Article

Creating an effective code-switched ad for monolinguals: The influence of brand origin and foreign language familiarity

Taylor & Francis on behalf of the Advertising Association
International Journal of Advertising
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Abstract

This study investigates the influence of brand origin and foreign language familiarity in code-switched (CS) ad effectiveness for monolingual consumers. CS ads refer to ads containing foreign words or phrases in an advertising copy (e.g., headline and slogan), resulting in a mixture of native and foreign languages. In this research, we conducted a pilot study to show the increasing trend of using code-switching in ads, regardless of whether the brands are local or foreign, in a monolingual market. We further examine if the effectiveness of CS ads is contingent on the brand origin among monolinguals. Study 1 showed that non-CS ads were perceived more favorably than CS ads for advertising a local brand. However, not all of the CS ads were perceived more favorably than non-CS ads when a foreign brand was advertized. The results of Study 2 showed that when a foreign brand was advertized, CS ads using a high-exposure foreign language were evaluated more favorably than CS ads using a low-exposure foreign language. Foreign language familiarity played a mediating role in the observed effects. We provide evidence that the research findings on CS ads among bilinguals cannot be applied to monolinguals. We discuss implications for international marketing and suggest advertising strategies for practitioners.

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... For example, Mishra et al. (2023) have recently showed that NI increases willingness to buy domestic products, primarily due to positive feelings for home country rather than negative feelings against specific foreign countries. In the similar vein, because language is a vital ingredient of any culture (Khan & Lee, 2020b), the congruity between customer cultural identity and a brand language enhances consumer attitude toward the brand and advertising (Chang, 2008;Lin et al., 2017). Therefore, people with higher levels of NI exhibit a more positive attitude toward patriotic themes in advertising (Yoo & Lee, 2016). ...
... More specifically, in line with the purpose of this study in investigating the effect of NI on consumers' language preferences for different product categories, we consider two types of foreign (Roman alphabet) and local (Persian alphabet) brand names. The scope of the study is confined to brand names given that in Iran (Baumgardner & Brown, 2012) and other non-English speaking countries (Alm, 2003;Lin et al., 2017;Piller, 2001), the effectiveness of textual elements of English brand names in affecting local consumers with different levels of NI and patriotic characteristics is a controversial subject that merits further exploration. Therefore, we postulate that: H1: NI has a positive impact on preference for Farsi brand name over English brand name. ...
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... One marketing tactic to achieve such positioning is to vary the language used in advertisements according to the firm's local or global branding strategy (Alden, Steenkamp, and Batra 1999;Chang 2008). Including a foreign language in advertisements is a growing trend that has received much attention (Ahn and La Ferle 2008;Bishop and Peterson 2015;Chang 2008;Krishna and Ahluwalia 2008;Lin and Wang 2016). Advertisements that include two or more languages are referred to as code-switched advertisements Peracchio 2005a, 2005b). ...
... In contrast to bilinguals, who can regularly communicate in two languages (Francis 1999;Luna, Ringberg, and Peracchio 2008;Krishna and Ahluwalia 2008), monolinguals are defined as individuals who are less than fluent in a second language. Recent studies have emphasized the importance of investigating the influence of foreign elements (e.g., languages and fashion models) on advertising effectiveness among monolinguals (Ahn and La Ferle 2008;Chang 2008;Lin and Wang 2016). ...
... Bilingualism literature has identified differences in brain activity and cognitive ability between monolinguals and bilinguals (for a review, see Bialystok, Craik, and Luk 2012). In addition, researchers have shown that monolinguals process language switching (Costa and Santesteban 2004) and code-switched advertisements differently than bilinguals do, which subsequently influences code-switched advertising effectiveness (Lin and Wang 2016). To enable marketers to use codeswitching tactics more effectively in monolingual markets, the effect of code-switched advertisements and their boundary conditions must be further investigated. ...
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... It has been found that Asian countries have increasingly used code-switching as their advertising strategies. Other than the association with globalization, codeswitching is more used to emphasize aspects of a product [10]. In India for example, switching between English and Indian languages is common as an advertising strategy. ...
