No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
An Energy Efficient and Load Balanced Distributed Routing Scheme for Wireless Sensor Networks with Holes
... That's why the energy of the nodes located on the boundary of the hole is depleted fast and makes the hole larger and decreases the network lifetime. Furthermore, the load imbalance takes a very long routing that leads to the energy inefficiency of all the network [6]. This shows that geographic routing algorithms such as GPSR 1 [10] can reduce the network lifetime [14]. ...
... GPSR [10] algorithm is based on greedy and perimeter routing. In this method, packets are sent to the nearest nodes to the destination [6]. Moreover, in GPSR when the packets cope with a hole, the forwarding mode is changed to the perimeter. ...
... But, because the perimeter forwarding mode makes the nodes at the hole boundary suffer from a lot of pressure due to the load imbalance. That's why the energy of the nodes located on the boundary of the hole will end sooner and the hole becomes larger [6]. Subramanian et al. [14] show that geographical routing schemes such as GPSR can reduce the overall network capacity. ...
The increasing usage of wireless sensor networks in human life is an indication of the high importance of this technology. Holes in wireless sensor networks are non-operating areas that can happen for a variety of reasons, like natural obstacles and disasters. Detection and packet routing in the presence of holes have always been the main challenges of facing this technology. As a result, most of the research on wireless sensor networks has been concerned with the problem of routing through bypassing routing holes. Considering the fact that the hole detection method for transmitting data in wireless sensor networks has a considerable impact on the energy consumption of the network, this paper attempts to provide a solution in the field of routing with the aim of increasing the network lifetime. In this method, considering networks with a dynamic hole, a distributed algorithm is proposed that can quickly determine and update the hole boundary. According to the hole, the packets are guided along an escape path around the hole which can improve and extend network lifetime. Results of experimental simulation are compared with the well-known and successful routing methods in the wireless sensor networks. This comparison shows that the proposed method reduces the dead nodes by at least 11% and 8% considering the effect of the time and the number of the nodes, in turn. Furthermore, the network lifetime has been improved by 2.71% based on the effect of the time and 1.47% based on the number of the nodes.
... W IRELESS sensor networks (WSNs) have been investigated because of the different potential applications. In the terrestrial network, the routing hole creates the problem in the absence of the forwarder node [1]. The approximate polygon determines the exact boundary of the hole. ...
... The default mode is that mode in which data transmits normally. However, the escape mode is used to transmit the data along the boundary of routing hole [1]. The limitations of default mode and escape mode are given as follows. ...
... Routing hole problem degrades the network performance in terms of lifetime, average end to end path, deviation in energy consumption, etc. This issue is handled up to some extend via dividing the network field [1]. In distributed network field, two modes of data transmission are used to recover from routing hole; default mode and escape mode. ...
Routing hole problem is one of the most important
issues in the underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs).
It aims to analyze the routing hole boundary to prevent the
formation of routing hole such that network lifetime and all other
parameters are also increased. In this paper, we have proposed
the two techniques to transmit the data in the presence of routing
hole. In our protocol, the nodes transmit the data on the basis
of an energy gradation (EG) and depth adjustment (DA) of the
void nodes. However, these techniques are used for avoidance
of routing hole. The efficient load balanced routing (ELBAR)
using DA performed better than other two schemes. Simulation
results depict that our schemes perform the better role in terms
of energy efficiency, lifetime, deviation of energy consumption,
path length and euclidean stretch.
... In [19], Nguyen et al. accurately calculated out the position and area of the energy-hole. Then, the outer polygon of this energy-hole was constructed, and the active nodes around this polygon all received the message about this energy-hole. ...
... However, it is not difficult to see from Figure 16(b), 16(c), 17(b), 17(c) and Figure 17(d) that at the end of the network lifetime, the difference of the residual energy of the nodes in these annuluses is not significant (e.g., the pink lines in these figures). As the difference on energy consumption between nodes continues to increase, some relay nodes are unable to undertake the data uploading task, so the sensing node are likely to reconstruct the routing path according to formula (19). This realizes the energy balance between nodes, and it effectively postpones the generation time of energy-hole. ...
In the era of Big Data and Mobile Internet, how to ensure the terminal devices (e.g., sensor nodes) work steadily for a long time is one of the key issues to improve the efficiency of the whole network. However, a lot of facts have shown that the unattended equipments are prone to failure due to energy exhaustion, physical damage and other reasons. This may result in the emergence of energy-hole, seriously affecting network performance and shortening its lifetime. To reduce data redundancy and avoid the generation of sensing blind areas, a type of Virtual Force based Energy-hole Mitigation strategy (VFEM) is proposed in this paper. Firstly, the virtual force (gravitation and repulsion) between nodes is introduced that makes nodes distribute as uniformly as possible. Secondly, in order to alleviate the "energy-hole problem", the network is divided into several annuluses with the same width. Then, another type of virtual force, named "virtual gravity generated by annulus", is proposed to further optimize the positions of nodes in each annulus. Finally, with the help of the "data forwarding area", the optimal paths for data uploading can be selected out, which effectively balances energy consumption of nodes. Experiment results show that, VFEM has a relatively good performance on postponing the generation time of energy-holes as well as prolonging the network lifetime compared with other typical energy-hole mitigation methods.
... In [13], authors proposed the routing protocol called efficient load balanced routing (ELBAR) for WSNs. In this protocol, the sensor nodes are divided into three equal regions. ...
... To decrease the network performance L2-ABF [12] Higher PDR, energy efficiency Higher end-to-end delay due to greater number of layer ELBAR [13] Energy efficiency, higher network lifetime ...
Underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) provide the wide range of aquatic applications. These applications are used for many aspects of life i.e., the tsunami and
earthquake monitoring, pollution monitoring, ocean surveillance for defense strategies, seismic monitoring, and equipment monitoring, etc. The limited bandwidth, long
propagation delay, energy consumption, high manufacturer and deployment costs are
many challenges in the domain of UWSNs. In this thesis, we present the three techniques i.e., energy balanced load distribution through energy gradation (EBLOADEG), energy gradation (EG) and depth adjustment (DA) among various coronas and
in without the number of coronas. Our aim is to overcome these issues: Firstly, the
forwarder node determines the higher energy node and data is directly transmitted
to sink; secondly, if the forwarder node comes in void communication region then the
node moves to the new depth so that the data delivery ratio can be ensured effectively. However, data is forwarded on the basis of EG and DA in without the number
of coronas. Thirdly, the EBLOAD-EG scheme performs data transmission among
various coronas which are based upon the energy comparison of the first node with
any neighbor node. Moreover, our aim is to balance the load distribution among various coronas in a network field. Simulation results define that our proposed schemes
show better performance in terms of energy efficiency, packet delivery ratio (PDR),
network lifetime and stability period etc
... This routing strategy achieves to improve the lifespan of the network, PDR due to increasing number of sensors. Network lifetime Higher energy consumption VBVA [7] Vector-based void avoidance, vector shift and back pressure Void node decreases, better network performance Higher energy consumption than VBF BECHA [8] The energy consumption can be balanced Network lifetime Low throughput and high packet drop EEDBR [9] Energy ecient depth based routing, forwarder selects based upon the residual energy and depth Network lifetime Packet is neglected because of low energy ELBAR [13] Ecient load balanced routing Energy eciency, higher network lifetime High propagation delay ...
... The achievement of this paper is to improve the energy eciency, higher network lifetime. The limitation of this protocol is higher propagation delay [13]. ...
Underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) provide the wide range of aquatic applications. The limited bandwidth, long propagation delay, energy consumption, high manufacturing, and deployment costs are many challenges in the domain of UWSNs. In this paper, we present the two techniques i.e., energy gradation (EG) and depth adjustment (DA) in without the number of coronas. Firstly, the forwarder node determines the higher energy node and it is directly transmitted to sink; secondly, if the forwarder node occurs in transmission void region then the node moves to the new depth so that the data delivery ratio can be ensured effectively. Simulation results define that our proposed schemes show better performance in terms of energy efficiency, packet delivery ratio (PDR) and network lifetime etc.
