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Release of synthetic microplastic plastic fibres from domestic washing machines: Effects of fabric type and washing conditions

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Abstract

Washing clothes made from synthetic materials has been identified as a potentially important source of microscopic fibres to the environment. This study examined the release of fibres from polyester, polyester-cotton blend and acrylic fabrics. These fabrics were laundered under various conditions of temperature, detergent and conditioner. Fibres from waste effluent were examined and the mass, abundance and fibre size compared between treatments. Average fibre size ranged between 11.9 and 17.7 μm in diameter, and 5.0 and 7.8 mm in length. Polyester-cotton fabric consistently shed significantly fewer fibres than either polyester or acrylic. However, fibre release varied according to wash treatment with various complex interactions. We estimate over 700,000 fibres could be released from an average 6 kg wash load of acrylic fabric. As fibres have been reported in effluent from sewage treatment plants, our data indicates fibres released by washing of clothing could be an important source of microplastics to aquatic habitats.

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... From the 52 selected articles, 28 examined textile parameters varying in fibre content (e.g., [10,21,[34][35][36][37][38]), 24 dealt with variations in yarn properties (e.g., [36,[39][40][41][42][43][44][45]), 34 Using the final selection of articles, results from each study were compiled and compared where appropriate. The main data extracted from each article were the samples tested, textile properties studied, and key findings. ...
... From the 52 selected articles, 28 examined textile parameters varying in fibre content (e.g., [10,21,[34][35][36][37][38]), 24 dealt with variations in yarn properties (e.g., [36,[39][40][41][42][43][44][45]), 34 considered different fabric structures (e.g., [21,35,36,[46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53]), and 21 focused on reducing FF release through the manipulation of finishing treatments (e.g., [52,[54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63]). Lastly, five articles studied the influence of garment construction on FF release (e.g., [39,50,[64][65][66]). ...
... A notable exception to this is acrylic. Acrylic is found to have higher levels of FF release than other synthetic fibres [10,11,13,34,35,38]. This is attributed to the tendency for acrylic to be used as a wool alternative, and thus, cut down to staple lengths [87]. ...
Article
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With an expanding global clothing and textile industry that shows no signs of slowing, concerns over its environmental impacts follow. Fibre fragments (FFs)—short pieces of textiles that have separated from a textile construction—are a growing area of concern due to increasing evidence of their accumulation in the environment. Most of the existing research on this topic focuses on the role of consumer behaviour rather than the textiles themselves. A systematic literature review is used here to explore the key textile parameters that influence FF release. A search of articles published between 2011 and June 2024 was conducted following the PRISMA guidelines. Three databases (Scopus, Web of Science, and EBSCO) were used, and articles were screened to ensure that a minimum of one textile parameter was manipulated in the study. A total of 52 articles were selected and where appropriate, comparisons between samples used and key findings were made. The textile parameters that were found to reduce FF release include fibres of a longer length and higher tenacity, as well as filament yarns with low hairiness and higher twists. At the fabric level, tight fabric structures and high abrasion resistance show lower FF shedding. Mechanical finishes that reduce the number of protruding fibre ends or chemical finishes that increase abrasion resistance also prove to be beneficial. Lastly, sewing and cutting methods that enclose or seal the textile edge can reduce FF release. While optimal parameters have been identified, they are not applicable to all textile end-uses. Rather, these factors can serve as a guide during future production and be applied where possible to limit FF release.
... Airborne microplastic particle distribution and deposition has been reported in both urban and rural areas [115]; therefore, it was expected that microplastics are present in both of our field sites. Environmental contamination by fibrous microplastics is common in urban areas, potentially due to sewage wastewater emissions [116][117][118]. Evidence provided by [99] shows the potential for sea spray to release microplastics into the atmosphere, so any wastewater discharged into SB could contribute to detection in those dolphins. ...
... In addition to PET, polyethylene (PE) was also detected in microplastic particles from SB and BB exhalation samples (20% and 29%, respectively). PE is also commonly used in clothing production and is therefore found in wastewater [117,118], as well as atmospheric deposition samples [134]. Findings ...