... Most of the studies reviewed above investigated advertising in bilingual or multilingual communities. It should be noted, however, that code-switching is not common in advertisements targeting mostly monolingual speakers, as reported in the current study; see also [40]. Additionally, investigations of code-switching in advertisements on social media have been scarce, resulting in calls for more research on online advertisements, especially those made spontaneously by social media influencers. ...
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Preprint
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Complex phenomena such as advertising are difficult to understand. As a result, extensive and repeated testing of diverse alternative reasonable hypotheses is necessary in order to increase knowledge about advertising. Laboratory and field experiments, as well as quasi-experimental studies, are needed. Fortunately, much useful empirical research of this kind has already been conducted on how to create persuasive advertisements. A literature review, conducted over 16 years, summarized knowledge from 687 sources that covered more than 3,000 studies (Armstrong 2010 https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/9780230285804 https://a.co/d/hqxj4Ij). The review led to 195 principles (condition-action statements) for advertising. We were unable to find any of them in a convenience sample of nine advertising textbooks. The textbooks tended to ignore evidence on persuasion. Of the more than 6,500 sources referenced in these textbooks, only 24 overlapped with the 687 used to develop the principles. By using the evidence-based principles, practitioners may be able to increase the persuasiveness of advertisements. Relevant evidence-based papers have been published at the rate of 20 per year from 2000 to 2010. The rate of knowledge accumulation could be increased if journal editors invited papers with evidence-based research findings.
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As the inclusion of foreign languages in advertisements is a growing global trend, this research examines how language choice may influence important advertising outcome measures within a South Korean advertising context. Specifically, the study aims to explore how foreign and local languages influence recall and recognition for brand name and body copy messages. The interaction of using two languages in an advertisement, to convey different elements of the ad may secure varied levels of attention and comprehension. The findings suggest that recall and recognition are significantly affected by the language presented. An ad presenting a brand name in the foreign language (English Roman alphabet) with the body copy message in the local language (Hangul) is an effective strategy to enhance recall and recognition of the brand name and the ad message within the Korean youth market. The results of this study expand linguistic theory within an advertising context while also providing international advertisers with useful tips when operating in a multinational marketplace. Future research avenues are discussed.
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In introducing the special issue on international advertising, this paper assesses progress made in international research. It begins with an examination of the content of international advertising papers published in the Journal of Advertising during the past ten years. The content of these more recent research articles is then compared to those that appeared earlier in the Journal's history. This paper also surveys four earlier reviews of the international advertising literature and assesses whether issues posed in the reviews have been adequately addressed. A new agenda for international advertising researchers is offered, consisting of eight research questions and some admonitions relating to data collection and collaboration among researchers. The contributions of papers in this issue are then detailed in the context of the proposed research agenda.
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Purpose Extensive research has shown that country‐of‐origin (COO) information significantly affects product evaluations and buying behavior. Yet recently, a competing perspective has emerged suggesting that COO effects have been inflated in prior research and even that the COO concept has become irrelevant. The purpose of this paper is to reconcile these two competing perspectives by examining the effects of individual brand origin perceptions. Design/methodology/approach The conceptual framework is grounded in consumers’ learning. Empirically, the authors’ hypotheses are tested using hierarchical linear modeling on a sample of 4,047 brand evaluations by 544 consumers. Findings The results provide strong evidence that product country image of the consumer's perceived brand origin strongly affects brand attitudes, and this happens regardless of the perceptions’ objective accuracy. The authors also find evidence that educating consumers about brands’ true COO can contribute to changes in brand attitudes. Practical implications It is concluded that suggestions that COO has become an irrelevant construct in international marketing may be premature. The study offers meaningful insights for managers in understanding how brands’ country associations affect brand attitudes. Originality/value This study aims to reconcile tensions in the current COO literature and does so by demonstrating that although consumer knowledge of brand origin is often mis‐calibrated, consumers’ perceptions of brand origin still matter.