... This routing strategy achieves to improve the lifespan of the network, PDR due to increasing number of sensors. Network lifetime Higher energy consumption VBVA [7] Vector-based void avoidance, vector shift and back pressure Void node decreases, better network performance Higher energy consumption than VBF BECHA [8] The energy consumption can be balanced Network lifetime Low throughput and high packet drop EEDBR [9] Energy ecient depth based routing, forwarder selects based upon the residual energy and depth Network lifetime Packet is neglected because of low energy ELBAR [13] Ecient load balanced routing Energy eciency, higher network lifetime High propagation delay ...
... The achievement of this paper is to improve the energy eciency, higher network lifetime. The limitation of this protocol is higher propagation delay [13]. ...
Underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) provide the wide range of aquatic applications. The limited bandwidth, long propagation delay, energy consumption, high manufacturing, and deployment costs are many challenges in the domain of UWSNs. In this paper, we present the two techniques i.e., energy gradation (EG) and depth adjustment (DA) in without the number of coronas. Firstly, the forwarder node determines the higher energy node and it is directly transmitted to sink; secondly, if the forwarder node occurs in transmission void region then the node moves to the new depth so that the data delivery ratio can be ensured effectively. Simulation results define that our proposed schemes show better performance in terms of energy efficiency, packet delivery ratio (PDR) and network lifetime etc.
... This process allows the data packets to be routed in paths around the hole according to the virtual coordinates of the edge nodes. Recently, a routing scheme that considers the holecovering parallelogram and the hole view angle of a specific node was proposed in [35]. In this approach, data packets can be routed along a new escape route that circumvents the hole and flows to the destination. ...
The occurrence of hole regions in Wireless Sensor Networks is a significant challenge when applying a greedy technique in a geographic routing approach. The local minimum phenomenon is commonly attributed to physical obstacles, energy depletion of the nodes, failures in communication between neighbors, or even the incorrect deployment of the nodes in the sensing field. To address the problem of hole regions, most approaches choose to abandon the traditional greedy forwarding mechanism to temporarily adopt the well-known perimeter routing scheme applied to nearby nodes or along the edge of a region of a hole. However, this mechanism does not satisfy the network load balance requirement, because it imposes too much traffic to the nodes in the hole’s edge, making them overloaded when compared to other network nodes more distant from holes. In this work, we propose a novel location-free geographic routing technique called PAtCH (Proactive Approach to Circumvent Holes in Wireless Sensor Network) to avoid routing holes in WSNs. Our solution can circumvent hole regions and create routing paths toward the destination. We consider that our sink has a higher communication range, and the Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) is used to assist the construction of the routing paths. Our results show the efficiency achieved by our proposed solution in scenarios with hole regions, also maintaining all the benefits of a classic greedy forwarding technique.
... An Energy-efficient and Load-Balanced distributed Routing (ELBAR) scheme [16] was proposed for WSN with the help of holes. A new scheme was proposed for packets transmission within the routing holes existence. ...
In Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), the most challenging task is communication through routing protocols. Generally, each node in the network may have limited power resources to communicate with the other nodes without any backbone structures. So, an unbalanced traffic allocation among nodes may cause power dissipation in overloaded nodes. Due to this, path failure has occurred that degrades the network lifetime and its performance. As a result, energy and load-aware routing protocols have been proposed to decrease the energy consumption, avoid energy holes and improve the network lifetime. Hence, an energy and load-balanced aware routing protocol is the most crucial in WSN to transmit the data packets efficiently. This paper presents a detailed review of energy and load-balanced-aware based routing protocols with energy hole avoidance for WSN. Primarily, different energy and load-balanced-aware based routing protocols designed by previous researchers for WSN are briefly studied. Then, a comparative analysis is conducted to understand the drawbacks in those protocols and suggest the new solution to improve the routing in WSN with high network performance.
... Routing procedures [7,9,24,25] change the shape of the forbidden area of hole H to disperse the traffic on the hole border, reducing its concentration in the hotspots. The distance and position of each node influence the forbidden area with a randomised factor. ...
A quest for geographic routing schemes of wireless sensor networks when sensor nodes are deployed in areas with obstacles has resulted in numerous ingenious proposals and techniques. However, there is a lack of solutions for complicated cases wherein the source or the sink nodes are located close to a specific hole, especially in cavern-like regions of large complex-shaped holes. In this paper, we propose a geographic routing scheme to deal with the existence of complicated-shape holes in an effective manner. Our proposed routing scheme achieves routes around holes with the (1+ϵ\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$\epsilon$$\end{document})-stretch. Experimental results show that our routing scheme yields the highest load balancing and the most extended network lifetime compared to other well-known routing algorithms as well.
... In this section, a detailed analysis of the simulation results is presented to evaluate the performance of the proposed neighborhood-enabled load balancing algorithm in terms of end-to-end delay, packet delivery-ratio, uniform load balancing (where possible), energy efficiency and residual energy (Er). The proposed LBS is compared with the field proven techniques i.e., the shortest path algorithm, energy based traffic spreading approaches [8], [29], opportunistic routing [30], and vulnerability aware routing [11], [12]. These algorithms were implemented in OMNET++ [31], an open source simulation environment that is specifically designed for the resource-limited networks. ...
... The proposed scheme is compared with field-proven techniques such as vulnerability aware routing scheme [7], shortest path algorithm & energy-based traffic spreading approaches [14], [35], and opportunistic routing [36]. These schemes were thoroughly examined using different performance metrics such as end-to-end delay, average packet delivery ratio, throughput, and a lifetime of the operational constraint oriented networks. ...
Sensor-cloud infrastructure provides a storage platform for the massive sensed data, that is flexible and re-configurable, for various application areas which are monitored through the resource-limited networks such as wireless sensor networks (WSNs), ad hoc networks, and Internet of things (IoT). Due to their overwhelming characteristics, these networks are used in different application areas to assist human beings in their daily-life activities. However, these networks have different challenging issues such as reliability in communication and processing, storage of the massive data, efficient utilization of on-board battery, maximum lifetime achievement, minimum possible average packet loss ratio, and reliable routing mechanisms. Although various communication and load balancing mechanisms have been proposed in the literature to resolve this issue, however, these schemes are either application specific or overlay complex. In this paper, a reliable communication and load balancing scheme for the resource-limited networks is presented to resolve these issues, particularly with available resources. To achieve these goals, the proposed scheme bounds every sensing device C
<sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">i</sub>
to compute the transmission capabilities of its neighboring devices that is residual energy E
<sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">r</sub>
, hop count H
<sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">c</sub>
, round trip time (RTT
<sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">i</sub>
), and processing cost. Initially, to guarantee reliable wireless communication, a source device prefers a neighboring device C
<sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">i</sub>
with minimum Hc value over those having maximum H
<sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">c</sub>
values. Moreover, this scheme bounds every device C
<sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">i</sub>
to find four shortest & reliable paths and forward maximum packets on two of these paths preferably on the most reliable and optimal route. Therefore, unlike the traditional shortest path scheme, devices C
<sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">i</sub>
reside on these paths do not deplete their on-board battery more rapidly than others. To further improve the reliability of the proposed scheme, the assigned weight-age factors are fine-tuned if one or two of the neighboring devices C
<sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">i</sub>
consume 80% of their on-board battery, that is now maximum weight-age is assigned to the residual energy E
<sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">r</sub>
and minimum to H
<sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">c</sub>
value respectively. Simulation results show the exceptional performance of the proposed reliable communication and load balancing scheme against the field-proven schemes in terms of average packet delivery ratio, average throughput, end-to-end delay, and overall network lifetime.
... In these approaches nodes have fixed transmission power [58,70,74,75,101,110,130,164,166]. The main challenge is to minimize the transmission power so that the network lifetime is increased. ...