Article
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Plastic is a ubiquitous environmental contaminant, resulting in widespread exposure across terrestrial and marine spaces. In the environment, plastics can degrade into microparticles where exposure has been documented in a variety of fauna at all trophic levels. Human epidemiological studies have found relationships between inhaled microplastics and oxidative stress and inflammation. Previous studies of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) have reported prevalent exposure to plasticizing chemicals (e.g., phthalates) as well as particle loads in gastrointestinal tracts, but exposure from inhalation has not yet been studied. The objective of this study was to determine if inhalation is a viable route of microplastic exposure for free-ranging dolphins. Exhalation samples were opportunistically collected from dolphins residing in Sarasota Bay, Florida (n = 5) and Barataria Bay, Louisiana (n = 6) during catch-and-release health assessments to screen for microplastic particles. All dolphin samples contained at least one suspected microplastic particle, and polymer composition was determined for 100% of a subset (n = 17) of samples. Additional studies are warranted to better understand the extent of inhaled microplastics, as well as to explore impacts, given potential risks to lung function and health.
... A significant quantity of MPs from sources such as industrial processes, household waste, and landfills are received by WWTPs (Mahon et al., 2014). The cosmetics and textiles industries are two industries that make a substantial contribution to the leaching of micro & nano particles and fibres into the environment (Napper and Thompson 2016;Kalčíková et al., 2017;Guerranti et al., 2019;Alvim et al., 2020). In Malaysia, Personal care and cosmetic products (PCCP) account for a substantial part of MPs (95%) that are released into the environment from untreated sewage (Praveena et al., 2018). ...
... Some studies have estimated that over 1,900 polyester fibres (PES) can potentially be released from the laundry in each wash. Depending on the fabric's texture, this number can increase; for instance, washing wool can release around 110,000 fibres, while laundering 5 kg of polyester fabric can unleash up to 6,000,000 microfibers (Napper and Thompson 2016;Ziajahromi et al., 2017;Sol et al., 2020). Nevertheless, it is important to highlight that the amount of fibres released into the environment can vary based on various factors. ...
Article
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The occurrence of microplastics (MPs) in the environment has become an emerging global concern and has been reported to pose consequential risks to organisms, human health and the environment. Due to their small size (ranging from 1 μm to 5 mm in size), eliminating MPs from wastewater poses a significant challenge, which leads to their accumulation in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). This review article explores the method of characterizing MPs in WWTPs to understand their environmental impact better. It also discusses various techniques for characterising MPs in WWTPs, drawing on existing scientific literature. The article provides a comprehensive review of the current methodologies used for the characterisation (chemical, morphology, thermal) of MPs in WWTPs. Furthermore, analytical techniques such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy are discussed along with their limitations and potential for recognition and differentiation of various kinds of MPs. The article also highlights the need for standardisation of sampling, extraction, and analytical methods to ensure comparability of results from different studies. The review identifies several obstacles in characterising MPs within WWTPs, such as the absence of standardised methods, restricted detection thresholds, and challenges in quantifying MPs within intricate environmental contexts. To overcome these obstacles, the review recommends prioritising research efforts aimed at enhancing current methodologies, emphasising the need to refine techniques for better comprehension and analysis of MPs within WWTPs.
... The European Union's ban on single-use plastics is a notable example of policy measures aimed at curbing plastic pollution. Additionally, policies mandating the use of microplastic filters in washing machines, as proposed by Napper and Thompson (2016), can prevent synthetic fibers from entering wastewater systems (Napper and Thompson, 2016). Implementing extended producer responsibility (EPR) schemes can also incentivize manufacturers to design products with minimal environmental impact and invest in recycling and waste management systems. ...
... The European Union's ban on single-use plastics is a notable example of policy measures aimed at curbing plastic pollution. Additionally, policies mandating the use of microplastic filters in washing machines, as proposed by Napper and Thompson (2016), can prevent synthetic fibers from entering wastewater systems (Napper and Thompson, 2016). Implementing extended producer responsibility (EPR) schemes can also incentivize manufacturers to design products with minimal environmental impact and invest in recycling and waste management systems. ...
