.8% level equally lowered the 400-meter running performance. This study suggests that the athlete's hydration level when exercising should be kept below 2.2% to achieve optimal performance. During training, athletes should be provided with drinks to maintain hydration levels.
... Although fighters may begin re-feeding and re-hydration immediately after weigh-in, previous studies have found dehydration to be highly prevalent among fighters at the time of competition. [44][45][46] Dehydration secondary to rapid cutting of weight may worsen TBI-induced neurotrauma, 47,48 potentially contributing to the observed association of lighter weight class with worse outcomes on a per-fight basis. This effect would likely only persist during the acute period following dehydration, and as such would only alter the impact of TBIs sustained during professional bouts. ...
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a common source of functional impairment among athletes, military personnel, and the general population. Professional fighters in both boxing and mixed martial arts (MMA) are at particular risk for repetitive TBI and may provide valuable insight into both the pathophysiology of TBI and its consequences. Currently, effects of fighter weight class on brain volumetrics (regional and total) and functional outcomes are unknown. Fifty-three boxers and 103 MMA fighters participating in the Professional Fighters Brain Health Study (PRBHS) underwent volumetric magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and neuropsychological testing. Fighters were divided into lightweight (≤139.9 lb), middleweight (140.0–178.5 lb), and heavyweight (>178.5 lb). Compared with lightweight fighters, heavyweights displayed greater yearly reductions in regional brain volume (boxers: bilateral thalami; MMA: left thalamus, right putamen) and functional performance (boxers: processing speed, simple and choice reaction; MMA: Trails A and B tests). Lightweights suffered greater reductions in regional brain volume on a per-fight basis (boxers: left thalamus; MMA: right putamen). Heavyweight fighters bore greater yearly burden of regional brain volume and functional decrements, possibly related to differing fight dynamics and force of strikes in this division. Lightweights demonstrated greater volumetric decrements on a per-fight basis. Although more research is needed, greater per-fight decrements in lightweights may be related to practices of weight-cutting, which may increase vulnerability to neurodegeneration post-TBI. Observed decrements associated with weight class may result in progressive impairments in fighter performance, suggesting interventions mitigating the burden of TBI in professional fighters may both improve brain health and increase professional longevity.
... This is particularly useful in Silat given the limited time between the weigh-in and the fight for refuelling. Finally, water loading is a popular weight making practice in combat sport athletes, particularly in mixed-martial arts [9,10,16]. It involves consuming large volumes of fluid (> 7 L/day) followed by sudden fluid restriction to induce fluid losses through manipulation of the renal hormones. ...
Weight making behaviours and best practice recommendations for various combat sports have been well documented, however this is not true for Silat athletes. Pre- and post- weigh-in recommendations for other combat sports may not be suitable for Silat due to differences in weigh-in rules. Using a well-established questionnaire, this questionnaire-based cross sectional study examined weight making practices of Silat match athletes (n = 102) competing at a national Pencak Silat championship. The 24.5% of athletes engaged in pre-competition weight loss, and the overall Rapid Weight Loss Score (RWLS) was 27.7 ± 8.7, considerably lower than other combat sports. The median age when weight loss began was 17 years, with 32% (n = 8) starting such practices under 17 years. Risky weight management practices such as the use of laxatives, diet pills and vomiting were less common than in other combat sports. Coaches and fellow athletes are key influencers of weight making practices, and dietitians were found be an underutilised resource. Appropriate measures to empower coaches and athletes with the knowledge and ability to guide and execute less detrimental weight making practice with the involvement of dietitians are suggested. The study findings provide information to establish Silat-specific dietary strategies to improve health and performance.
... Many athletes employ weight loss strategies to enhance body composition and achieve health or performance goals. In particular, weight class sports, such as mixed-martialarts and weightlifting (Barley et al. 2018;da Silva Santos et al. 2016;Matthews and Nicholas 2017), or those with an aesthetic component, such as body building and gymnastics (Bloodworth et al. 2017;Fagerberg 2018), typically necessitate body composition modification around training and competition. Athletes may achieve their desired body composition through a reduction in energy intake while Communicated by Kirsty Elliott-Sale. ...
Purpose
Increasing protein intake during energy restriction (ER) attenuates lean body mass (LBM) loss in trained males. However, whether this relationship exists in trained females is unknown. This study examined the impact of higher compared to lower protein intakes (35% versus 15% of energy intake) on body composition in trained females during 2 weeks of severe ER.
Methods
Eighteen well-trained females completed a 1-week energy balanced diet (HD100), followed by a 2-week hypoenergetic (40% ER) diet (HD60). During HD60, participants consumed either a high protein (HP; 35% protein, 15% fat) or lower protein (CON; 15% protein, 35% fat) diet. Body composition, peak power, leg strength, sprint time, and anaerobic endurance were assessed at baseline, pre-HD60, and post-HD60.
Results
Absolute protein intake was reduced during HD60 in the CON group (from 1.6 to 0.9 g·d·kgBM⁻¹) and maintained in the HP group (~ 1.7 g·d·kgBM⁻¹). CON and HP groups decreased body mass equally during HD60 (− 1.0 ± 1.1 kg; p = 0.026 and − 1.1 ± 0.7 kg; p = 0.002, respectively) and maintained LBM. There were no interactions between time point and dietary condition on exercise performance.
Conclusion
The preservation of LBM during HD60, irrespective of whether absolute protein intake is maintained or reduced, contrasts with findings in trained males. In trained females, the relationship between absolute protein intake and LBM change during ER warrants further investigation. Future recommendations for protein intake during ER should be expressed relative to body mass, not total energy intake, in trained females.
... However, there is an information gap concerning the detrimental effects of extreme dieting for certain newer sports. Mixed martial arts (MMA) and Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) have recently increased in popularity (4,5) and the expansion has led to media exposure and debate on unhealthy weight loss among especially MMA athletes (6)(7)(8). For this reason, martial arts organizations need informed practices to keep their athletes in good health. ...
Background: Extreme dieting is a well-known phenomenon in combat sports, and still, little research has explored the link between extreme dieting and confidence levels among martial artists. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, extreme dieting and sport-specific self-confidence among 111 Swedish athletes practicing mixed martial arts (MMA) or Brazilian jiujitsu (BJJ) were examined. Athletes completed an online survey containing the Eating Disorder Examination questionnaire (EDE-Q) and the Trait Sport-Confidence inventory (TSCI). Results: The results showed that MMA athletes dieted in more extreme ways than BJJ athletes, primarily via restricted eating. They also had higher sport-specific self-confidence, which was positively correlated with weight loss. BJJ athletes used less restrictive eating than MMA athletes, but those who did diet in extreme ways experienced lower self-confidence compared to MMA athletes. Conclusions: The results are consistent with previous studies showing rapid weight loss in MMA athletes and suggest that some martial artists are at a particular risk of extreme dieting and possible sequelae. There is a link between self-confidence and weight loss, but it seems to allude to a comprehensive explanation and is in need of further research.
... Na maioria das competições oficiais as divisões dos atletas são feitas em sete categorias de peso, tanto no masculino quanto no feminino. Para se enquadrar nas categorias de peso, muitos judocas tem com praxe a perda de peso corporal, geralmente próximo as competições, na busca de se enquadra em uma categoria de peso inferior ao seu peso corporal real (ARTIOLI; FRANCHINI; LANCHA JUNIOR, 2006;BORDIGNON;ESCOBAR, 2015;ARTIOLI et al.,2016;BERKOVICH et al.,2016;NICHOLAS, 2017). ...
... In this study, the percentage of change after the RWL intervention was between 3.5% and 4.4% for women and men, respectively. It has been shown previously that reductions in body mass between 5.3-9.1% have deleterious effects on muscle and cognitive performance [25], which is common within the unsupervised practices in MMA and sports with weight classes, including combat sports [2,26]. Actually, there is a higher risk of adverse effects when the loss is higher than 5% of body mass, and athletes in the highest percentiles of RWL (reductions between 8-10% in body mass after RWL) may be at greater risk of an adverse event, such as decrement in physical performance, feeling fatigue or weakness, dizziness, feverishness, nausea, or cramps, among others [8]. ...