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and Internet of Things domain comprise of numerous small sized battery powered sensor nodes. Energy efficiency and energy balancing are very important aspects from the perspective of increasing the lifespan of WSN. Energy balancing is more important in case of multi-hop networks with many-to-one communication pattern as the nodes which are closer to the sink have more relay load than the other nodes. In this work, we present a detailed discussion on the different energy balancing approaches with a detailed analysis of each. The discussion is further accompanied by a detailed analytical comparison of the approaches. Further, this study presents a detailed analytical discussion and comparative study of the different energy balancing schemes based on mixed-hop transmission. Mixed transmissions, where each node selects between cheap hop-by-hop transmission and costly direct transmissions, is a reasonable approach to achieve balanced energy consumption. Besides, the paper also throws some light on the various issues and challenges present in the domain of mixed-hop energy balancing. It also mentions few research directions which can be focused upon to carry further research in this domain.
... In the first mode, adopted by some single-path routing protocols, the selection of the next hop for a packet takes into account the residual energies of neighboring SNs. [29][30][31][32][33][34] In this way, the routing paths change according to the evolution of the residual energies of the SNs, which constitutes a simple load balancing solution. Some approaches adopting this load balancing mode are cited in References 35-37. ...
This article addresses the problem of managing power consumption in a heterogeneous Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), composed of Sensor Nodes (SNs), Relay Nodes (RNs), and a Collector Node (CN). The aim is to extend the lifetime of RNs that actively participate in data routing. The proposed approach consists in creating, from the dense initial topology, several 2‐tiered subtopologies, linking the SNs to the CN, without having common RNs. The simultaneous exploitation of these subtopologies in the data routing from the SNs to the CN constitutes a load balancing solution for the considered WSN. Obtained simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach in extending the lifetime of the RNs. This article addresses the problem of managing power consumption in a heterogeneous Wireless Sensor Network, composed of Sensor Nodes (SNs), Relay Nodes (RNs), and a Collector Node (CN), where the aim is to extend the RNs lifetime. The proposed approach consists in creating, from the initial topology, several 2‐tiered subtopologies, linking the SNs to the CN. Obtained simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach.
... However, it is not difficult to see from Figure 41 16(b), 16(c), 17(b), 17(c) and Figure 17(d) that at the end of 42 the network lifetime, the difference of the residual energy of 43 the nodes in these annuluses is not significant (e.g., the pink 44 lines in these figures). As the difference on energy 45consumption between nodes continues to increase, some relay 46 nodes are unable to undertake the data uploading task, so the 47 sensing node are likely to reconstruct the routing path 48 according to formula(19). This realizes the energy .16. ...
In the era of Big Data and Mobile Internet, how to ensure the terminal devices (e.g., sensor nodes) work steadily for a long time is one of the key issues to improve the efficiency of the whole network. However, a lot of facts have shown that the unattended equipments are prone to failure due to energy exhaustion, physical damage and other reasons. This may result in the emergence of energy-hole, seriously affecting network performance and shortening its lifetime. To reduce data redundancy and avoid the generation of sensing blind areas, a type of Virtual Force based Energy-hole Mitigation strategy (VFEM) is proposed in this paper. Firstly, the virtual force (gravitation and repulsion) between nodes is introduced that makes nodes distribute as uniformly as possible. Secondly, in order to alleviate the “energy-hole problem”, the network is divided into several annuluses with the same width. Then, another type of virtual force, named “virtual gravity generated by annulus”, is proposed to further optimize the positions of nodes in each annulus. Finally, with the help of the “data forwarding area”, the optimal paths for data uploading can be selected out, which effectively balances energy consumption of nodes. Experiment results show that, VFEM has a relatively good performance on postponing the generation time of energy-holes as well as prolonging the network lifetime compared with other typical energy-hole mitigation methods.
... An opportunistic routing based on residual energy (ORR) 16 designed for asynchronous duty-cycled wireless sensor networks. It considers residual energy to compute most energy-efficient forwarder nodes. ...
In this research work we propose three schemes: neighbor node approaching distinct energy efficient mates (NADEEM), fallback approach NADEEM (FA-NADEEM) and transmission adjustment NADEEM (TA-NADEEM). In NADEEM, immutable forwarder node selection is avoided with the help of three distinct selection parameters. Void hole is avoided using fallback recovery mechanism to deliver data successfully at the destination. The transmission range is dynamically adjusted to resume greedy forwarding among the network nodes. The neighbor node is only eligible to become forwarder when it is not a void node. Additionally, linear programming based feasible regions are computed for an optimal energy dissipation and to improve network throughput. Extensive simulations are conducted for three parameters: energy, packet delivery ratio (PDR) and fraction of void nodes. Further, an analysis is performed by varying transmission range and data rate for energy consumption and fraction of void node. The results clearly depict that our proposed schemes outperform the baseline scheme (GEDAR) in terms of energy consumption and fraction of void nodes.
... In Energy Efficient and Load Balanced distributed Routing (ELBAR) [15], sensor nodes cooperate with each other to find the estimated polygon of a specific hole and then the sensor nodes update their routing table. The sensed data is forwarded along escape route that surrounds the hole on the basis of view angle of the hole and hole covering parallelogram. ...
In recent times, different routing protocols have
been proposed in the Internet of Things enabled Underwater
Wireless Sensor Networks (IoT-UWSNs) to explore the underwater environment for different purposes, i.e., scientific and
military purposes. However, high Energy Consumption (EC),
End to End (E2E) delay, low Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR)
and minimum network lifetime make the energy efficient communication a challenging task in Underwater Wireless Sensor
Network (UWSN). The high E2E delay, EC and reliable data
delivery are the critical issues, which play an important role
to enhance the network throughput. So, this paper presents
two energy efficient routing protocols namely: Shortest PathCollision avoidance Based Energy Efficient Routing (SP-CBE2R)
protocol and Improved-Collision avoidance Based Energy Efficient Routing (Im-CBE2R) protocol. At this end, both routing
protocols minimize the probability of void hole occurrence and
in return minimizes the EC and E2E delay. In both routing
protocols, courier nodes are positioned at different strategic
locations to keep the greedy forwarding continuous. The proposed
routing protocols are also analyzed by varying the Packet Size
(PS) and Data Rate (DR). Additionally, various simulations have
been performed to authenticate the proposed routing protocols.
Simulation results show that the proposed routing protocols
outperform the baseline routing protocols in counterparts.
... The contributions of this routing strategy are; balanced energy dissipation and successful recovery of data from void regions. However, in escape mode the end to end delay is high which is the tradeoff in this algorithm [13]. ...
The imbalance energy consumption and high data traffic at intermediate nodes degrade the network performance. In this paper, we propose: energy grade and balance load distribution (EGBLOAD) corona, EG without corona and DA without corona based schemes to distribute data traffic across the network nodes for efficient energy consumption. The dynamic adjustment of transmission range in first scheme helps in reducing data load. Additionally, the transmission range is purely based on distance, energy and data load of the receiver node for achieving maximum network lifetime. Second scheme divides a data packet into three fractions; small, medium and large for transmitting from various paths to evenly distribute the data load on the network nodes. In third scheme, depth adjustment of void node is performed to resume network operations, whereas, the load distribution and transmission range mechanisms are the same. The extensive simulations are carried out to show the effectiveness of proposed schemes in terms of PDR, energy consumption, and load distribution against the baseline scheme.
... Which is one of the criteria affecting the network performance and life time? Since many researches were undergone for minimizing the energy consumption of sensor nodes during transmission [2]. The routing protocols are implemented for optimizing the energy consumption and thereby increasing the performance of the network. ...
Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is consisting of nodes which deployed to sense the physical environment. In WSN there is excessive growth in performance evaluation and analysis techniques, because of fast development in Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). The main resource problem in WSN is the energy of sensor nodes. There is need of routing protocol which consumes less energy during communication. A reliable and robust routing protocol which limits the excess energy consumed by nodes during forwarding and receiving messages results in energy efficiency protocol. This survey work provides the advantages, drawbacks and comparison of five energy efficient routing protocols.