Conference Paper
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Microplastics, tiny plastic particles less than 5 millimeters in diameter, have become a growing concern due to their widespread presence in various ecosystems and their potential health impacts, particularly their role in inducing inflammation and contributing to cancer development. This paper explores the mechanisms through which microplastics trigger inflammatory responses in biological systems, leading to oxidative stress, cellular damage, and disruptions in cellular signaling pathways. These processes not only sustain chronic inflammation but also create a microenvironment conducive to tumor initiation and progression. The paper further discusses the global prevalence of microplastic pollution, the specific inflammatory pathways activated by microplastics, and the resulting implications for various types of cancer, including gastrointestinal, lung, liver, skin, and breast cancers. The study highlights the urgent need for standardized research methodologies, long-term studies, and effective remediation strategies to mitigate the health risks posed by microplastic exposure.
... Therefore, the abundance of fibers is mainly attributed to the shedding of fibers from swimwear. Fibers can also stem from the degradation of larger plastics [73] . Microfibers from synthetic garments were observed in all samples in the current study. ...
... PES was also prominently present in the identified fraction of MPs in samples. These observations, combined with the morphology results, again suggest a high release of MP fibers from synthetic textiles [73] . PES is widely used in fabrics for clothing and is the most produced synthetic fiber on a global scale (~50% of the global fiber market) [9] . ...
... Polyester is the type of polymer that is most commonly found in this study (Fig. 7). Polyester is used as a textile raw material, based on the results of research by Napper & Thompson (2016), in one wash of about 6kg of polyester clothes can release 500,000 polyester fibers in the waste, resulting in a higher abundance of polyester in the environment. Polystyrene is commonly used in household products such as basins, broom combs, buckets, polystyrene (PS) 17 %. ...
... Polyester is the type of polymer that is most commonly found in this study (Fig. 7). Polyester is used as a textile raw material, based on the results of research by Napper & Thompson (2016), in one wash of about 6kg of polyester clothes can release 500,000 polyester fibers in the waste, resulting in a higher abundance of polyester in the environment. Polystyrene is commonly used in household products such as basins, broom combs, buckets, bristle brushes, and hangers (UNEP 2016). ...
Article
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Plastic waste in marine waters will undergo a degradation process that breaks down large plastic pieces into smaller particles called microplastics. The abundance of microplastics, caused by their small size (<5mm) can be easily indirectly consumed by aquatic animals. Anadara granosa is one of the bivalves that is quite vulnerable to microplastic contamination because it has the nature of a filter feeder which means it can sift particles and organic matter around it. The purpose of this study was to determine the characteristics, abundance, and types of microplastic polymers in blood clams (A. granosa). The results of microplastic observations made on 60 blood clams were 153 microplastic particles identified from 47 individuals (78%) of contaminated blood clams with an average microplastic abundance of 0.591 ± 0.083 item/gr. Fiber-type microplastics are the most dominant form found and blue is the most dominant color found in the sample. Based on the average abundance of microplastics in Anadara granosa in the coastal area of Palopo City, it is lower than several studies that have been conducted previously. Fourier Transform-Infra Red was conducted to determine the type of polymer in microplastics. Three types of polymers were found in the Anadara granosa samples polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polystyrene, and polyester. The three types of polymers have effects on human health such as respiratory problems, skin irritation, and genotoxicity. Action is needed to prevent microplastic pollution in Palopo City’s rivers before microplastic pollution becomes more severe in the future.
... Among microplastics, fibers are mostly derived from textile degradation. Some years ago, in a study carried out by Napper and Thompson (2016), it was estimated that over 700,000 filaments could be released for every 6 kg of clothing. In addition, fishing nets and sea farming can also contribute to this high percentage of filaments. ...