Making weight is a practice often used in combat sports. This consists of a rapid weight loss (RWL) and a subsequent rapid weight gain (RWG) in the days preceding competition. However, this practice is often carried out based on anecdotal information provided by ex-athletes or non-professionals, which has led to several adverse events. This study aimed to assess the acute effects of a supervised nutritional period of RWL/RWG on health markers, hormone concentrations, and body composition. We performed a single-arm repeated-measures (baseline, after RWL and after RWG) clinical trial with twenty-one (8F:16M) Italian Muay Thai fighters. Body mass was significantly lower after the RWL (−4.1%) while there was a significantly higher glucose availability after RWL and RWG. Blood urea nitrogen, lipid profile, and creatinine were within the normal range after RWL/RWG. Testosterone decrease significantly after RWL and RWG in the men group. Male fighters had a significant reduction in thyroid-stimulating hormone concentration after the RWL and RWG intervention, but no change was found in women at pre-competition. Bioelectrical parameters were almost fully restored after RWG. An evidence-based and individualized nutrition methodology reduces the adverse events after an RWL and RWG practice, although the impact on the hormonal profile is inevitable.
... The previous study reported that when mixed-martial-arts competitors lost weight by 5.6 kg (8.0%) over six days with dehydration such as gradual dieting, restricting fluids, hot salt baths, increasing exercise, using a sauna, and/or water loading, 57% of them showed a higher urine osmolality on the day before official weigh-in than baseline. 29 although we cannot assert our participant's hydration status because we did not measure it, we expected that the male wrestlers who decreased over 4.9% of their BM might have felt lassitude and impaired mobility because they had employed dehydration as their prime strategy for weight loss. ...
Background:
Amateur wrestlers have often undergone rapid weight loss (RWL) to win their matches. On January 1, 2018, the rule of weigh-in was changed and weight category increased. The study aimed to determine the prevalence of wrestlers undergoing RWL under the new rule of morning weigh-in before the tournament and examine the relationship between the range of RWL and physical conditions.
Methods:
Male (n = 204) and female (n = 50) wrestlers participating in the National Wrestling Championship completed a questionnaire about weight reduction methods and their physical condition.
Results:
Among 159 participants exceeding their weight class one-week before competition, 36% of males and 44% of females exceeded their weight class by 0.0-4.9% (requiring small RWL); 30% of males and 6% of females exceeded by 5.0-10.0% (requiring large RWL), but neither the males nor females were over 10.0% above required weight. In the males, there was a moderate negative correlation between excess rates of body mass one-week before competition and their physical condition (r = -0.330 to -0.467, P < 0.05) on the first day of the competition; however, no significant correlation was found in the females. Comparing physical condition according to the range of RWL, there were significantly lower scores in the large RWL group (≥ 4.9%) than the small RWL group (< 4.9%) in males.
Conclusions:
We found that RWL ≤ 5% is most appropriate to ensure better physical condition of wrestlers on competition day.
... All participants had previous experience in professional UFC events and of the rules and procedures used during the championships. No interference was made to the training, nutritional or hydration status of participants and they maintained the weight loss recovery time pattern of 24 hours between Official weigh-in and the bout, following UFC rules [Jetton et al. 2013;Matthews Nicholas 2016]. The criteria for inclusion were to consider only bouts with three rounds (including knockout, technical knockout, submission and score decisions), while the exclusion criteria concerned bouts with more than three rounds and/or with characteristics that disqualified prospective outcomes comparisons -bouts which finished in "draw" or "no contest". ...
Background. A schematic analysis of tactical performance by an MMA athlete is a potential mediator of success, and can help the
understanding of how striking actions can be used to organize technical-tactical actions. A specific evaluation of MMA striking
actions has not been undertaken in previous studies.
Problem and aim. To compare the striking motor actions of MMA athletes by outcome type (Split vs. Unanimous Score Decision vs.
KO/TKO vs. Submission) at the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC™), and to offer a practical application for MMA training.
Methods. Kruskal Wallis and Dunn post hoc tests were applied to compare the effects of the different types of outcome decision
(Split Score Decision vs. Unanimous Score Decision vs. KO/TKO vs. Submission).
Results. Results showed a higher number of Unanimous than Split Decisions and Submissions after attempted (p≤0.05) and (p≤0.05)
landed head strikes during keeping distance and clinch moments. A Split Decision followed a higher frequency of attempted (p≤0.05)
and landed (p≤0.05) body strikes during keeping distance and clinch moments rather than an Unanimous Decision. Submission
and TKO/KO.TKO/KO were more highly demonstrated than Split Decision after Attempted [0.0 (0.0;2.0); p≤0.05)] and Landed
[0.0 (0.0;2.0); p≤0.05)] Head Jabs during groundwork combat.
Conclusions. These results are interesting because they show the singularities of two situations (Split and Unanimous Scores) in
which the bout must continue until the end of the round. Unanimous decisions were made in respect of attacks to the head during
stand up combat, while split decisions were determined by the number of strike actions oriented to the body, and TKO/KO outcomes
were determined by jabs to the head made in the ground situation.
... For example, in athletes involved in combat sports, it is common practice to lose body weight quickly before a match and then increasing it a few hours after the weigh-in. 65 Although this practice entails considerable health risks, it continues to be widely used. From a study conducted on combat sports athletes during the 2013 high Spanish national championships, 84% of participants were hypohydrated at weigh-in, and among them, 50% were severely hypohydrated. ...
Based on the assumption that a significant buffering capacity is able to attenuate the negative pH changes associated with high intensity physical exercise, numerous studies have been focused on the effects the exogenous administration of sodium citrate (SC) on human performance. However, the exact mechanisms of action of citrates have never been accurately described and results obtained so far often failed to demonstrate a significant advantage, mainly to an unfavorable relationship between achievable benefits and risk of side effects. In recent years, new evidence has emerged on the fields of use of SC supplementation in sports thus providing the theoretical basis for its use after dehydrating exercise to promote a fast fluid recovery. The aim of this review is to highligths recent experimental observations that could provide new interest in this buffering agent.
... Although the prevalence of RWL is equivalent to other weight category sports, the magnitude and severity of RWL is generally lower. The average RWL of ;3.0% body mass across the group in preparation for competition is lower than what has been observed in combat sports in general (4,7,15,25), but especially so in comparison with RWL reported for mixed martial arts (MMA), which ranges from ;6 to ;11% (4,10,15,20). Using the RWL score to compare the severity of RWL with other sports demonstrates that the RWL score of ;25 reported by this cohort is lower than previously reported in the literature for combat sports, e.g., scores of ;31 reported in boxing, judo, taekwondo, and wrestling (25), and ;38 reported in MMA (9). ...
Nolan, D, Lynch, AE, and Egan, B. Self-reported prevalence, magnitude, and methods of rapid weight loss in male and female competitive powerlifters. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2019-Rapid weight loss (RWL) is common practice in weight category sports, but no empirical data exist documenting the weight-making practices of competitive strength athletes. This study investigated the self-reported prevalence, magnitude, and methods of RWL used by male and female powerlifters when preparing for competition. Competitive powerlifters (n = 321; M/F, 194/127) completed an anonymous online questionnaire previously validated for assessment of methods of RWL. Respondents were categorized by their federation's respective antidoping policy, weigh-in procedure, and degree of assistive equipment allowed, in addition to their use or not of RWL. Subgroup analyses were performed on the largest category of respondents (n = 200, M/F, 117/83; ≤2-hour weigh-in, drug-tested, "raw") based on sex, weight category, and competitive status. Prevalence of RWL was 85.8%, with an average RWL of 3.0 ± 1.9% body mass and an RWL score of 25.1 ± 7.4. Neither sex nor weight category influenced the RWL score, but in male athletes, a lower RWL score (22.7 ± 6.3) was reported in athletes in the lowest tertile of the Wilks score (p = 0.015). Frequencies of "always use" were reported as 54.0% for fluid restriction and 49.0% for water loading. Coaches (37.5%) and online resources (35.0%) were "very influential" on RWL practices in these athletes, while doctors (85.5%) and dieticians (63.0%) were reported to be "not influential." The prevalence of RWL is high in competitive powerlifting, and the methods used are akin to other weight category sports, but the reported RWL scores are lower than reported in combat sports with longer recovery periods after weigh-in.