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Five experiments are reported in which the picture naming performance of bilingual speakers in a language-switching task was explored. In Experiment 1, Spanish learners of Catalan and Korean learners of Spanish were asked to perform a switching task between their first and dominant language (L1, Spanish or Korean) and their second language (L2, Catalan or Spanish). For these two groups switching from the weaker language (L2) to the more dominant language (L1) was harder than vice versa. This asymmetrical switching cost was not present when highly proficient Spanish–Catalan bilinguals performed the task either in their two dominant languages (Experiments 2 and 3) or in their dominant language (L1) and in their much weaker language (L3 English; Experiment 4). Furthermore, highly proficient bilinguals showed faster naming latencies in their weaker languages (L2 and L3) than in their dominant language (L1). Experiment 5 tested whether a bias in the triggering of lexicalization is at the basis of such a difference. Together these results reveal that the switching performance of highly proficient bilinguals does not seem to be subject to the same mechanisms as that of L2 learners.
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In this study, the authors examine the emergence of brand positioning strategies in advertising that parallel the growth of the global marketplace. A new construct, global consumer culture positioning (GCCP), is proposed, operationalized, and tested. This construct associates the brand with a widely understood and recognized set of symbols believed to constitute emerging global consumer culture. Study results support the validity of the new construct and indicate that meaningful percentages of advertisements employ GCCP, as opposed to positioning the brand as a member of a local consumer culture or a specific foreign consumer culture. Identification of GCCP as a positioning tool suggests one pathway through which certain brands come to be perceived by consumers as "global" and provides managers with strategic direction in the multinational marketplace.
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We examine the role of language choice in advertising to bilinguals in global markets. Our results reveal the existence of asymmetric language effects for multinational corporations (MNCs) versus local firms when operating in a foreign domain, such that the choice of advertising language affects advertising effectiveness for MNCs but not local companies. Also, different language formats (e.g., the local language vs. English or a mix of the two languages) are shown to vary in their advertising effectiveness for different types of products (luxuries vs. necessities). Our results indicate that language choice for advertisements is an important decision for MNCs. Also, MNCs cannot mimic local companies in their choice of advertising language. (c) 2008 by JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH, Inc..
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This research examines the use of cultural representations in advertising in Asia-Pacific under conditions of US-focused animosity and consumer ethnocentrism. We first positioned countrieMs along the dimensions of consumer ethnocentrism and US-focused animosity. Next we analysed over 1500 television commercials in four Asia-Pacific countries representing varying levels of those dimensions, allowing us to identify what global advertisers are doing to match up American and indigenous symbols and brands in various markets, and also to examine the predictive influence of those consumer characteristics on symbols usage. The data show that advertisers are more likely to incorporate American symbols in American brand ads and indigenous symbols in local brand ads across countries, although the proportions doing so varied considerably by context. Logistic regression results showed brand origin, ethnocentrism and animosity to all be significant predictors of usage of local symbols, while only brand origin and animosity were predictors of American symbol usage.
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The transfer of international advertising strategies to the Asian market is becoming popular due to rising living standards and the growing similarity of consumer tastes in the region. The main objectives of this article are to investigate whether the multinationals standardize their advertising strategy in the Asian market, to what extent they standardize, and whether they are moving towards a regional advertising approach. The samples chosen for this study are the four Chinese markets: Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore and the People's Republic of China, which are all adopting a similar account of advertising standardization and neither a fully standardized nor differentiated strategy is common. The international advertising strategy is only partially standardized on those strategic decisions (such as determination of target segment, positioning, advertising objective and main theme) but not on tactical ones (such as execution style and media buying). Most multinationals are using an adaptation strategy in these markets. However, a significant relationship is found between the party who makes the decisions and the standardization of advertising decisions. Strategic decisions are more likely to be determined jointly by the headquarters and the subsidiary, while the tactical ones are more likely to be determined by the subsidiary alone. There is also an increasing trend for the advertising executives of multinational firms and their advertising agencies to adopt a regional approach in the Asian market.