... In Energy Efficient and Load Balanced distributed Routing (ELBAR) [14] sensor nodes collaborate to find the expected polygon of a particular hole and then the sensor nodes inform one another about this particular polygon. depending on hole view angle and hole covering parallelogram data is forwarded along escape route that surrounds hole. ...
Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) facilitate an extensive variety of aquatic applications such as military defense, monitoring aquatic environment, disaster prevention, etc. However UWSNs routing protocols face many challenges due to adverse underwater environment such as high propagation and transmission delays, high deployment cost, nodes movement, energy constraints, expensive manufacture, etc. Due to random deployment of nodes void holes may occur that results in the failure of forwarding data packet. In this research work we propose two schemes, Geographic and Opportunistic Routing using Backward Transmission (GEBTR) and Geographic and Opportunistic Routing using Collision Avoidance (GECAR) for UWSNs. In aforesaid scheme fall back recovery mechanism is used to find an alternative route to deliver the data when void occurs. In later, fall along with nomination of forwarder node which has minimum number of neighbor nodes is selected. Simulation results shows that our techniques outperforms compared with baseline solution in terms of packet delivery ratio by 5% in GEBTR and 45%t in GECAR, fraction of void nodes by 8% and 11% in GECAR and energy consumption by 8% in GEBTR and 10% in GECAR.
... However, the geographic routing protocols are resilient to location error and the sensor nodes require positioning hardware. In [31], the authors present a routing strategy to divert the data packet through specific angle around the energy hole polygon. The algorithm determines the area and angle of approximate polygon when an energy hole is emerged, whereas the range of polygon is determined by α min and α max . ...
In wireless sensor networks (WSNs), energy balancing and energy efficiency are the key requirements to prolong the network lifetime. In this paper, we investigate the problem of energy hole, where sensor nodes located near the sink or in some other parts of the network die very early due to unbalanced load distribution. Moreover, there is a dire need to utilize the energy resource efficiently. For this purpose, balanced energy consuming and hole alleviating (BECHA), and energy-aware balanced energy consuming and hole alleviating (EA-BECHA) algorithms are proposed, not only to balance the load distribution of entire network but also to utilize the energy resource efficiently. This work mainly adopts data forwarding and routing selection strategy for the entire network. An optimal distance and energy-based transmission strategy which is free of location error is adopted to forward the data packets of different sizes. Finally, the simulation results validate the proposed schemes by showing improvement in network lifetime, energy balancing, and enhanced throughput with less number of packets drop on the cost of increased end to end delay.
... In [30], the authors present a routing strategy to divert the data packet through specific angle around the energy hole polygon. The algorithm determines the area and angle of approximate polygon when an energy hole is emerged, whereas the range of polygon is determined by α min and α max . ...
In wireless sensor networks (WSNs) energy balancing and energy efficiency are the
key requirements to prolong the network lifetime. In this thesis, we investigate the
problem of energy hole, where sensor nodes located near the sink or in some other
parts of the network die very early due to unbalanced load distribution. Moreover,
there is a dire need to utilize the energy resource efficiently. For this purpose, a
balanced energy consuming and hole alleviating (BECHA), and energy-aware balanced
energy consuming and hole alleviating (EA-BECHA) algorithms are proposed, not only
to balance the load distribution of entire network, but also to utilize the energy
resource efficiently. This work mainly adopts data forwarding and routing selection
strategy for the entire network. An optimal distance and energy-based transmission
strategy which is free of location error is adopted to forward the different size of data
to the neighbors by selecting the optimal forwarder. Finally, the simulation results
validate the proposed schemes by showing improvement in network lifetime, energy
balancing, and enhanced throughput with less number of packet drop.
The traditional fixing method for coverage gap in wireless sensor network (WSN) mainly targets the homogenous networks, in which all nodes have the same detection radius. By this method, the gaps in the network are covered randomly by mobile nodes, leading to low coverage and resource waste. Considering the different detection radii of actual WSN nodes, this paper explores the gap fixing in heterogenous WSNs, and proposes an improved gap fixing method based on fixing priority. Specifically, the gap fixing points were determined and prioritized with the aid of Voronoi polygons, and then fixed by mobile nodes. After that, the nodes with overlapping sensing ranges were removed to reduce the redundancy. Simulation results show that the improved method can effectively enhance the coverage of the entire network.
WirelessSensor Network systems (WSNs) have received noteworthy research consideration because of their elite qualities like broad capacity to detect the physical world phenomenon and their broad scope of utilizations, extensive variety of uses due to low cost. One of the real requirements of WSN is lifetime of system because of its battery usage. To determine this issue to some degree is solved by creating various approaches on routing protocol to make energy efficient. EESR-ART2 approach is an endeavor to make organize vitality proficient. ART2 Neural Network Technique is actualized with Energy Efficient Sensor Routing (EESR) Protocol that observed to be a much viable outcome in recreation and upgrade the system lifetime regarding FND (first node dead) and HNA (half node alive) when contrasted with different protocols. Security is the major challenge faced by the existing WSN system. This paper focuses on intrusion detection in energy efficient sensor network using neuro-fuzzy approach. The proposed model discusses how anomalies detection scheme is improved using neuro-fuzzy approach.
A constraint oriented wireless sensor network (WSN) faces a challenging task of handling different issues i.e., routing mechanism, coverage of the underlined sensing fields for as long as possible, energy efficiency, reliable transmission of packets, congestion controls etc. Load balancing or routing protocols, which are specifically designed for the resource limited sensor networks, resolve some of these issues. However, most of these mechanisms were either applications specific or overlay complex. Moreover, these techniques underestimated an important aspect of WSNs i.e., sensor nodes criticality or vulnerability factor that is defined as the importance of a node from the network connectivity perspective. In this paper, an efficient load balancing and performance optimization scheme (LBS) is presented to address these issues such as throughput, long term connectivity, end to end delay and energy efficiency in resource limited WSNs. The proposed LBS technique conflates a sensor node criticality factor, residual energy and hop-count to form an optimized load balancing strategy. Initially, the proposed LBS routes most of the load or traffic on the shortest paths by assigning a highest weight-age factor, 80%, to the hop count metric and lower weight-age to both criticality and residual energy metrics i.e., 20%. Load balancing strategy is revised if one or more nodes deplete 50% of their on-board batteries. Simulation results verify that the proposed LBS scheme outperforms the existing field proven approaches i.e., shortest path, vulnerability aware routing, energy based spreading and multiple path based load balancing schemes.
In wireless sensor networks (WSNs), the creation of energy holes is extremely difficult to be avoided because the data flow usually follows a many-to-one and multi-hop pattern. Since energy holes exhaust their energy faster than other nodes, network partitions might be created, which might lead to failure of the network. Cluster-based WSNs have been widely used because of their good performance, and power control strategies are an effective way to improve energy efficiency in WSNs. In this paper, we first propose a power-based energy consumption model and a cluster-based coronal model for analyzing the energy hole problem in WSNs. Then, on the basis of the proposed models, we investigate the feasibility and effectiveness of the existing approaches for solving the energy hole problem in WSNs. Furthermore, an immune clone selection-based power control (ICSPC) strategy for alleviating the energy hole problem in WSNs is proposed. In the ICSPC strategy, the immune clone selection algorithm is used to optimize the transmission ranges of sensors in various coronas to balance the energy consumption rates of the coronas. Finally, simulation results are analyzed to show that the energy hole problem in WSNs has been largely alleviated by the ICSPC strategy, and the network lifetime is greatly prolonged.
Underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) provide the wide range of aquatic applications. The limited bandwidth, long propagation delay, energy consumption, high manufacturing, and deployment costs are many challenges in the domain of UWSNs. In this paper, we present the two techniques i.e., energy gradation (EG) and depth adjustment (DA) in without the number of coronas. Firstly, the forwarder node determines the higher energy node and it is directly transmitted to sink; secondly, if the forwarder node occurs in transmission void region then the node moves to the new depth so that the data delivery ratio can be ensured effectively. Simulation results define that our proposed schemes show better performance in terms of energy efficiency, packet delivery ratio (PDR) and network lifetime etc.
Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) facilitate an extensive variety of aquatic applications such as military defense, monitoring aquatic environment, disaster prevention, etc. However UWSNs routing protocols face many challenges due to adverse underwater environment such as high propagation and transmission delays, high deployment cost, nodes movement, energy constraints, expensive manufacture, etc. Due to random deployment of nodes void holes may occur that results in the failure of forwarding data packet. In this research work we propose two schemes, Geographic and Opportunistic Routing using Backward Transmission (GEBTR) and Geographic and Opportunistic Routing using Collision Avoidance (GECAR) for UWSNs. In aforesaid scheme fall back recovery mechanism is used to find an alternative route to deliver the data when void occurs. In later, fall along with nomination of forwarder node which has minimum number of neighbor nodes is selected. Simulation results show that our techniques outperform compared with baseline solution in terms of packet delivery ratio by 5% in GEBTR and 45% in GECAR, fraction of void nodes by 8% and 11% in GECAR and energy consumption by 8% in GEBTR and 10% in GECAR.
Sensor node localization is one of research hotspots in the applications of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) field. A localization algorithm based on improved Support Vector Machine (SVM) for WSNs is proposed in this paper. SVM classification accuracy is the key to the localization accuracy. The selection of parameters is the important factor that influences the performance of SVM. Therefore, this paper proposes a parameters optimization algorithm based on immune memory clone algorithm (IMCOP). The experimental results show that IMCOP algorithm has the best searching optimization ability compared with other optimization algorithms, such as Particle Swarm Optimization, Genetic Algorithm. Through the simulations, the performance of localization based on IMCOP-SVM is evaluated. The results prove that it has higher accuracy than existing localization algorithm based on SVM, and addresses the border problem and coverage-hole problems effectively. Finally, the limitation of the proposed localization algorithm is discussed and future work is present.
We present two novel distributed algorithms for hole detection in a wireless sensor network (WSN) based on the distributed Delaunay triangulation of the underlying communication graph. The first, which we refer to as the distance-vector hole determination (DVHD) algorithm, is based on traditional distance vector routing for multi-hop networks and shortest path lengths between node pairs. The second, which we refer to as the Gaussian curvature-based hole determination (GCHD) algorithm, applies the Gauss-Bonnet theorem on the Delaunay graph to calculate the number of holes based on the graph's Gaussian curvature. We present a detailed comparative performance analysis of both methods based on simulations, showing that while DVHD is conceptually simpler, the GCHD algorithm shows better performance with respect to run-time and message count per node.
In wireless sensor networks, an important issue of geographic routing is “local minimum” problem, which is caused by a “hole” that blocks the greedy forwarding process. Existing geographic routing algorithms use perimeter routing strategies to find a long detour path when such a situation occurs. To avoid the long detour path, recent research focuses on detecting the hole in advance, then the nodes located on the boundary of the hole advertise the hole information to the nodes near the hole. Hence the long detour path can be avoided in future routing. We propose a heuristic hole detecting algorithm which identifies the hole easily and quickly and then propose a representation of hole no matter what the shape of the hole is. In addition, we quantitatively figure out the areas in the vicinity of the hole that need to be announced the hole information. With such information, a new routing scheme with two landmarks was developed. Simulation results illustrate that our approach can achieve better performance in terms of the average length and number of hops in routing paths. Simulation also shows that our approach introduces very small computational complexity.
One of the fundamental services provided by a wireless sensor network (WSN) is the monitoring of a specified region of interest (RoI). Considering the fact that emergence of holes in the RoI is unavoidable due to the inner nature of WSNs, random deployment, environmental factors, and external attacks, assuring that the RoI is completely and continuously covered is very important. This paper seeks to address the problem of hole detection and healing in mobile WSNs. We discuss the main drawbacks of existing solutions and we identify four key elements that are critical for ensuring effective coverage in mobile WSNs: 1) determining the boundary of the RoI, 2) detecting coverage holes and estimating their characteristics, 3) determining the best target locations to relocate mobile nodes to repair holes, and 4) dispatching mobile nodes to the target locations while minimizing the moving and messaging cost. We propose a lightweight and comprehensive solution, called holes detection and healing (HEAL), that addresses all of the aforementioned aspects. The computation complexity of HEAL is ${rm O}(v^{2})$ , where $v$ is the average number of 1-hop neighbors. HEAL is a distributed and localized algorithm that operates in two distinct phases. The first identifies the boundary nodes and discovers holes using a lightweight localized protocol over the Gabriel graph of the network. The second treats the hole healing, with novel concept, hole healing area. We propose a distributed virtual forces-based local healing approach where only the nodes located at an appropriate distance from the hole will be involved in the healing process. Through extensive simulations we show that HEAL deals with holes of various forms and sizes, and provides a cost-effective and an accurate solution for hole detection and healing.
Homology theory provides new and powerful solutions to address the coverage
problems in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). They are based on algebraic
objects, such as Cech complex and Rips complex. Cech complex gives accurate
information about coverage quality but requires a precise knowledge of the
relative locations of nodes. This assumption is rather strong and hard to
implement in practical deployments. Rips complex provides an approximation of
Cech complex. It is easier to build and does not require any knowledge of nodes
location. This simplicity is at the expense of accuracy. Rips complex can not
always detect all coverage holes. It is then necessary to evaluate its
accuracy. This work proposes to use the proportion of the area of undiscovered
coverage holes as performance criteria. Investigations show that it depends on
the ratio between communication and sensing radii of a sensor. Closed-form
expressions for lower and upper bounds of the accuracy are also derived. For
those coverage holes which can be discovered by Rips complex, a homology-based
distributed algorithm is proposed to detect them. Simulation results are
consistent with the proposed analytical lower bound, with a maximum difference
of 0.5%. Upper bound performance depends on the ratio of communication and
sensing radii. Simulations also show that the algorithm can localize about 99%
coverage holes in about 99% cases.
We study the problem of shortest-path geographic routing in a static sensor network. Existing algorithms often make routing decisions based on node information in local neighborhoods. However, it is shown by Kuhn et al. that such a design constraint results in a highly undesirable lower bound for routing performance: if a best route has length c, then in the worst case a route produced by any localized algorithm has length Omega(c<sup>2</sup>), which can be arbitrarily worse than the optimal. We present VIGOR, a visibility-graph-based routing protocol that produces routes of length Theta(c). Our design is based on the construction of a much reduced visibility graph, which guides nodes to find near-optimal paths. The per-node protocol overheads in terms of state information and message transmission depend only on the complexity of the field's large topological features, rather than on the network size. Simulation results show that our protocol dramatically outperforms localized protocols such as GPSR and GOAFR+ in both average and worst cases, with reasonable extra overheads.
Void areas (holes) as an inevitable phenomenon exist in geographic routing of wireless sensor networks, because the unpredictable and harsh nature application environment or uneven energy consumption. Most of the existing schemes for the issue tend to construct a static detour path to bypass a hole. The static detour path may lead to uneven energy consumption of the nodes on the perimeter of the hole; thus it may enlarge the hole. At the same time, traffic would concentrate on the peripheral node of the hole; thus the nodes on the perimeter of the hole tend to be depleted quickly. In previous work, we have proposed a hole geometric model to reduce the energy consumption and packet collisions of the nodes on the hole boundary. This scheme, however, still has the static detour path problem. Therefore, we extend the previous work by constructing a dynamic detour path hole geometric model for wireless sensor networks in this paper. The location of hole detour anchor is dynamically shifted according to Gaussian function, just generating dynamic hole detour paths.