Abstract
Purpose: There is growing evidence to suggest that competitive female athletes in certain sports that over scrutinize their body image may experience undesirable mental health outcomes. However, limited research addresses this issue in strength sports with weight class requirements. One such sport is powerlifting, which comprises the squat, bench – press and deadlift. Methods: This study used the Multidimensional Body Image Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ), which recruited 174 female participants across the following subgroups. Powerlifters (P) (n = 66), Active Subjects (AF) (n = 50), Body Image sports (BI) n = 23) and Other Sports (OS) (n = 36). Results: One–way ANOVA showed significant (p < 0.05) results between all groups across seven of the nine MBSRQ subscales. Bonferroni comparisons revealed that there were ten other significant results between these groups. Conclusions: Overall, the results showed that female powerlifters expressed healthier and lower perceptions of negative body image concerns. Furthermore, female powerlifters did not present scores consistent with controlling bodyweight or fixating about being overweight. Instead, these results showed a focus on performance and health improvements. Active subjects presented the most fixation on their body weight and appearance. Applications in Sport: The study concludes that female powerlifters present healthy body image perceptions compared to the other female sporting/active groups. This may be due to the objective outcomes of the sport not relying on socially subjective assessment for validation.
Background
To study the peculiarities of changes in functional indicators and body composition parameters of mixed martial arts (MMA) athletes of strike fighting style and a number of biochemical blood indicators during two months of using different intensity training load regimes, and to determine the most informative criteria for assessing adaptive body changes in these training conditions.
Methods
We examined 40 MMA athletes (men) aged 20–22, who used mainly strike fighting style in their competitive activity, and divided them into 2 research groups (A and B), 20 athletes in each group. Group A athletes used medium intensity ( R a = 0.64), and group B—high intensity ( R a = 0.72) training load regime. To assess the adaptive body changes we applied methods of control testing of maximum muscle strength growth (1 RM), special training (the number of accurate kicks on the mannequin for 30 s), and bioimpedansometry. By monitoring biochemical parameters (testosterone, cortisol, creatinine, phosphorus, calcium, cholesterol, LDH) in the blood serum of athletes, we determined the peculiarities of adaptive-compensatory body reactions in response to training loads.
Results
The obtained results of special training increased during the study period by an average of 10.5% in group B athletes, but group A participants’ results had no significant changes compared to basal data. The largest increase in the development of maximum muscle strength growth by an average of 44.4% was recorded after 2 months of research in group B. Group B athletes also had positive changes in body fat and fat-free mass indicators during the study which were two times higher than the results of group A. The laboratory studies and correlation analysis showed informative biochemical markers (cortisol, testosterone and creatinine) for assessing the condition of athletes in both groups before using high and medium training load regimes. The biochemical markers for assessing the adaptive-compensatory reactions of athletes in response to high-intensity physical stimuli at the beginning of the study were indicators of LDH and cholesterol, and in conditions of medium intensity it was LDH, testosterone and cortisol. After 2 months of study the set of biochemical markers assessing the adaptation processes before the load completely changed only in group B athletes and consisted of LDH, phosphorus, cholesterol, and calcium. At the same time, the set of biochemical criteria for assessing adaptive-compensatory reactions after training in group B athletes was completely changed compared with the data recorded at the beginning of the study.
Conclusion
Defining the optimal set of criteria for assessing the adaptive-compensatory changes in MMA athletes of strike fighting style will allow in the shortest possible time to correct the parameters of the training load regime for accelerating the body functionality in the process of special power training.
The study aimed to evaluate changes in selected biochemical indicators among mixed martial arts competitors in subsequent periods of the training cycle. The research involved 12 mixed martial arts athletes aged 25.8 ± 4.2 years competing in the intermediate category. Selected somatic indicators were measured twice. Biochemical indicators were assessed five times during the 14-week study period. Serum concentrations of testosterone, cortisol, uric acid, myoglobin, total protein, interleukin 6, and tumor necrosis factor, as well as creatine kinase activity were determined. One hour after sparring completion, there were significant increases in cortisol (by 54.9%), uric acid (22.0%), myoglobin (565.0%), and interleukin 6 (280.3%) as compared with the values before the simulated fight. The highest creatine kinase activity (893.83 ± 139.31 U/l), as well as tumor necrosis factor (3.93 ± 0.71 pg/ml) and testosterone (5.83 ± 0.81 ng/ml) concentrations (p = 0.00) were recorded 24 hours after the simulation. Systematic observation of selected blood biochemical indicators in the training process periodization in mixed martial arts helps understand adaptive, compensatory, and regenerative mechanisms occurring in training athletes.
Rapid weight loss or “weight cutting” is a common but potentially harmful practice used in mixed martial arts competition. Following the official weigh-in, competitors refeed and rehydrate themselves in a process known as rapid weight gain (RWG) to realize a potential competitive advantage. While data from surveys and small series have indicated the majority of mixed martial arts athletes engage in rapid weight loss, there is a lack of officially collected data from sanctioning organizations describing its prevalence. The present investigation represents a summary of the data collected between December 2015 and January 2018 by the California State Athletic Commission. In total, 512 professional mixed martial artists (455 males and 57 females) were included. Of these, 503 (98%) athletes gained body mass between weigh-in and their bouts. Total RWG between weigh-in and competition was 5.5 ± 2.5 kg, corresponding to an 8.1% ± 3.6% body mass increase. Total RWG was 5.6 ± 2.5 kg (8.1% ± 3.6%) for males and 4.5 ± 2.3 kg (8.0% ± 3.8%) for females. More than one quarter of men and one third of women gained >10% body mass between weigh-in and competition. Athletes from leading international promotions gained more absolute, but not relative, body mass than those from regional promotions. Our findings indicate RWG is nearly ubiquitous in professional , with a similar prevalence in male and female athletes. Trends based on promotion suggest a larger magnitude of RWG in presumably more experienced and/or successful mixed martial artists from leading international promotions.
Objective: To characterize the epidemiology of overweight athletes before and after the introduction of the Early Weigh-In Policy (EWIP).
Methods: A retrospective cohort study examined the weigh-in results for professional mixed martial arts (MMA) events over a two-year period around the introduction of the new EWIP between 2014 and 2018. Descriptive statistics were used to characterize the study populations. Risk Ratios were used to identify differences in the study populations before and after the introduction of the EWIP.
Results: After the introduction of the EWIP, the number of overweight athletes increased from 5.7% to 8.4% and the average overweight mass increased from 1.3 kg (2.9 lbs) to 1.8 kg (3.9 lbs) [difference, 0.5 kg (1.0 lb), p=4.35x10^(-5)]. The proportion of athletes is not distributed similarly across the different overweight mass categories when comparing the pre- and post-EWIP time frames (p=0.006). More athletes in the pre-EWIP period were overweight by smaller amount, while in the post-EWIP period athletes were overweight by larger amount. Of the athletes who were overweight before the regulation change 28.7% were over the weight limit by greater than 1.8 kg (4 lbs), compared to 39.5% after the new EWIP introduction. On average, the ratio of overweight athletes per events by commission was 1.2 before the introduction of the EWIP and 2.1 after.
Conclusion: These results appear to indicate that the EWIP has not altered weight cutting culture in MMA in a positive manner. This study casts doubt on the benefits of an EWIP and raised the possibly of utilizing the longitudinal weight monitoring approach to mitigate rapid weight-cycling behaviour. However, before additional changes are made by any athletic commission, further research is needed to examine the efficacy of the above-mentioned longitudinal weight monitoring approach or any other strategy.