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This research involved conducting two studies to investigate whether the asymmetric language effects observed by Krishna and Ahluwalia (2008) among bilinguals can be replicated among monolinguals. In Study 1, we observed asymmetric language effects for local firms but not for multinational corporations (MNCs), which differs from Krishna and Ahluwalia's observations. Based on Study 1's results, Study 2 further proposes and tests two routes (language expectation and language-based association) that lead to consumer slogan evaluations. The findings of Study 2 suggest that slogan evaluations for MNCs were determined via the language expectation route, whereas evaluations for local firms were determined via the language-based association route. This research provides evidence that monolinguals have different responses to language choices in advertising than bilinguals do. Possible explanations and implications are discussed, and future research directions are outlined for this underexplored area.
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The authors conducted an empirical study to test McGuire's (1984) distinctiveness theory within an advertising context. First, following the distinctiveness theory postulate, they found that members of minority groups were more likely than majority groups to have their ethnicity salient. Furthermore, in applying distinctiveness theory to persuasion, they found that members of minority (versus majority) groups find an ad spokesperson from their own ethnic group to be more trustworthy and that increased trustworthiness led to more positive attitudes toward the brand being advertised. The authors draw implications for both advertising to ethnic/minority groups as well as for further research applications of distinctiveness theory.
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Purpose Previous research is mixed regarding consumer reactions and concerns regarding product brands with foreign‐sounding names. This paper aims to study the perception and purchase intent of foreign‐name brands in a sample of adult US and Chinese consumers. Design/methodology/approach US and Chinese consumers completed a 23‐item bilingual questionnaire to assess perceptions of foreign names on brand attitude and purchase intent for low‐involvement products, using two fictitious soft drink products. Findings The paper finds that there were no differences between US and Chinese consumers in attitudes towards foreign products or foreign brand names, except in the case of perceived deception. There were differences in perceptions that the product name was not authentic to the country of origin. Differences in purchase intent were driven by product type and price rather than country of origin or brand name. Practical implications When there is incongruence between product type and perceived country of origin, favorability for the product diminishes. Price, taste and packaging design may be more important in determining purchase intent. Originality/value While previous research looked at foreign brand names for high‐involvement products, this study addresses a low‐involvement product with mass‐market potential. China's and the USA's role as major consumers for global brands makes this study all the more relevant.
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One of the techniques advertisers use to target language minorities (e.g., U.S. Hispanics) is the use of code-switching, or mixing languages within one ad. This paper investigates the consequences of code-switching for ad persuasiveness. The results of two studies suggest that code-switching results in the activation of associations relevant to the language the slogan switches to. Those associations influence the valence of consumers' elaboration such that if the language a slogan switches to possesses positive (negative) associations, consumers engage in positive (negative) elaboration, resulting in higher (lower) evaluations. Attitudinal and contextual variables interact with the effect of code-switching on ad responses.
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Argues that, although researchers have studied several aspects of brands which may affect consumer purchasing processes, one significant characteristic of many brands - the origin cues that they contain - has received little or no attention. Reviews current research in the country-of-origin area related to branding, as well as the work done by other researchers on brand personality and brand image. Distinguishes brand origin from country of origin, and shows how this concept could be valuable in resolving a methodological problem with some country-of-origin studies. Surveys ways in which brand origin is used in practice, both implicitly and explicitly, and discusses the relationship between brand origin and the concept of the global brand. Finally, highlights potential problems associated with the use of brand origin, draws managerial implications relating to its use, and suggests areas where research is needed.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to comment on Magnusson et al. 's paper. Rather than entering into the COO (country of origin) relevance debate, the author observes the shift from manufacturing to brand origin and outline consequences for future COO research by taking into account linguistic aspects of brand names. Design/methodology/approach This paper documents the issue of brand origin recognition accuracy (BORA, a central theme in Magnusson et al. 's paper) and the progressive replacement of COO and COM (country of manufacture) by COB (country of brand). Linguistic cues lead to both incorrect and correct classification of brands in terms of their national origin, which the author subsumes in four ideal‐typical situations, by taking into account company intention to manipulate origin information or not. The author then outlines factors which cause and moderate incorrect versus correct classification, especially brand size, corporate vs product names, and linguistic devices. Findings A framework is developed crossing causes of incorrect versus correct classification with company strategic branding intents. Suggestions are provided for future research combining linguistic and non‐linguistic aspects of BORA. Practical implications Companies willing to build on the origin and favorability of their brand names should deploy a deliberate naming strategy that is expressed in the textual part, as well as in the visual part (i.e. brand name fonts, logo, packaging) and the accompanying marketing communications, especially advertising copy. Originality/value This paper takes distance from the raging debate on the relevance of COO research, and suggests to deepen the understanding of BORA. This is done by looking at causes and moderating variables of BORA, and taking into account linguistic aspects of strategic branding in the global market.