Wireless sensor networks are tightly associated with the un- derlying environment in which the sensors are deployed. The global topology of the network is of great importance to both sensor network applications and the implementation of net- working functionalities. In this paper we study the problem of topology discovery, in particular, identifying boundaries in a sensor network. Suppose a large number of sensor nodes are scattered in a geometric region, with nearby nodes com- municating with each other directly. Our goal is to flnd the boundary nodes by using only connectivity information. We do not assume any knowledge of the node locations or inter-distances, nor do we enforce that the communication graph follows the unit disk graph model. We propose a sim- ple, distributed algorithm that correctly detects nodes on the boundaries and connects them into meaningful bound- ary cycles. We obtain as a byproduct the medial axis of the sensor fleld, which has applications in creating virtual coor- dinates for routing. We show by extensive simulation that the algorithm gives good results even for networks with low density. We also prove rigorously the correctness of the al- gorithm for continuous geometric domains.
Communication between arbitrary pairs of nodes has become critical to support in emerging sensor networking applications. Traditional routing techniques for multi-hop wireless networks either require high control overhead in computing and maintaining routes, or may lead to unbounded route-stretch. In order to bound the route-stretch, we propose a distributed shortest-path roadmap based routing paradigm that embodies two ideas: routing hole approximation that summaries the critical information about hole boundaries and controlled advertisement that advertises the boundary information of each hole within limited neighborhoods. We show that our approach makes a desired tradeoff between the worst case route-stretch and the message overhead through both analysis and simulations.
Network lifetime has become the key characteristic for evaluating sensor networks in an application-specific way. Especially the availability of nodes, the sensor coverage, and the connectivity have been included in discussions on network lifetime. Even quality of service measures can be reduced to lifetime considerations. A great number of algorithms and methods were proposed to increase the lifetime of a sensor network—while their evaluations were always based on a particular definition of network lifetime. Motivated by the great differences in existing definitions of sensor network lifetime that are used in relevant publications, we reviewed the state of the art in lifetime definitions, their differences, advantages, and limitations. This survey was the starting point for our work towards a generic definition of sensor network lifetime for use in analytic evaluations as well as in simulation models—focusing on a formal and concise definition of accumulated network lifetime and total network lifetime. Our definition incorporates the components of existing lifetime definitions, and introduces some additional measures. One new concept is the ability to express the service disruption tolerance of a network. Another new concept is the notion of time-integration: in many cases, it is sufficient if a requirement is fulfilled over a certain period of time, instead of at every point in time. In addition, we combine coverage and connectivity to form a single requirement called connected coverage. We show that connected coverage is different from requiring noncombined coverage and connectivity. Finally, our definition also supports the concept of graceful degradation by providing means of estimating the degree of compliance with the application requirements. We demonstrate the applicability of our definition based on the surveyed lifetime definitions as well as using some example scenarios to explain the various aspects influencing sensor network lifetime.
Characteristics of wireless sensor networks, specifically dense deployment, limited processing power, and limited power supply, provide unique design challenges at the transport layer. Message transmission between sensor nodes over a wireless medium is especially expensive. Care must be taken to design an efficient transport layer protocol that combines reliable message delivery and congestion control with minimal overhead and retransmission. Sensor networks are created using low cost, low power nodes. Wireless sensors are assumed to have a finite lifetime; care must be taken to design and implement transport layer algorithms that allow maximum network lifetime. In this paper we present current and future challenges in the design of transport layers for sensor networks. Current transport layer protocols are compared based on how they implement reliable message delivery, congestion control, and energy efficiency.
We study the problem of localizing a large sensor network having a complex shape, possibly with holes. A major challenge with respect to such networks is to figure out the correct network layout, i.e., avoid global flips where a part of the network folds on top of another. Our algorithm first selects landmarks on network boundaries with sufficient density, then constructs the landmark Voronoi diagram and its dual combinatorial Delaunay complex on these landmarks. The key insight is that the combinatorial Delaunay complex is provably globally rigid and has a unique realization in the plane. Thus an embedding of the landmarks by simply gluing the Delaunay triangles properly recovers the faithful network layout. With the landmarks nicely localized, the rest of the nodes can easily localize themselves by trilateration to nearby landmark nodes. This leads to a practical and accurate localization algorithm for large networks using only network connectivity. Simulations on various network topologies show surprisingly good results. In comparison, previous connectivity-based localization algorithms such as multi-dimensional scaling and rubberband representation generate globally flipped or distorted localization results.
Many algorithms for routing in sensor networks exploit greedy forwarding strategies to get packets to their destinations. We study a fundamental difficulty such strategies face: the "local minimum phenomena" that can cause packets to get stuck. We give a definition of stuck nodes where packets may get stuck in greedy multi-hop forwarding, and develop a local rule, the TENT rule, for each node in the network to test whether a packet can get stuck at that node. To help the packets get out of stuck nodes, we describe a distributed algorithm, BOUNDHOLE, to build routes around holes, which are connected regions of the network with boundaries consisting of all the stuck nodes. We show that these hole-surrounding routes can be used in many applications such as geographic routing, path migration, information storage mechanisms and identification of regions of interest.
We present a new framework for the crucial challenge of self-organization of a large sensor network. The basic scenario can be described as follows: Given a large swarm of immobile sensor nodes that have been scattered in a polygonal region, such as a street network. Nodes have no knowledge of size or shape of the environment or the position of other nodes. Moreover, they have no way of measuring coordinates, geometric distances to other nodes, or their direction. Their only way of interacting with other nodes is to send or to receive messages from any node that is within communication range. The objective is to develop algorithms and protocols that allow self-organization of the swarm into large-scale structures that reflect the structure of the street network, setting the stage for global routing, tracking and guiding algorithms.
Routing holes in sensor network are regions without operating nodes. They may occur due to several reasons, including cases caused by natural obstacles or disaster suffering areas. Determining the location and shape of holes can help monitor these disaster events (such as volcano, tsunami, etc.) or make smart, early routing decisions for circumventing a hole. However, given the energy limit of sensor nets, the determination and dissemination of the information about the exact shape of a large hole could be unreasonable. Therefore, there are some techniques to approximate a hole by a simpler shape.
In this paper, the authors analyze and compare two existing approximation approaches that are considered as the most suitable for the sensor network, namely the grid-based and the convex-hull-based approaches. And a new algorithm of the grid-based approach is also introduced. The performances of all the mentioned algorithms are under analysis and evaluation in both theoretical and experimental perspectives. The findings show that grid-based approach has advantages in saving network energy and providing a finer image of the hole while the convex hull approach is better for making a shorter hole-bypassing the route but not much.
Geographic greedy forwarding (GF) technique has been widely used by many algorithms for routing in sensor networks because of its high efficiency resulting from its local and memoryless nature. Hence, it ensures scalability which is a fundamental requirement for protocol applicability to large-scale sensor networks with limited resources. Nevertheless, GF suffers from a serious drawback when packets, based on geographic distance, cannot be delivered; i.e., the so-called “local minimum phenomenon”. This problem has been tackled in previous research works to guarantee packet delivery by routing around the boundaries of the hole, but at an excessive consumption of control overheads. In this paper, we propose a novel approach that exploits GF technique and guarantees at the same time packet delivery (handles the local minimum situations). Our approach is of a local nature that does not retain memories and performs better than the state-of-the-art approaches in terms of its ability to guarantee packet delivery and to derive efficient routing paths. We provide, in this paper, proof of its correctness (packet delivery guaranty) while showing, through simulations, its performance effectiveness in terms of reducing path lengths, average end-to-end delays, and overall energy consumption.
Geographic routing is well suited for large-scale wireless sensor networks (WSNs) because it is nearly stateless. One important challenge is that network holes may arbitrarily increase the routing path length. Fortunately, recent studies have shown that constant path stretch is achievable using nonlocal information. The constant stretch, however, is possible at the cost of high communication and storage overhead: a source node must complete a “path-setup” process prior to data transmission by exchanging a message with a destination node using a default geographic routing (e.g., GPSR). In this article, we propose the first geographic routing protocol (LVGR) that provably achieves worst-case stretch of Θ (D/γ) (where D is the diameter of the network and γ is the communication range of nodes) with low communication and storage overhead. LVGR represents a hole as a convex hull, the internal structure of which is represented as a local visibility graph. Based on the convex hulls and local visibility graphs, LVGR generates paths with guaranteed stretch. Through theoretical analysis and extensive simulations, we prove the worst-case stretch of LVGR and demonstrate that LVGR reduces communication overhead by up to 97% and storage overhead by up to 60%, compared with the state of the art.