A structured thinking of the design and methodology of the research on the endocrinology of physical activity and sport is key for the collective improvement of the researches on the field, which requires well-conducted guidelines to standardize the research on the field. Characterization of baseline parameters, eating, sleeping, social and psychological patterns, and parameters and tests to be employed is crucial for a well-designed study on athletes, since all these variables are relevant for the interpretation of the findings. In general, eight types of comparisons can be performed, including within and/or between-group, basal and/or stimulated levels, and whether before versus after interventions or cross-sectionally. Acute responses to exercise, changes in the acute responsiveness to stimulations in response to interventions, and chronic hormonal and metabolic changes during specific interventions or periods are the three major types of chronologies to be tested in athletes.
Unlike endurance and explosive sports, overtraining syndrome has been poorly explored in resistance training. In a systematic review, from 22 studies initially selected, 8 reported or resulted in decreased performance, whereas 4 described athletes with underperformance who failed to recover during follow-up.
Combat athletes are categorised in weight divisions to prevent size and strength disparities and are required to 'make weight' at an official pre-competition weigh-in 8. Consequently, pre-competition rapid weight loss is a key component of combat sport culture 7 and is believed to be a fundamental aspect of preparation 6. Athletes are reported to reduce bodyweight (2-10%) mostly within 2-3 days of competition 1 , to meet requirements of a chosen bodyweight category and gain perceived advantages over lighter opponents, following subsequent weight gain 5. Despite, RWL methods being reported to negatively affect physical performance 4 , differences in weigh in regulations, number of weight categories and physiological requirements present varied magnitudes of RWL across combat sports. This study aimed to compare the RWL practices of combat athletes from Great Britain competing within grappling and striking dominant sports.
A adesão à prática de atividade física tem contribuído para o Movimento Humano
e repercutido positivamente em seu estado de Saúde e Desempenho frente ao atual
cenário de globalização. A prática de atividade física regular é vista como benéfica no
enfrentamento aos principais vilões do século XXI, como o sedentarismo, a obesidade e as doenças crônicas não transmissíveis. O livro Movimento Humano, Saúde e Desempenho está dividido em dois volumes, volume I e volume II, apresentando as principais contribuições acerca dos assuntos de exercício físico, atividade física e promoção da saúde, com o propósito de gerar reflexões ao leitor. Ao decorrer da leitura, podemos perceber a pluralidade de pesquisas no âmbito nacional sendo realizada de diferentes formas e olhares por pesquisadores renomados. Então, sejam bem-vindos a apreciarem os estudos abordados e esperamos que este livro contribua de forma significativa para sua vida acadêmica, profissional e também social.
O voleibol tem se revelado uma modalidade esportiva relevante, para ser desenvolvida nas escolas como conteúdo de aula de Educação Física Escolar, pois, possui popularidade no Brasil e por que, propícia ao educando desenvolvimento de habilidades motoras e relações sociais. O objetivo da investigação foi diagnosticar as condições para se desenvolver a modalidade de Voleibol nas aulas de Educação Física em escolas públicas de Cuiabá-MT. Tratou-se de uma pesquisa descritiva de caráter quantitativo, que teve como instrumento de coleta de dados um questionário com onze questões, construído pelos autores para levantar as impressões dos professores em relação às condições enfrentadas por eles para desenvolver o voleibol na escola. O estudo contou com a participação de dez professores de Educação Física, de sete escolas públicas. Os resultados mostraram que, a maioria dos docentes declarou ter apoio da gestão para o desenvolvimento da modalidade; sete usam espaços diversificados para trabalhar o voleibol; oito tiveram dificuldade em trabalhar este conteúdo. Em relação ao comportamento dos alunos nas aulas, oito apresentaram ter tido dificuldades neste aspecto; sobre materiais didáticos disponíveis a maioria dos participantes tive impressões negativas ou moderadas, alegando não ter materiais suficientes; enquanto que para a infraestrutura, seis tiveram impressões negativas ou moderadas, apresentando necessidade de se adaptar. Percebeu-se que, as condições enfrentadas por professores de Educação Física nas escolas abordadas, são fatores que interferem no desenvolvimento das aulas e que apesar dos professores observaram dificuldades, os mesmos não deixaram de fazer o enfrentamento e trabalhar o voleibol possível nas condições que tinham em mãos, procurando desenvolver está temática adaptando-a para a realidade das escolas em que trabalham.
Biosensor is a new type of analytical detection tool, which can be applied to various industries with its sensitivity, accuracy, easy operation, and online monitoring in vivo. Biosensors have a broad market in sports science, and can be applied to timely monitoring of sports training. It will also become an important method and technology of sports education and sports scientific research. The purpose of this article is to study the design of intelligent martial arts sports system based on biosensor network technology. This article studies the physical condition of martial arts athletes by installing biosensors on them, and uses a single variable method and mathematical statistics to record various martial arts athletes. The state of sports is designed by using big data intelligent monitoring system to design network nodes and real-time data transmission through network technology, so as to ensure the health of martial arts athletes and monitor the status of martial arts athletes in real time. Then compared with the traditional situation of remote mobilization, the feasibility of the application of intelligent martial arts sports system under the biosensor biosensor network technology is verified, and the intelligent martial arts sports system under the biosensor network technology is designed. Experimental data shows that the design of the intelligent martial arts sports system under the biosensor network technology effectively protects martial arts athletes and improves performance, and avoids injuries caused by intense sports. The experimental data show that the design of intelligent martial arts sports system under the biosensor network technology has guiding significance for the development of future martial arts sports system.
Body mass (BM) manipulation via rapid weight loss (RWL) and rapid weight gain (RWG) is common practice amongst mixed martial art (MMA) athletes to ensure qualification for the division in which the athlete wishes to compete in. Professional MMA competitors in California are required to weigh-in twice: 24 hours (h) prior to competition and immediately prior to the bout, after which they have typically engaged in RWG. In analysing data from 5 MMA events sanctioned by the Californian State Athletic Commission, we used Bayesian analyses to compare bout winners (n=62) and losers (n=62) in terms of in-competition BM (CompMass, kg) and the amount of BM regained between the two weigh-ins (MassDiff, kg). These data do not support the hypothesis that differences in CompMass (BF10=0.667, d = 0.23) or MassDiff (BF10 = 0.821, d = .23) determines winning or losing. In addition, there was no statistical difference between bouts ending via strikes, submission or decision for either CompMass (BF10=0.686, ω2 < 0.01) or MassDiff (BF10=0.732, ω2 = 0.054). In conclusion, we report for the first time that the magnitude of RWG does not predict winning or losing in a professional cohort of MMA athletes. Additionally, we also report that MMA athletes typically compete at a BM that is at least 1-2 divisions higher than the division in which they officially weighed-in. These analyses may provide impetus for governing bodies and coaches to enact change at both professional and amateur levels to reduce negative health consequences associated with extreme RWL and RWG.
Most competitions in combat sports are divided into weight classes, theoretically allowing for fairer and more evenly contested disputes between athletes of similar body size, strength and agility. It has been well documented that most athletes, regardless of the combat sports discipline, reduce significant amounts of body weight in the days prior to competition to qualify for lighter weight classes. Rapid weight loss is characterised by the reduction of a significant amount of body weight (typically 2-10 %, although larger reductions are often seen) in a few days prior to weigh-in (mostly in the last 2-3 days) achieved by a combination of methods that include starvation, severe restriction of fluid intake and intentional sweating. In doing so, athletes try to gain a competitive advantage against lighter, smaller and weaker opponents. Such a drastic and rapid weight reduction is only achievable via a combination of aggressive strategies that lead to hypohydration and starvation. The negative impact of these procedures on health is well described in the literature. Although the impact of rapid weight loss on performance is debated, there remains robust evidence showing that rapid weight loss may not impair performance, and translates into an actual competitive advantage. In addition to the health and performance implications, rapid weight loss clearly breaches fair play and stands against the spirit of the sport because an athlete unwilling to compete having rapidly reduced weight would face unfair contests against opponents who are 'artificially' bigger and stronger. The World Anti-Doping Agency Code states that a prohibited method must meet at least two of the following criteria: (1) enhances performance; (2) endangers an athlete's health; and (3) violates the spirit of the sport. We herein argue that rapid weight loss clearly meets all three criteria and, therefore, should be banned from the sport. To quote the World Anti-Doping Agency Code, this would "protect the athletes' fundamental right to participate in a doping-free sport and thus promote health, fairness and equality".