Article
Studied reactions to racial cues in advertising among high- and low-prejudice White adults. 160 paid White volunteers were randomly assigned to receive an advertisement featuring a Black or a White actor promoting either a liquid laundry detergent or a fur coat. Racial attitudes were measured by a survey based on the Subtle Derogatory Belief Scale of the Multifactor Racial Inventory. Regardless of their attitudes toward Blacks, Whites were less likely to purchase the products and had less favorable attitudes toward the products and the advertisements when the advertisements featured Black rather than White actors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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The transfer of international advertising strategies to the Asian market is becoming popu-lardue to rising living standards and the growing similarity of consumer tastes in the region. The main objectives of this article are to investigate whether the multinationals standardize their advertising strategy in the Asian market, to what extent they stan-dardize, and whether they are moving towards a regional advertising approach. The samples chosen for this study are the four Chinese markets: Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore and the People's Republic of China, which are all adopting a similar account of advertising standardization and neither a fully standardized nor differentiated strategy is common. The international advertising strategy is only partially standardized on those strategic decisions (such as determination of target segment, positioning, advertising objective and main theme) but not on tactical ones (such as execution style and media buying). Most multinationals are using an adaptation strategy in these markets. How-ever, a significant relationship is found between the party who makes the decisions and the standardization of advertising decisions. Strategic decisions are more likely to be determined jointly by the headquarters and the subsidiary, while the tactical ones are more likely to be determined by the subsidiary alone. There is also an increasing trend for the advertising executives of multinational firms and their advertising agencies to adopt a regional approach in the Asian market.
Article
This article examines the impact of processing motivation on language processing by bilingual consumers. The article begins by outlining the revised hierarchical model (Dufour & Kroll, 1995), which implies that second-language conceptual processing is more challenging and less likely to be successful than first-language processing. Then two empirical studies are conducted to investigate whether intrinsic and/or extrinsic motivation can be moderators of the impact of first- and second-language processing on cognitive measures of advertising effectiveness. Study 1 finds that need for cognition, an intrinsic measure of motivation, fulfills this moderating role. Consistent with the revised hierarchical model, for low-need-for-cognition individuals, first-language processing is superior to second-language processing. By contrast, high-need-for-cognition individuals remember first- and second-language ads equally well. Study 2 finds a significant interaction between need for cognition and an extrinsic manipulation of processing motivation, indicating that first language leads to greater memory under conditions that include both high motivation and low need for cognition. Our results are interpreted using consumer-behavior models. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Article
This article addresses a growing dilemma surrounding the strategic value of perceived brand foreignness (PBF) among consumers in emerging economies. Building on recent research evidence from the brand origin literature, we introduce the concept of confidence in brand origin identification (CBO) and theorize its moderating impact on the value of PBF in explaining and predicting brand evaluation. Using a multi-level modeling technique, this study provides evidence showing that CBO moderates the effect of PBF on consumer evaluations of brand value. Moreover, the moderating influence of CBO is found to be more profound for local than for foreign brands. Managerial implications for building both global and local brands in emerging markets are discussed. KeywordsPerceived brand foreignness-Confidence in brand origin identification-Brand value-Emerging market
Article
Building on earlier evidence showing a beneficial effect of bilingualism on children's cognitive development, we review recent studies using both behavioral and neuroimaging methods to examine the effects of bilingualism on cognition in adulthood and explore possible mechanisms for these effects. This research shows that bilingualism has a somewhat muted effect in adulthood but a larger role in older age, protecting against cognitive decline, a concept known as 'cognitive reserve'. We discuss recent evidence that bilingualism is associated with a delay in the onset of symptoms of dementia. Cognitive reserve is a crucial research area in the context of an aging population; the possibility that bilingualism contributes to cognitive reserve is therefore of growing importance as populations become increasingly diverse.