Article
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Marine plastic pollution is a major concern due to its increasing occurrence in the environment. Microplastics (MPs) are one of the most significant solid waste pollutants in the marine environment, and they accumulate in sediments. Tunisian beaches are particularly vulnerable as they are known to be areas of accumulation and one of the main entry points for litter into the marine system. In this study, the spatial and seasonal abundance, littoral distribution, polymer type, size, and color of microplastics were investigated in sediment samples collected along the Gulf of Tunis. MPs were extracted, counted, and sorted by microscopy; the chemical composition was identified by FTIR-ATR spectroscopy. Seasonal variability was observed in particle distribution between the winter and summer campaigns. Total abundances ranged from 109 particles during the summer period to 531 particles/kg during the winter period, where fragments, filaments and fibers were the most frequent types of MPs. During both sampling campaigns, the beaches showed variation in the distribution of microplastics. The foreshore, which is exposed to wave movements, had low microplastic concentrations, while the upper beach and dunes accumulated high percentages of microplastics. Identification of microplastics by FTIR spectroscopy revealed that the most dominant polymer is polyethylene (PE), followed by polypropylene (PP), which are most used in water bottles and bags. Keywords Microplastics · Pollution · Beach · Gulf of Tunis · FTIR-ATR spectroscopy
... Lourenço et al. found the presence of microplastics in invertebrates and shore-bird excrements indicating microplastic transfer throughout the food chain [19]. In Australia, >450 trillion microplastic fibers could be generated annually from polyester textiles alone, including carpeting, upholstery, and fishing nets [20][21][22]. Domestic textile apparel is a significant contributor to microplastics from washing and drying of clothes, waste garments, laundry machines etc. ...
Article
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The textile sector is a significant contributor to worldwide pollution, especially through the generation of microplastics. This study addresses the critical issue of microplastic pollution and focuses on identifying potential sources of microplastics from degraded domestic textiles. The samples were collected from shed or worn-out fibers of domestic textiles and analyzed using advanced analytical techniques. To repurpose these fibers for potential environmental applications, the microplastics were chemically and thermally activated using KOH, ZnCl 2 , and H 2 O 2 at 500 • C and then applied for cationic and anionic dye remediation. The results showed that ZnCl 2-activated polyurethane and polyester fibers provided the best efficiency for anionic (87.69 % removal, adsorption capacity 52.13 mg/g) and cationic (97.69 % removal, adsorption capacity 208.40 mg/g) dye reme-diation, and the percentage of Zn immobilization during adsorption was 99.92 % and 99.91 %, respectively. The activated microplastics before and after treatment were also characterized to understand the remediation by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy analysis. In this investigation, upcycling old textile microplastic, for the first time, not only addresses the escalating microplastic pollution from landfills and other disposal sites but also provides remediation in wastewater treatment. The findings provide new insights into microplastic pollution from domestic textiles and offer a solution to managing this waste, providing new insights into managing textile waste and reducing its environmental impact.
... Microfiber release occurs throughout various stages of textile and garment production, as well as during normal wear, laundering, emissions from outdoor textile equipment, and from discarded textiles. Among these sources, domestic and commercial laundry has been identified as a primary contributor to microfiber pollution [43], with stud-ies reporting that around 700,000 microfibers (about 0.5 g in weight) can be released with every wash cycle [44]. Rivers serve as the main transport pathway for these mishandled microfibers, which flow downstream and are eventually discharged into the ocean [45] and underground systems. ...
Article
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In this study, a systematic review of the scientific literature was carried out to summarize the emerging evidence on microplastic pollution in natural caves. After the screening of 655 papers on the topic from a combined search on the Web of Knowledge and the Scopus databases, we found only 14 studies reporting quantitative data on microplastics from a total of 27 natural caves. Most of the assessments focused on water and sediment, with very limited investigations concerning the cave biota. Overall, the most common types of particles found in caves were small (<1 mm) fibers (~70–90% of items), transparent or light-colored, mostly made of polyethylene and polyethylene terephthalate. Anthropogenic cellulosic materials, however, represented a non-negligible portion of particles (i.e.,~20–30%). Microplastic concentrations in caves varied between 0.017 and 911 items/L for water and 7.9 and 4777 items/kg for sediment, thus falling within the levels of microplastic pollution found in other terrestrial, freshwater, and marine environments. Levels of microplastic pollution appear largely variable among caves, stressing the need to extend the geographic and environmental ranges of the assessments, which are currently concentrated on Italian caves on land, with very few case studies from other regions of the world and from marine caves. Despite their putative isolation, natural caves have a high vulnerability to microplastic contamination, requiring much more research effort to understand the potential risk that plastics pose to these fragile ecosystems.