Although the martial arts industry is rapidly evolving into a mature and highly competitive marketplace, only a few studies have been conducted to understand why people participate in martial arts. The purpose of this study is to examine motivation factors that influence an individual's participation in martial arts to provide leaders of the industry with meaningful managerial implications. The researchers collected data from the 2004 Battle of Columbus Martial Arts World Games IV, one of the most popular martial arts events in the US. The results of a series of MANOVA tests revealed that these martial arts participants (N = 307) are highly motivated by growth-related motivation (e.g. value development and actualisation). In addition, the findings indicate that motivation of martial arts practitioners varies across types of martial arts disciplines, competition orientation and past experiences. Given these results, implications for future research and practice are discussed.
Some nutritional practices in mixed martial arts (MMA) are dangerous to health, may contribute to death, and are largely unsupervised. MMA is a full contact combat sport (often referred to as cage fighting) that emerged to western audiences in 1993 via the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). MMA is one of the world's fastest growing sports and now broadcasts to over 129 countries and 800 million households worldwide.
Underpinning the focus on weight controlling practices, lies MMA's competition structure of 11 weight classes (atomweight, 47.6 kg; strawweight 52.2 kg; flyweight, 56.7 kg; bantamweight, 61.2 kg; featherweight, 65.8 kg; lightweight, 70.3 kg; welterweight, 77.1 kg; middleweight, 83.9 kg; light-heavyweight, 93 kg; heavyweight, 120.2 kg; super-heavyweight, no limit) that are intended to promote fair competition by matching opponents of equal body mass. Athletes aim to compete at the lowest possible weight, usually achieved by rapid weight loss methods reliant on acute/chronic dehydration (eg, saunas, sweat suits, diuretics, hot baths, etc). Weigh-in occurs on the day before (24–36 h prior) competition therefore …
The purpose of this study was to compare biochemical and hormonal responses between Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) competitors with minimal pre-fight weight loss and those undergoing rapid weight loss (RWL). Blood samples were taken from 17 MMA athletes (Mean±SD; age: 27.4 ±5.3yr; body mass: 76.2±12.4kg; height: 1.71±0.05m and training experience: 39.4±25 months) before and after each match, according to the official events rules. The no rapid weight loss (NWL, n=12) group weighed in on the day of the event (~30min prior fight) and athletes declared not having utilized RWL strategies, while the RWL group (n=5) weighed in 24h before the event and the athletes claimed to have lost 7.4 ± 1.1kg, approximately 10% of their body mass in the week preceding the event. Results showed significant (p<0.05) increases following fights, regardless of group, in lactate, glucose, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), creatinine, and cortisol for all athletes. With regard to group differences, NWL had significantly (p<0.05) greater creatinine levels (Mean±SD; pre to post) (NWL= 101.6±15 to 142.3±22.9μmol/L and RWL= 68.9±10.6 to 79.5±15.9μmol/L), while RWL had higher LDH (median [interquartile range]; pre to post) (NWL= 211.5[183-236] to 231[203-258]U/L and RWL= 390[370.5-443.5] to 488[463.5-540.5]U/L) and AST (NWL= 30[22-37] to 32[22-41]U/L and 39[32.5-76.5] to 72[38.5-112.5]U/L) values (NWL versus RWL, p<.05). Post-hoc analysis showed that AST significantly increased in only the RWL group, while creatinine increased in only the NWL group. The practice of rapid weight loss showed a negative impact on energy availability and increased both muscle damage markers and catabolic expression in MMA fighters.
In Olympic combat sports, weight cutting is a common practice aimed to take advantage of competing in weight divisions below the athlete's normal weight. Fluid and food restriction in combination with dehydration (sauna and/or exercise induced profuse sweating) are common weight cut methods. However, the resultant hypohydration could adversely affect health and performance outcomes.
The aim of this study is to determine which of the routinely used non-invasive measures of dehydration best track urine osmolality, the gold standard non-invasive test.
Immediately prior to the official weigh-in of three National Championships, the hydration status of 345 athletes of Olympic combat sports (i.e., taekwondo, boxing and wrestling) was determined using five separate techniques: i) urine osmolality (UOSM), ii) urine specific gravity (USG), iii) urine color (UCOL), iv) bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), and v) thirst perception scale (TPS). All techniques were correlated with UOSM divided into three groups: euhydrated (G1; UOSM 250-700 mOsm·kg H2O-1), dehydrated (G2; UOSM 701-1080 mOsm·kg H2O-1), and severely dehydrated (G3; UOSM 1081-1500 mOsm·kg H2O-1).
We found a positive high correlation between the UOSM and USG (r = 0.89: p = 0.000), although this relationship lost strength as dehydration increased (G1 r = 0.92; G2 r = 0.73; and G3 r = 0.65; p = 0.000). UCOL showed a moderate although significant correlation when considering the whole sample (r = 0.743: p = 0.000) and G1 (r = 0.702: p = 0.000) but low correlation for the two dehydrated groups (r = 0.498-0.398). TPS and BIA showed very low correlation sizes for all groups assessed.
In a wide range of pre-competitive hydration status (UOSM 250-1500 mOsm·kg H2O-1), USG is highly associated with UOSM while being a more affordable and easy to use technique. UCOL is a suitable tool when USG is not available. However, BIA or TPS are not sensitive enough to detect hypohydration at official weight-in before an Olympic combat championship.
Weight-classified athletes need an energy intake plan to accomplish target weight reduction. They have to consider body composition and energy metabolism during rapid weight loss followed by rapid weight regain to achieve their energy intake plan. We investigated the effects of rapid weight loss, followed by weight regain, on body composition and energy expenditure. Ten weight-classified athletes were instructed to reduce their body weight by 5% in 7 days. Following the weight loss, they were asked to try to regain all of their lost weight with an ad libitum diet for 12 h. Food intake was recorded during the baseline, weight loss, and regain periods. Fat mass, total body water, and fat-free dry solids were estimated by underwater weighing and stable isotope dilution methods. A three-component model was calculated using Siri's equation. Basal and sleeping metabolic rates were measured by indirect calorimetry. Body composition and energy expenditure were measured before and after weight loss and after weight regain. Body weight, total body water, and fat-free dry solids were decreased after the weight loss period but recovered after weight regain (p < 0.05). Basal metabolic rate did not change throughout the study. Sleeping metabolic rate decreased significantly during weight loss but recovered after weight regain. Changes in total body water greatly affect body weight during rapid weight loss and regain. In addition, rapid weight loss and regain did not greatly affect the basal metabolic rate in weight-classified athletes.
The kidneys play a key role in the homeostasis of body water and electrolyte balance. Aquaporin-2 (AQP2) is the vasopressin-regulated water-channel protein expressed at the connecting tubule and collecting duct, and plays a key role in urine concentration and body-water homeostasis through short-term and long-term regulation of collecting duct water permeability. The signaling transduction pathways resulting in the AQP2 trafficking to the apical plasma membrane of the collecting duct principal cells, including AQP2 phosphorylation, RhoA phosphorylation, actin depolymerization, and calcium mobilization, and the changes of AQP2 abundance in water-balance disorders have been extensively studied. Dysregulation of AQP2 has been shown to be importantly associated with a number of clinical conditions characterized by body-water balance disturbances, including hereditary nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (NDI), lithium-induced NDI, electrolytes disturbance, acute and chronic renal failure, ureteral obstruction, nephrotic syndrome, congestive heart failure, and hepatic cirrhosis. Recent studies exploiting omics technology further demonstrated the comprehensive vasopressin signaling pathways in the collecting ducts. Taken together, these studies elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms of body-water homeostasis and provide the basis for the treatment of body-water balance disorders.