Article
Codeswitching (S) has been the focus of some sociolinguistic research in Tunisia. However, little of this research has focused on social psychological aspects such as attitudes and self-reports associated with codeswitching. In our first study, attitudes about codeswitching were gathered from 169 Tunisian University students using a matched-guise technique. In the second study, 28 similar students completed language diaries that reported details about their use of different language varieties over several days. In the third study, employing a field experimental approach, the extent of actual codeswitching behaviour was observed in casual interactions with over 700 individuals in the streets. Results revealed that negative evaluations of codeswitching obtained in the first study were not reflected in the behavioural data obtained in the subsequent studies that examined self-reported and actual behaviour. Moreover, CS was employed largely with ‘ingroup’ members (e.g. friends, family and other Tunisians), but less with teachers or members of non-Arab groups. Although the latter findings are discussed in terms of ethnolinguistic identity processes, the overall findings of the three studies demonstrate that CS is a distinct linguistic variety, which could serve to bridge the linguistic Arabic-French duality of post-colonial Tunisia.
Article
Despite a large body of research, country-of-origin effects are still poorly understood. Combining the strengths of a narrative review with those of a quantitative meta-analysis, our study seeks to establish a firm grounding for country-of-origin research. We review previous country-of-origin research, focusing on cognitive, affective, and normative aspects of country of origin. In a quantitative meta-analysis, we assess the magnitude of country-of-origin effects on three types of product evaluations, viz., perceived quality, attitude, and purchase intention. In addition, we develop and test hypotheses concerning the role of economic development, the impact of multi-national production, differences between consumers and industrial purchasers, and a number of methodological aspects. We find that country of origin has a larger effect on perceived quality than on attitude toward the product or purchase intention. We also find that differences in economic development are an important factor underlying the country-of-origin effect. The country-of-origin effect does not differ between industrial and consumer purchasing, nor is it affected by multi-national production. We conclude with suggestions for future research on the country-of-origin effect. Specifically, more research is needed on the symbolic and emotional aspects of country of origin, and on the role of competitive context.
Article
When targeting bilingual consumers, advertisers have a choice to advertise in a bilingual's native language or in the country's dominant language. Within the Hispanic community in the United States, for example, Kellogg has a choice to advertise Frosted Flakes in English or in Spanish. But which is the better choice and why? This research considers whether the choice of language in advertising to bilinguals influences the types of thoughts they have in response to an advertisement. In other words, for a bilingual, can the exact same selling message cue different associations depending on the language in which it is presented? The underlying issue is whether advertisers can use language of execution as a strategic variable with which to generate certain types of associations that may facilitate persuasion. The authors consider this issue from a social cognition perspective. They hypothesize that a native-language advertisement is more likely to elicit self-referent thoughts about family, friends, home, or homeland, which in turn may lead to more positive attitude measures and behavioral intentions. Furthermore, the authors show that these effects are moderated by the consumption context presented in the advertisement.
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This article examines a psycholinguistic model of bilingual concept organization and extends it to the processing of advertisements by bilingual consumers. The model suggests that second-language (L2) messages result in inferior memory as compared with first-language (L1) stimuli. These language asymmetries in memory are thought to occur because processing an L2 message at a conceptual level is less likely than processing an L1 message conceptually. Applying this notion to advertisements, this research examines picture-text congruity as a potential moderator of language effects in memory. The results suggest that a high level of congruity between picture and text facilitates conceptual processing of L2 messages, increasing memory for second-language ads and thereby reducing the impact of language asymmetries on memory. Copyright 2001 by the University of Chicago.