... The production process lays the foundation for subsequent susceptibility to shedding. For example, the material blend (Napper & Thompson, 2016), yarn length (De Falco et al., 2018 and twist (Lawrence, 2003;Özkan & Gündogdu, 2021), as well as knitting technique (Carney Almroth et al., 2018), and whether mechanical or chemical finishing treatments are applied (OECD, 2020) all influence shedding. Mechanical processes, such as fleece brushing or fabric aging further weaken fibers and lead to a higher MF release (Roos et al., 2017) (see Table S4 for full list of parameters). ...
Article
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To fight plastic pollution and reach net‐zero ambitions, policy and industry set goals to increase the recycling of plastics and the recycled content in products. While this ideally reduces demand for virgin material, it also increases pressure on recyclers to find suitable endmarkets for the recyclate. This may lead to two effects: a multiplication of recycled content in applications already made of plastic and a substitution of non‐plastic materials with cheap, low‐quality recyclate. Both areas of application may be sources of microplastic (MP) pollution. Combined with the inherent degradation of recyclate during its lifecycle, but also during recycling, we expect the increase in recycled content will subsequently lead to an increase in MP pollution. We propose a framework to investigate the risk of MP generation through plastic applications throughout their subsequent lifecycle of production, use phase, and end of life. We apply the framework to two prominent examples of recyclate endmarkets, that is, textiles and wood–plastic, and point out where the degradation effects can cause higher release. To conclude, we outline a research agenda to support policymakers in their decision making on specifying targets for recycling and recycled content.
... Acrylic offers better dimensional and mechanical stability than wool and promotes thermal insulation, hence is being used as a wool replacement in winter wear. 20 Wool being a protein-based natural fiber is obtained from sheep and lamb hairs. Wool fibers possess an inherently crimped structure with raised scales on the surface, responsible for higher thermal resistance values of wool. ...
Article
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Plaited jersey fabrics are always engineered to enhance the thermal conductivity characteristics, providing thermal equilibrium among the wearer and clothing during hot weather. These can also be architected with higher thermal resistance/heat insulation characteristics and is a crucial area of interest; however there isn’t any significant literature reporting this. The study focuses on developing plaited jersey gloves using Thermolite®, acrylic, and wool yarns in alternative main and plaiting configurations for winterwear. Thermal characterizations were conducted to ascertain heat and mass transfer properties, such as fluid transmission and thermal resistance. Infrared (IR) imaging visualized heat retention in terms of temperature gradients. Mechanical characteristics, such as pilling and bursting, were assessed to determine the gloves durability to physical abrasions and stresses. Thermolite® knitted gloves possessed superior heat and mass transfer properties with improved fluid transmission and thermal resistance. Infrared imaging revealed highest body temperature rise of 34.43oC for Thermolite® , and mechanical properties were also found adequate. Fluid transfer (air permeability) was acquired highest for wool samples (1770 mm/sec); however, Thermolite® exhibited 28% lower air permeability than wool, validating its heat retention. Thermolite® knits with the lowest areal density of 226 g/m² and the smoothest Thermolite® surface had the highest OMMC (overall moisture management capacity) index of 0.46 due to generated capillaries. The statistical analysis of the characterization data indicated the significance (p-value <0.05) of the main and plating yarns, proving the plaiting a solution to achieve desired heat and mass transfer characteristics.
... Other polymers found are polystyrene (PS), ethylene/propylene copolymer, polychlorotrifluoroethylene, polypropylene (PP), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). PS polymers are generally used as raw textile materials and can usually be released into the water during washing (Napper and Thompson 2016). Ethylene/propylene copolymer polymers have a wide range of applications, including being used as packaging materials in the automotive pipeline industry and others that are washed into water (Fan et al. 2019). ...
Article
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The issue of microplastics (MPs) has emerged as a significant concern globally, with discussions surrounding the potential environmental impact of these tiny plastic particles becoming increasingly prevalent. This study aimed to identify the concentration and characteristics of MPs in hemolymph and organs (gills and hepatopancreas) of green mussels (Perna viridis) that are frequently consumed by people in Pangkajene Kepulauan, South Sulawesi Province, Indonesia. Green mussels were collected from two different sampling sites for comparison. Screening was carried out on dispensed hemolymph and dissected organs to identify the characteristics of MPs. Surface seawater sampling was added as information on MP's characteristics from the mussel habitat. Visual observation of MP's characteristics using a stereomicroscope in laminar flow is to prevent contamination. The identification of MP's polymer type is using FTIR-ATR. The results showed that hemolymph, hepatopancreas, gills, and surface water were concentrated with MPs. Small (2–3.9 cm) green mussels accumulated more MPs than medium (4–5.9 cm) and large (> 6 cm). MPs characteristics of fiber shape, transparent color, and size 0.1–0.5 mm were dominant in all samples. A total of seven polymers of MPs were identified with polyethylene and polystyrene types most frequently found from all samples. Based on this study, green mussels are good for biomonitoring of MPs.