Background
The present article briefly reviews the weight loss processes in combat sports. We aimed to discuss the most relevant aspects of rapid weight loss (RWL) in combat sports.
Methods
This review was performed in the databases MedLine, Lilacs, PubMed and SciELO, and organized into sub-topics: (1) prevalence, magnitude and procedures, (2) psychological, physiological and performance effects, (3) possible strategies to avoid decreased performance (4) organizational strategies to avoid such practices.
Results
There was a high prevalence (50%) of RWL, regardless the specific combat discipline. Methods used are harmful to performance and health, such as laxatives, diuretics, use of plastic or rubber suits, and sauna. RWL affects physical and cognitive capacities, and may increase the risk of death.
Conclusion
Recommendations during different training phases, educational and organizational approaches are presented to deal with or to avoid RWL.
The aim of this study was to investigate the methods adopted to reduce body mass (BM) in competitive athletes from the grappling (judo, jujitsu) and striking (karate and tae kwon do) combat sports in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. An exploratory methodology was employed through descriptive research, using a standardized questionnaire with objective questions self-administered to 580 athletes (25.0 ± 3.7 yr, 74.5 ± 9.7 kg, and 16.4% ± 5.1% body fat). Regardless of the sport, 60% of the athletes reported using a method of rapid weight loss (RWL) through increased energy expenditure. Strikers tend to begin reducing BM during adolescence. Furthermore, 50% of the sample used saunas and plastic clothing, and only 26.1% received advice from a nutritionist. The authors conclude that a high percentage of athletes uses RWL methods. In addition, a high percentage of athletes uses unapproved or prohibited methods such as diuretics, saunas, and plastic clothing. The age at which combat sport athletes reduce BM for the first time is also worrying, especially among strikers.
An athlete's carbohydrate intake can be judged by whether total daily intake and the timing of consumption in relation to exercise maintain adequate carbohydrate substrate for the muscle and central nervous system ("high carbohydrate availability") or whether carbohydrate fuel sources are limiting for the daily exercise programme ("low carbohydrate availability"). Carbohydrate availability is increased by consuming carbohydrate in the hours or days prior to the session, intake during exercise, and refuelling during recovery between sessions. This is important for the competition setting or for high-intensity training where optimal performance is desired. Carbohydrate intake during exercise should be scaled according to the characteristics of the event. During sustained high-intensity sports lasting ~1 h, small amounts of carbohydrate, including even mouth-rinsing, enhance performance via central nervous system effects. While 30-60 g · h(-1) is an appropriate target for sports of longer duration, events >2.5 h may benefit from higher intakes of up to 90 g · h(-1). Products containing special blends of different carbohydrates may maximize absorption of carbohydrate at such high rates. In real life, athletes undertake training sessions with varying carbohydrate availability. Whether implementing additional "train-low" strategies to increase the training adaptation leads to enhanced performance in well-trained individuals is unclear.
Explanations for the phenomenal success of East African distance runners include unique dietary practices. The aim of the present study was to assess the food and macronutrient intake of elite Ethiopian distance runners during a period of high intensity exercise training at altitude and prior to major competition.
The dietary intake of 10 highly-trained Ethiopian long distance runners, living and training at high altitude (approximately 2400 m above sea level) was assessed during a 7 day period of intense training prior to competition using the standard weighed intake method. Training was also assessed using an activity/training diary.
Body mass was stable (i.e., was well maintained) over the assessment period (pre: 56.7 ± 4.3 kg vs. post: 56.6 ± 4.2 kg, P = 0.54; mean ± SD). The diet comprised of 13375 ± 1378 kJ and was high in carbohydrate (64.3 ± 2.6%, 545 ± 49 g, 9.7 ± 0.9 g/kg). Fat and protein intake was 23.3 ± 2.1% (83 ± 14 g) and 12.4 ± 0.6% (99 ± 13 g, 1.8 ± 0.2 g/kg), respectively. Fluid intake comprised mainly of water (1751 ± 583 mL), while no fluids were consumed before or during training with only modest amounts being consumed following training.
Similar to previous studies in elite Kenyan distance runners, the diet of these elite Ethiopian distance runners met most recommendations of endurance athletes for macronutrient intake but not for fluid intake.
To evaluate the weight loss behavior of male wrestlers in Tehran
This study was a population-based cross sectional survey. Subjects were 436 wrestlers randomly selected from the wrestling clubs in Tehran employing cluster sample setting method. Subjects were interviewed based on a designed questionnaire. Body fat levels were measured based on skin fold measurements.
Weight loss methods practiced by 62% of all subjects during the previous year employing rapid (≤7 days before the matches) and gradual (>7 days before the matches) weight reduction methods (73% and 34% of wrestlers who reduced their weight respectively). In addition, opinions on weight reduction, the methods of weight loss used, and the side effects of the weight loss practices as well as consumption of supplements among the subjects were reported in this study. The mean percentage of body fat of subjects was 15.9%.
Rapid weight loss for matches and the use of unsafe methods of weight reduction such as fasting, and fluid reduction methods as well as acute side effects of weight loss were prevalent among wrestlers in Tehran. Some preventive measures including education and new rules such as scheduling weigh-ins immediately prior to the competitions and mat-side weigh-in are needed to prevent these unhealthy practices. The weight loss behaviors of these wrestlers should be changed from using dehydration methods to using gradual methods of weight loss.
We studied seven male wrestlers and three judo athletes (weight 55-93 kg) during two weight reductions. In the "gradual" procedure (GP), a 5.0 +/- 0.4% (mean +/- SEM) weight loss was achieved in 3 weeks by energy restriction. In the "rapid" procedure (RP), 6.0 +/- 0.6% of body weight was lost in 2.4 days by fluid and diet restriction and forced sweating, and followed by a 5-h "loading" (food and drinks ad libitum). The net weight loss after GP and loading was 2.7 +/- 0.5%. Protein intakes (4-d food records) during GP and RP were 71 +/- 16 and RP 56 +/- 17 g.d-1, respectively. Carbohydrate intakes were 239 +/- 56 (GP) and 182 +/- 55 g.d-1 (RP). During GP and RP, mean thiamin, magnesium, and zinc intakes were at or below the respective recommendation. Thiamin, riboflavin, potassium, iron, and zinc status, assessed from blood chemistry, remained stable during both procedures. Changes in vitamin B6 indicator (E-ASTAC) and S-magnesium concentration were different (P < 0.01) between the procedures, suggesting negative trends during GP. Sprint (30-m run) and anaerobic (1-min Wingate test) performance was similar throughout the study. Following GP, vertical jump height with extra load increased by 6-8% (P < 0.01). Jumping results were not affected by RP. Hence, < or = 5% loss in body weight by either method did not impair experienced athletes' performance.
Dietary intake, plasma lipids, lipoprotein and apolipoprotein levels, anthropometric measurements and anaerobic performance were studied in eleven judo athletes during a period of weight maintenance (T1) and after a 7d food restriction (T2). Dietary data were collected using a 7-day diet record. Nutrient analysis indicated that these athletes followed a low carbohydrate diet whatever the period of the investigation. Moreover, mean micronutrient intakes were below the French recommendations. Food restriction resulted in significant decreases in body weight. In addition, it had significant influence on triglyceride and free fatty acid, although glycerol, total cholesterol, LDL-C, HDL-C, apolipoprotein A-1 and B did not alter. Left arm strength and 30 s jumping test decreased significantly. The 7 s jumping test was not affected by the food restriction. Regardless of psychological parameters, tension, anger, fatigue and confusion were significantly elevated from T1 to T2; vigor was significantly lower. The data indicated that a 7-day food restriction adversely affects the physiology and psychology of judo athletes and impairs physical performance, possibly due to inadequate carbohydrate and micronutrients.