This paper focuses on greedy routing in wireless networks deployed on 2D and 3D surfaces. It introduces a distributed embedding scheme based on the conformal map theory. The proposed scheme identifies the convex hull of each boundary and employs Yamabe flow to compute flat metric under convex hull boundary condition to establish virtual coordinates. Such virtual coordinates are then used for greedy routing. Since the proposed embedding algorithm maps the outer boundary to a convex shape and an interior concave void to a circle-like convex polygon, it effectively eliminates local minimum and attains guaranteed delivery. At the same time, it introduces a small distortion only and consequently achieves a low stretch factor. Our simulations show that its stretch factor is lower than any existing greedy embedding algorithms. Moreover, the proposed scheme is merely based on local connectivity and consumes a small constant storage, thus scaling to arbitrarily large networks.
Location-free boundary detection is an important issue in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Detecting and locating boundaries have a great relevance for network services, such as routing protocol, coverage verification, and so on. Previous designs, which adopt topology-based approaches to recognizing obstacles or network boundaries, do not consider the environment with mobile sensor nodes. When a network topology changes, a topology-based approach has to reconstruct all boundaries. This study develops a distributed boundary detection (DBD) algorithm for identifying the boundaries of obstacles and networks. Each node only requires the information of its three-hop neighbors. Other information (e.g., node locations) is not needed. A node with DBD can determine whether itself is a boundary node by a distributed manner. The DBD approach further identifies the outer boundary of a network. Performance evaluation demonstrates that DBD can detect boundaries accurately in both static and mobile environments. This study also includes experiments to show that DBD is applicable in a real sensor network.
The distributed nature and dynamic topology of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) introduces very special requirements in routing protocols that should be met. The most important feature of a routing protocol, in order to be efficient for WSNs, is the energy consumption and the extension of the network's lifetime. During the recent years, many energy efficient routing protocols have been proposed for WSNs. In this paper, energy efficient routing protocols are classified into four main schemes: Network Structure, Communication Model, Topology Based and Reliable Routing. The routing protocols belonging to the first category can be further classified as flat or hierarchical. The routing protocols belonging to the second category can be further classified as Query-based or Coherent and non-coherent-based or Negotiation-based. The routing protocols belonging to the third category can be further classified as Location-based or Mobile Agent-based. The routing protocols belonging to the fourth category can be further classified as QoS-based or Multipath-based. Then, an analytical survey on energy efficient routing protocols for WSNs is provided. In this paper, the classification initially proposed by Al-Karaki, is expanded, in order to enhance all the proposed papers since 2004 and to better describe which issues/operations in each protocol illustrate/enhance the energy-efficiency issues.
This paper presents ALBA-R, a protocol for convergecasting in wireless sensor networks. ALBA-R features the cross-layer integration of geographic routing with contention-based MAC for relay selection and load balancing (ALBA), as well as a mechanism to detect and route around connectivity holes (Rainbow). ALBA and Rainbow (ALBA-R) together solve the problem of routing around a dead end without overhead-intensive techniques such as graph planarization and face routing. The protocol is localized and distributed, and adapts efficiently to varying traffic and node deployments. Through extensive ns2-based simulations, we show that ALBA-R significantly outperforms other convergecasting protocols and solutions for dealing with connectivity holes, especially in critical traffic conditions and low-density networks. The performance of ALBA-R is also evaluated through experiments in an outdoor testbed of TinyOS motes. Our results show that ALBA-R is an energy-efficient protocol that achieves remarkable performance in terms of packet delivery ratio and end-to-end latency in different scenarios, thus being suitable for real network deployments.
Geographic forwarding has been widely studied as a routing strategy for large wireless networks, mainly due to the low complexity of the routing algorithm, scalability of the routing information with network size and fast convergence times of routes. On a planar network with no holes, Gupta and Kumar (2000) have shown that a uniform traffic demand of ominus(1/radicn log n) is achievable. However, in a network with routing holes (regions on the plane which do not have active nodes), geographic routing schemes such as GPSR or GOAFR could cause the throughput capacity to significantly drop due to concentration of traffic on the face of the holes. Similarly, geographic schemes could fail to support non-uniform traffic patterns due to spatial congestion (traffic concentration) caused by greedy "straight-line" routing. In this paper, we first propose a randomized geographic routing scheme that can achieve a throughput capacity of ominus(1/radicn) (within a poly-logarithmic factor) even in networks with routing holes. Thus, we show that our scheme is throughput optimal (up to a poly-logarithmic factor) while preserving the inherent advantages of geographic routing. We also show that the routing delay incurred by our scheme is within a poly-logarithmic factor of the optimal throughput-delay trade-off curve. Next, we construct a geographic forwarding based routing scheme that can support wide variations in the traffic requirements (as much as ominus(1) rates for some nodes, while supporting ominus(1/radicn) for others). We finally show that the above two schemes can be combined to support non-uniform traffic demands in networks with holes.
The authors propose a new geographic hole-bypassing forwarding (HBF) protocol to address the hole diffusion problem in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). To support efficient hole-bypassing, the HBF protocol models a hole using a virtual circle whose radius is adjustable within a certain range and is calculated on a per-packet basis. The information associated with the virtual circle will be used, if needed, for selecting an anchor point to bypass the hole in order for a packet to reach a particular sink node. The design objective of the HBF protocol is to balance the traffic load among the nodes near an actual hole boundary. Using the HBF protocol, a packet is always sent to the closest sink and the extra distance for hole-bypassing is considered in the delivery of data packets to reach the sinks (or some of them) in the network. The simulation results show that HBF outperforms existing hole-bypassing protocols in terms of packet delivery ratio and network lifetime.
Greedy forwarding fails due to void area, termed a hole, where no nodes can be deployed in realistic wireless sensor networks. This is known as the local minimum problem. Several schemes have been recently proposed to solve this problem. However, they have the problem that nodes, which are adjacent to the hole, have to maintain hole boundary information and an increase in hop counts due to additional data packet transmission. In this paper, we propose Bypassing Hole Scheme Using Observer Packets for Geographic Routing (BHOP-GR) that selects the optimum bypassing path and also solves the problem to maintain hole boundary information. BHOP-GR obtains the hole boundary information using an observer packet. And the source node uses a time delay when it transmits the data packet. Through this procedure, BHOP-GR can be arranged to decrease the average hop counts and routing path length. Also, using a virtual regular hexagon model, which can exactly cover a hole to be detoured, it solves the problem to maintain hole boundary information. In the simulation, BHOP-GR showed at least 34% of the average hop counts and routing path length compared to SLGF (Safety Information based Limited Geographic greedy Forwarding) and 25% of the average hop counts and routing path length compared to Virtual Circle.
This work addresses the problem of geographic routing in the presence of holes or voids in wireless sensor networks. We postulate that, once the boundary of the hole has been established, relying on the existing algorithms for bypassing it may cause severe depletion of the energy reserves among the nodes at (or near) that boundary. This, in turn, may soon render some of those nodes useless for any routing (and/or sensing) purposes, thereby effectively enlarging the size of the pre-existing hole. To extend the lifetime of the nodes along the boundary of a given hole, we propose two heuristic approaches which aim at relieving some of the routing load of the boundary nodes. Towards that, our approaches propose that some of the routes that would otherwise need to bypass the hole along the boundary, should instead start to deviate from their original path further from the hole. Our experiments demonstrate that the proposed approaches not only increase the lifetime of the nodes along the boundary of a given hole, but also yield a more uniform depletion of the energy reserves in its vicinity.