... The textile sector is one of the most polluting industries and is a prime target for significant changes in the materials it uses. Synthetic textiles, mostly derived from petrochemical sources, pose a growing problem due to their low biodegradability and the microplastics they release during use and decomposition [9]. BC, with its exceptional properties, has the potential to replace synthetic fibers in textiles, helping to reduce the environmental footprint of the industry. ...
Preprint
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Bacterial cellulose (BC) has emerged as a sustainable biomaterial with diverse industrial applications. This paper examines BC production through a circular economy framework, focusing on organic waste as a primary feedstock. It compares static and agitated cultivation methods for BC production, highlighting their advantages and limitations. Static cultivation using Gluconacetobacter xylinum yields high-quality cellulose films but is constrained by lower yields and longer incubation times. Agitated cultivation accelerates production but may affect fiber uniformity. The paper emphasizes sustainability by exploring organic waste materials such as coffee grounds, tea leaves, and food scraps as cost-effective nitrogen and carbon sources. These materials not only lower production costs but also support circular economy principles by converting waste into valuable products. BC produced from these waste sources retains key properties, making it suitable for applications in the textile and other industries. In addition, BC production can align with vegan principles, provided that all additives and processing methods are free of animal-derived components. The paper discusses BC’s potential to replace synthetic fibers in textiles and reduce environmental impact. Case studies show successful BC integration into textile products. In conclusion, the paper calls for more research to optimize BC production processes and explore new industrial applications. Using organic waste in BC production can help industries adopt sustainable practices, reduce environmental footprints, and create high-value materials.
... However, the greywater fraction of wastewater has been found to contain comparatively high concentrations of MPs (Altmann et al., 2023;Jang et al., 2024). These originate from the washing of clothes (Iordachescu et al., 2024;Napper and Thompson, 2016;Vassilenko et al., 2021), the use of personal care products , household cleaning products (Lin et al., 2023), etc. ...
... The accumulation of textile microfibers in the environment is raising concerns related to the ecological impact of apparel products [1][2][3][4][5]. Microfibers, as the term is used in the present study, are small fragments, 1 µm to 5 mm in length, that breakaway from larger garments usually through wear or home laundering. ...
Article
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Microfibers are small fiber particles that separate from larger textiles through wear abrasion or home laundering. Pervasive accumulation of synthetic microfibers in the environment is motivating efforts to quantify them, and to gain a better understanding of the factors that lead to their release from garments. Automated imaging systems have been previously employed for the quantification of synthetic and natural microfibers. In the current study, a rayon standard and microfibers sourced from scoured cotton HVI calibration standards were examined with the Fiber Quality Analyzer-360 (FQA) automated imaging system. Mechanically stirred suspensions of six cotton microfiber standards showed significantly lower fiber counts than those obtained with a rayon standard. Probe sonication of the sample suspensions significantly increased observed fiber counts for the cotton standard samples, by 105% on average. Mean length determinations decreased by, on average, 5% for the sonicated samples, an indication that count increases were not due to sample fragmentation. No significant change was observed for the fiber counts or length measurements of the sonicated rayon samples. The sonicated cotton samples showed an average of 95% detection by the FQA. These results highlight the importance of proper microfiber suspension for accurate detection and quantification using the FQA system.
... The textile sector is one of the most polluting industries and is a prime target for significant changes in the materials it uses. Synthetic textiles, mostly derived from petrochemical sources, pose a growing problem due to their low biodegradability and the microplastics they release during use and decomposition [9]. BC, with its exceptional properties, has the potential to replace synthetic fibers in textiles, helping to reduce the environmental footprint of the industry. ...