Purpose: The purpose of this investigation was to examine the weight management (WM) behaviors of collegiate wrestlers after the implementation of the NCAA’s new weight control rules. Methods: In the fall of 1999, a survey was distributed to 47 college wrestling teams stratified by collegiate division (i.e., I, II, III) and competitive quality. Forty-three teams returned surveys for a total of 741 responses. Comparisons were made using the collegiate division, weight class, and the wrestler’s competitive winning percentage. Results: The most weight lost during the season was 5.3 kg ± 2.8 kg (mean ± SD ) or 6.9% ± 4.7% of the wrestler’s weight; weekly weight lost averaged 2.9 kg ± 1.3 kg or 4.3% ± 2.3% of the wrestler’s weight; post-season, the average wrestler regained 5.5 kg ± 3.6 kg or 8.6% ± 5.4% of their weight. Coaches and fellow wrestlers were the primary influence on weight loss methods; however, 40.2% indicated that the new NCAA rules deterred extreme weight loss behaviors. The primary methods of weight loss reported were gradual dieting (79.4%) and increased exercise (75.2%). However, 54.8% fasted, 27.6% used saunas, and 26.7% used rubber/ plastic suits at least once a month. Cathartics and vomiting were seldom used to lose weight, and only 5 met three or more of the criteria for bulimia nervosa. WM behaviors were more extreme among freshmen, lighter weight classes, and Division II wrestlers. Compared to previous surveys of high school wrestlers, this cohort of wrestlers reported more extreme WM behaviors. However, compared to college wrestlers in the 1980s, weight loss behaviors were less extreme. Conclusions: The WM practices of college wrestlers appeared to have improved compared to wrestlers sampled previously. Forty percent of the wrestlers were influenced by the new NCAA rules and curbed their weight loss practices. Education is still needed, as some wrestlers are still engaging in dangerous WM methods.
Purpose: The purpose of this investigation was to examine the weight management (WM) behaviors of collegiate wrestlers after the implementation of the NCAA's new weight control rules. Methods: In the fall of 1999, a survey was distributed to 47 college wrestling teams stratified by collegiate division (i.e., I, 11, 111) and competitive quality. Forty-three teams returned surveys for a total of 741 responses. Comparisons were made using the collegiate division, weight class, and the wrestler's competitive winning percentage. Results: The most weight lost during the season was 5.3 kg +/- 2.8 kg (mean +/- SD) or 6.9% +/- 4.7% of the wrestler's weight; weekly weight lost averaged 2.9 kg +/- 1.3 kg or 4.3% +/- 2.3% of the wrestler's weight; post-season, the average wrestler regained 5.5 kg +/- 3.6 kg or 8.6% +/- 5.4% of their weight. Coaches and fellow wrestlers were the primary influence on weight loss methods; however, 40.2% indicated that the new NCAA rules deterred extreme weight loss behaviors. The primary methods of weight loss reported were gradual dieting (79.4%) and increased exercise (75.2%). However, 54.8% fasted, 27.6% used saunas, and 26.7% used rubber/ plastic suits at least once a month. Cathartics and vomiting were seldom used to lose weight, and only 5 met three or more of the criteria for bulimia nervosa. WM behaviors were more extreme among freshmen, lighter weight classes, and Division 11 wrestlers. Compared to previous surveys of high school wrestlers, this cohort of wrestlers reported more extreme WM behaviors. However, compared to college wrestlers in the 1980s, weight loss behaviors were less extreme. Conclusions: The WM practices of college wrestlers appeared to have improved compared to wrestlers sampled previously. Forty percent of the wrestlers were influenced by the new NCAA rules and curbed their weight loss practices. Education is still needed, as some wrestlers are still engaging in dangerous WM methods.
Weight-sensitive sports are popular among elite and nonelite athletes. Rapid weight loss (RWL) practice has been an essential part of many of these sports for many decades. Due to the limited epidemiological studies on the prevalence of RWL, its true prevalence is unknown. It is estimated that more than half of athletes in weight-class sports have practiced RWL during the competitive periods. As RWL can have significant physical, physiological, and psychological negative effects on athletes, its practice has been discouraged for many years. It seems that appropriate rule changes have had the biggest impact on the practice of RWL in sports like wrestling. An individualized and well-planned gradual and safe weight loss program under the supervision of a team of coaching staff, athletic trainers, sports nutritionists, and sports physicians is recommended.
The purpose of this study was to characterize the magnitude of acute weight gain (AWG) and dehydration in mixed martial arts (MMA) fighters prior to competition. Urinary measures of hydration status and body mass were determined ∼24 h prior and then again ∼2 h prior to competition in 40 MMA fighters (Mean ± SE, age: 25.2 ± 0.65 yr, height: 1.77 ± 0.01 m, body mass: 75.8 ± 1.5 kg). AWG was defined as the amount of body weight the fighters gained in the ∼22 h period between the official weigh-in and the actual competition. On average, the MMA fighters gained 3.40 ± 2.2 kg or 4.4% of their body weight in the ∼22 h period prior to competition. Urine specific gravity significantly decreased (P < 0.001) from 1.028 ± 0.001 to 1.020 ± 0.001 during the ∼22 h rehydration period. Results demonstrated that 39% of the MMA fighters presented with a Usg of greater than 1.021 immediately prior to competition indicating significant or serious dehydration. MMA fighters undergo significant dehydration and fluctuations in body mass (4.4% avg.) in the 24 h period prior to competition. Urinary measures of hydration status indicate that a significant proportion of MMA fighters are not successfully rehydrating prior to competition and subsequently are competing in a dehydrated state. Weight management guidelines to prevent acute dehydration in MMA fighters are warranted to prevent unnecessary adverse health events secondary to dehydration.
Abstract The use of portable urine osmometers is widespread, but no studies have assessed the validity of this measurement technique. Furthermore, it is unclear what effect freezing has on osmolality. One-hundred participants of mean (±SD) age 25.1 ± 7.6 years, height 1.77 ± 0.1 m and weight 77.1 ± 10.8 kg provided single urine samples that were analysed using freeze point depression (FPD) and refractometry (RI). Samples were then frozen at -80°C (n = 81) and thawed prior to re-analysis. Differences between methods and freezing were determined using Wilcoxon's signed rank test. Relationships between measurements were assessed using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) and typical error of estimate (TE). Osmolality was lower (P = 0.001) using RI (634.2 ± 339.8 mOsm · kgH(2)O(-1)) compared with FPD (656.7 ± 334.1 mOsm · kgH(2)O(-1)) but the TE was trivial (0.17). Freezing significantly reduced mean osmolality using FPD (656.7 ± 341.1 to 606.5 ± 333.4 mOsm · kgH(2)O(-1); P < 0.001), but samples were still highly related following freezing (ICC, r = 0.979, P < 0.001, CI = 0.993-0.997; TE = 0.15; and r=0.995, P < 0.001, CI = 0.967-0.986; TE = 0.07 for RI and FPD respectively). Despite mean differences between methods and as a result of freezing, such differences are physiologically trivial. Therefore, the use of RI appears to be a valid measurement tool to determine urine osmolality.
In this study, we investigated the effects of rapid weight loss followed by a 4-h recovery on judo-related performance. Seven weight-cycler athletes were assigned to a weight loss group (5% body weight reduction by self-selected regime) and seven non-weight-cyclers to a control group (no weight reduction). Body composition, performance, glucose, and lactate were assessed before and after weight reduction (5-7 days apart; control group kept weight stable). The weight loss group had 4 h to re-feed and rehydrate after the weigh-in. Food intake was recorded during the weight loss period and recovery after the weigh-in. Performance was evaluated through a specific judo exercise, followed by a 5-min judo combat and by three bouts of the Wingate test. Both groups significantly improved performance after the weight loss period. No interaction effects were observed. The energy and macronutrient intake of the weight loss group were significantly lower than for the control group. The weight loss group consumed large amounts of food and carbohydrate during the 4-h recovery period. No changes were observed in lactate concentration, but a significant decrease in glucose during rest was observed in the weight loss group. In conclusion, rapid weight loss did not affect judo-related performance in experienced weight-cyclers when the athletes had 4 h to recover. These results should not be extrapolated to inexperienced weight-cyclers.