Developing sensor network applications demands a new set of tools to aid programmers. A number of simulation environments have been de- veloped that provide varying degrees of scalability, realism, and detail for understanding the behavior of sensor networks. To date, however, none of these tools have addressed one of the most important aspects of sensor application design: that of power consumption.While simple approximations of overall power usage can be derived from estimates of node duty cycle and communication rates, these techniques often fail to capture the detailed, low-level energy requirements of the CPU, radio, sensors, and other peripherals. In this paper, we present PowerTOSSIM, a scalable simulation en- vironment for wireless sensor networks that provides an accurate, per- node estimate of power consumption. PowerTOSSIM is an extension to TOSSIM, an event-driven simulation environment for TinyOS ap- plications. In PowerTOSSIM, TinyOS components corresponding to specific hardware peripherals (such as the radio, EEPROM, LEDs, and so forth) are instrumented to obtain a trace of each device's activ- ity during the simulation run. PowerTOSSIM employs a novel code- transformation technique to estimate the number of CPU cycles exe- cuted by each node, eliminating the need for expensive instruction-level simulation of sensor nodes. PowerTOSSIM includes a detailed model of hardware energy consumption based on the Mica2 sensor node plat- form. Through instrumentation of actual sensor nodes, we demonstrate that PowerTOSSIM provides accurate estimation of power consump- tion for a range of applications and scales to support very large simula- tions.
Several anomalies can occur in wireless sensor networks that impair their desired functionalities i.e., sensing and communication. Different kinds of holes can form in such networks creating geographically correlated problem areas such as coverage holes, routing holes, jamming holes, sink/black holes and worm holes, etc. We detail in this paper different types of holes, discuss their characteristics and study their effects on successful working of a sensor network. We present state-of-the-art in research for addressing the holes related problems in wireless sensor networks and discuss the relative strengths and short-comings of the proposed solutions for combating different kinds of holes. We conclude by highlighting future research directions.
Wireless infrastructureless networks demand high resource availability with respect to the progressively decreasing energy consumption. A variety of new applications with different service requirements demand fairness to the service provision and classification, and reliability in an end-to-end manner. High-priority packets are delivered within a hard time delay bound whereas improper power management in wireless networks can substantially degrade the throughput and increase the overall energy consumed. In this work a new scheme is being proposed and evaluated in real time using a state-based layered oriented architecture for energy conservation (EC). The proposed scheme uses the node's self-tuning scheme, where each node is assigned with a dissimilar sleep and wake time, based on traffic that is destined for each node. This approach is based on stream's characteristics with respect to different caching behavioral and storage-capacity characteristics, and considers a model concerning the layered connectivity characteristics for enabling the EC mechanism. EC characteristics are modeled and through the designed tiered architecture the estimated metrics of the scheme can be bounded and tuned into certain regulated values. The real-time evaluation results were extracted by using dynamically moving and statically located sensor nodes. A performance comparison is done with respect to different data traffic priority classifications following a real-time asymmetrical transmission channel. Results have shown the scheme's efficiency in conserving energy while the topology configuration changes with time. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Geographic routing has been addressed in many literatures of ad hoc sensor networks due to its efficiency and scalability. Void areas (holes) bring Geographic routing some problems such as data congestion and excessive energy consumption of hole boundary nodes. Holes are hardly avoided in wireless sensor networks due to various actual geographical environments, e.g., puddles, buildings or obstacles, or uneven energy consumption, even physical destruction. To bypass a hole, most existing geographic routing protocols tend to route data packets along the boundary of the hole by perimeter routing scheme. This scheme, on one hand, consumes more energy of the nodes on the boundary of the hole, thus possibly enlarging the hole, we call this hole diffusion problem; on the other hand, it may incur data congestion if multiple communication sessions are bypassing the hole simultaneously. In this paper, we propose efficient hole detour scheme to solve the hole problems faced by geographic routing in wireless sensor networks. Simulation results show that the proposed protocol is superior to other protocols in terms of packet deliver ratio, control overhead, average delivery delay, and energy consumption.
All too often a seemingly insurmountable divide between theory and practice can be witnessed. In this paper we try to contribute to narrowing this gap in the field of ad-hoc routing. In particular we consider two aspects: We propose a new geometric routing algorithm which is outstandingly e#cient on practical average-case networks, however is also in theory asymptotically worst-case optimal. On the other hand we are able to drop the formerly necessary assumption that the distance between network nodes may not fall below a constant value, an assumption that cannot be maintained for practical networks. Abandoning this assumption we identify from a theoretical point of view two fundamentamentally di#erent classes of cost metrics for routing in ad-hoc networks.
In this paper we present GOAFR, a new geometric ad-hoc routing algorithm combining greedy and face routing. We evaluate this algorithm by both rigorous analysis and comprehensive simulation. GOAFR is the first ad-hoc algorithm to be both asymptotically optimal and average-case efficient. For our simulations we identify a network density range critical for any routing algorithm. We study a dozen of routing algorithms and show that GOAFR outperforms other prominent algorithms, such as GPSR or AFR.
Future sensor networks will be composed of a large number of densely deployed sensors/actuators. A key feature of such networks is that their nodes are untethered and unattended. Consequently, energy efficiency is an important design consideration for these networks. Motivated by the fact that sensor network queries may often be geographical, we design and evaluate an energy efficient routing algorithm that propagates a query to the appropriate geographical region, without flooding. The proposed Geographic and Energy Aware Routing (GEAR) algorithm uses energy aware neighbor selection to route a packet towards the target region and Recursive Geographic Forwarding or Restricted Flooding algorithm to disseminate the packet inside the destination region. We evaluate the GEAR protocol using simulation. We find that, especially for non-uniform traffic distribution, GEAR exhibits noticeably longer network lifetime than non-energyaware geographic routing algorithms. 1
We present Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing (GPSR), a novel routing protocol for wireless datagram networks that uses the positions of routers and a packet's destination to make packet forwarding decisions. GPSR makes greedy forwarding decisions using only information about a router's immediate neighbors in the network topology. When a packet reaches a region where greedy forwarding is impossible, the algorithm recovers by routing around the perimeter of the region. By keeping state only about the local topology, GPSR scales better in per-router state than shortest-path and ad-hoc routing protocols as the number of network destinations increases. Under mobility's frequent topology changes, GPSR can use local topology information to find correct new routes quickly. We describe the GPSR protocol, and use extensive simulation of mobile wireless networks to compare its performance with that of Dynamic Source Routing. Our simulations demonstrate GPSR's scalability on densely deployed wir...
Routing with guaranteed delivery in ad hoc wireless networks
- P Bose
- P Morin
- I Stojmenovir
- J Urrutia
Bose, P., Morin, P., Stojmenovir, I., Urrutia, J., 2008. Routing with guaranteed delivery in ad hoc wireless networks. Proc. of the 5th IEEE International Conference.
347-352.
Distributed hole detection algorithms for wireless sensor networks
- P Ghosh
- J Gao
- A Gasparri
- B Krishnamachari
Ghosh, P., Gao, J., Gasparri, A., Krishnamachari, B., 2014. Distributed hole detection
algorithms for wireless sensor networks. Proc. of the 11th IEEE International Conference on Mobile Ad Hoc and Sensor Systems. 257-261.
Deterministic boundary recognition and topology extraction for large sensor networks
- A Kröller
- S P Fekete
- D Pfisterer
- S Fischer
Kröller, A., Fekete, S.P., Pfisterer, D., Fischer, S., 2006. Deterministic boundary
recognition and topology extraction for large sensor networks. Proc. of the 7th Annual ACM-SIAM Symposium on Discrete Algorithm. 1000-1009.
Trace-routing in 3d wireless sensor networks: a deterministic approach with constant overhead
- S Xia
- H Wu
- M Jin
Xia, S., Wu, H., Jin, M., 2014. Trace-routing in 3d wireless sensor networks: a deterministic approach with constant overhead. Proceedings of the 15th ACM International Symposium on Mobile Ad Hoc Networking and Computing. 357-366. New
York, NY, USA