To identify the prevalence, magnitude, and methods of rapid weight loss among judo competitors.
Athletes (607 males and 215 females; age = 19.3 T 5.3 yr, weight = 70 T 7.5 kg, height = 170.6 T 9.8 cm) completed a previously validated questionnaire developed to evaluate rapid weight loss in judo athletes, which provides a score. The higher the score obtained, the more aggressive the weight loss behaviors. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and frequency analyses. Mean scores obtained in the questionnaire were used to compare specific groups of athletes using, when appropriate, Mann-Whitney U-test or general linear model one-way ANOVA followed by Tamhane post hoc test.
Eighty-six percent of athletes reported that have already lost weight to compete. When heavy weights are excluded, this percentage rises to 89%.Most athletes reported reductions of up to 5% of body weight (mean T SD: 2.5 T 2.3%). The most weight ever lost was 2%-5%,whereas a great part of athletes reported reductions of 5%-10% (mean T SD: 6 T 4%). The number of reductions underwent in a season was 3 T 5. The reductions usually occurred within 7 T 7 d. Athletes began cutting weight at 12.6 T 6.1 yr. No significant differences were found in the score obtained by male versus female athletes as well as by athletes from different weight classes. Elite athletes scored significantly higher in the questionnaire than non elite. Athletes who began cutting weight earlier also scored higher than those who began later.
Rapid weight loss is highly prevalent in judo competitors. The level of aggressiveness in weight management behaviors seems to not be influenced by the gender or by the weight class, but it seems to be influenced by competitive level and by the age at which athletes began cutting weight.
The aim of this study was to develop a questionnaire to evaluate rapid weight loss patterns of competitive judo players and to assess its validity and reliability. We evaluated the reliability (n=94), content validity (evaluation by 10 experts), discriminant validity (differences in scores between athletes with body weight below and above their weight class; n=100) and convergent validity (correlation with Restraint Scale; n=60). No item was considered unclear or ambiguous by more than 20% of the experts. The intraclass Coefficient Correlation was above 0.90 for all questions whose answers were parametric (P<0.001; n=94) and no significant differences were found between test and retest scores (n=94--Wilcoxon's signed rank test). Cronbach's alpha was 0.98 for scores obtained between test and retest. Non-numerical questions showed proportions of agreement >80%; Spearman's Correlation between the Restraint Scale and the Rapid Weight Loss Questionnaire was 0.62 (P<0.001; n=60). Athletes below their weight class (n=50) had a significantly lower score compared with athletes above the weight class (n=50; P<0.001--Mann-Whitney U test). In conclusion, the questionnaire showed good validity and reliability and could be used accurately to assess weight loss patterns of judo players.
Glycogen is stored in the liver, muscles, and fat cells in hydrated form (three to four parts water) associated with potassium (0.45 mmol K/g glycogen). Total body potassium (TBK) changes early in very-low-calorie diets (VLCDs) primarily reflect glycogen storage. Potassium released from glycogen can distort estimates of body composition during dieting. TBK changes due to glycogen mobilization were measured in 11 subjects after 4 d dieting with a VLCD. The influence of water-laden glycogen on weight fluctuations during the dieting process, the exaggerated regain if carbohydrate loading occurs, and the implications for weight control programs and overestimation of nitrogen losses with dieting are discussed.
To assess current weight loss practices in wrestlers, 63 college wrestlers and 368 high school wrestlers completed a questionnaire that examined the frequency and magnitude of weight loss, weight control methods, emotions associated with weight loss, dieting patterns, and preoccupation with food. Clear patterns emerged showing frequent, rapid, and large weight loss and regain cycles. Of the college wrestlers, 41% reported weight fluctuations of 5.0-9.1 kg each week of the season. For the high school wrestlers, 23% lost 2.7-4.5 kg weekly. In the college cohort, 35% lost 0.5-4.5 kg over 100 times in their life, and 22% had lost 5.0-9.1 kg between 21 and 50 times in their life. Of the high school wrestlers, 42% had already lost 5.0-9.1 kg 1-5 times in their life. A variety of aggressive methods wer used to lose weight including dehydration, food restriction, fasting, and, for a few, vomiting, laxatives, and diuretics. "Making weight" was associated with fatigue, anger, and anxiety. Thirty to forty percent of the wrestlers, at both the high school and college level, reported being preoccupied with food and eating out of control after a match. The tradition of "making weight" still appears to be integral to wrestling. The potential physiological, psychological, and health consequences of these practices merit further attention.
1. Nine normal subjects (eight male, one female) on a fixed daily intake of 150 mmol of sodium and 80 mnol of potassium, were randomized to receive either 3 days of 1.0 litre total water intake/24 h (food + fluid) or 4 days of 6.8 litres total water intake/24 h, and were then crossed over after a 3 day control period (2.7 litres water/24 h).
2. During water restriction, urine volume fell from 1.94 litres/24 h to less than 1 litre/24 h by the first day and was 0.77 litre/24 h on the final day. Plasma atrial natriuretic peptide levels were unchanged from baseline despite a large increase in plasma vasopressin and plasma and urine osmolality. Urinary sodium was unaltered throughout, while urinary potassium was increased on the final 2 days of water restriction.
3. During water loading, urine volume increased from 1.85 litres/24 h to 5.44 litres/24 h on the first day and remained at approximately 6 litres/24 h for the final 3 days. Plasma atrial natriuretic peptide showed no change. Plasma vasopressin and plasma and urine osmolality were reduced. Urinary sodium and potassium output were unchanged from baseline.
4. These results suggest that changes in plasma atrial natriuretic peptide are unlikely to be involved in the normal homoeostatic response to changes in water balance in man.
Unlabelled:
The purpose of this study was to determine the magnitude of weight gained in collegiate wrestlers between the weigh-in and beginning of tournament competition. Body weight of the qualifiers for the NCAA Division I, II, and III wrestling finals (N = 668) was recorded at the official weigh-in and again approximately 20 h later, before the first round of competition in the tournament. The results showed that on average (+/- SD), wrestlers gained 4.9 +/- 2.4% (3.3 +/- 1.5 kg) of body weight before competing. An inverse relationship was found such that wrestlers in the lightest weight classes gained the most weight (kg) compared with heavier wrestlers (r = -0.45, P < 0.05). Despite the large mean weight gain, the mean discrepancy between first round opponents was 2.1 +/- 3.0 kg and even less when heavyweight wrestlers were excluded from the analyses (1.5 +/- 1.2 kg, N = 607). A significant correlation between weight gain and weight discrepancy of opponents was found (r = 0.65, P < 0.05).
Conclusion:
collegiate wrestlers, excluding heavyweights, gained significant amounts of weight (3.7 kg average) during the 20-h period prior to tournament competition. The magnitude of weight gain was positively correlated to the degree of weight discrepancy (size advantage) over the opponent; however, because weight gain of some magnitude after the weigh-in was common in most participants, the average discrepancy between opponents was only about 1.5 kg.
The purposes were to: 1) examine the weight loss patterns in a group of high school varsity wrestlers whose teams participated in a body composition measurement@nutrition education program, and 2) test the hypothesis that wrestling at a weight below recommended Minimum Wrestling Weight (MWW) results in decreased wrestling success.
We measured skinfold thickness in 465 wrestlers at 16 schools and, using the Lohman method, determined their percent body fat. An educational program presented at each school explained the results, provided nutritional information regarding proper diet and methods of weight loss, and suggested a voluntary MWW corresponding to 5% body fat. After excluding the heavyweight wrestlers, there were 159 varsity wrestlers. At the end of the season, we noted their weight class and whether they placed in post-season state championship qualifying tournaments.
We found that 53 wrestlers (33%) wrestled below MWW. When analyzed by school, wrestlers' non-adherence to MWW ranged from 0% to 56% of all wrestlers. In the lightest four weight classes, 62% wrestled below MWW; in the middle four classes, 29%; and in the heaviest four classes, 6%. Of the 53 wrestlers