Article
Full-text available
Bacterial cellulose (BC) has emerged as a sustainable biomaterial with diverse industrial applications. This paper examines BC production through a circular economy framework, focusing on organic waste as a primary feedstock. It compares static and agitated cultivation methods for BC production, highlighting their advantages and limitations. Static cultivation using Gluconacetobacter xylinum yields high-quality cellulose films but is constrained by lower yields and longer incubation times. Agitated cultivation accelerates production but may affect fiber uniformity. This paper emphasizes sustainability by exploring organic waste materials such as coffee grounds, tea leaves, and food scraps as cost-effective nitrogen and carbon sources. These materials not only lower production costs but also support circular economy principles by converting waste into valuable products. BC produced from these waste sources retains key properties, making it suitable for applications in the textile and other industries. In addition, BC production can align with vegan principles, provided that all additives and processing methods are free of animal-derived components. The paper discusses BC’s potential to replace synthetic fibers in textiles and reduce environmental impact. Case studies show successful BC integration into textile products. In conclusion, this paper calls for more research to optimize BC production processes and explore new industrial applications. Using organic waste in BC production can help industries adopt sustainable practices, reduce environmental footprints, and create high-value materials.
... Numerous studies have pinpointed polyester [27][28][29][30][31][32], primarily sourced from textiles, as a leading type of MP in wastewater, aligning with its prevalence observed within the WWTP of the present study. This consistency underscores the significant contribution of textile fibres to MP pollution. ...
Article
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Microplastics (MP), fragments of plastic generally defined as, less than 5 mm in size, originating from various urban sources, have become a significant environmental concern due to their widespread presence and potential impacts on ecosystems. This study investigates the efficiency of an advanced wastewater treatment plant discharging into the Mediterranean Sea in removing MPs from wastewater. The plant processes wastewater through a series of treatment stages, including screening, desanding, coagulation/flocculation, biological filtration, and sludge incineration. Samples were collected and analysed during three distinct campaigns (dry, rainy, and touristic seasons) to assess the plant’s performance under varying conditions. Using matrix-representative sampling methodologies and Focal Plane Array micro Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FPA-µFT-IR) for MP quantification, the study measured MP concentrations and removal rates. The treatment plant demonstrated high removal rates of microplastics across different periods. Using a mass balance approach, the removal efficiency during the dry sampling period was 99.85%. In the rainy campaign, the efficiency slightly decreased to 99.11% due to increased runoff, while during the touristic period, the efficiency peaked at 99.95%. Polyester was identified as the predominant polymer type. The primary treatment stages, particularly coagulation/flocculation and lamellar settling, are most effective in MP removal. The majority of MPs are retained in the sludge, which is subsequently incinerated, preventing environmental discharge. This research demonstrates that a WWTP employing advanced treatment processes is not a source of MP to the environment but rather a sink. Despite variations in influent MP concentrations across different seasons, the plant consistently maintained high removal rates, effectively mitigating MP pollution. In this study, sludge incineration further ensured that MPs were prevented from entering the environment.
... The high abundance of plastic fibers observed in the present work is consistent with reports for rivers and lakes in other regions (Barrows et al., 2018;Wang G. et al., 2021;Neelavannan et al., 2022;Li et al., 2024). This MP form is mainly associated with the degradation of plastic products, textiles, and domestic wastewater discharges (Napper and Thompson, 2016;Le et al., 2022). Approximately 5.6 Mt of synthetic microfibers have been discharged into the environment between 1950 and 2016, and 167.2 thousand tons per year are dumped in water bodies (Gavigan et al., 2020). ...
Article
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Microplastics (MPs) are considered pollutants of emerging concern. In rivers, MPs (≤5 mm) are transported by currents and deposited in lakes, reservoirs, estuaries, and oceans. In Mexico, MPs in freshwater ecosystems have been scarcely studied. This work aimed to determine the presence of MPs in rivers of the Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve (SGBR). Samples of surface water and sediment collected from the Escanela, Jalpan, Ayutla, and Santa María rivers were processed. MPs in water were extracted by direct filtration using nitrocellulose filters with a 1.2 μm pore size; MPs in sediments were extracted by density suspension using a ZnCl2 solution (ρ ≈ 1.5 g/cm³). The surface of MPs was examined using SEM-EDX, and spectra of trace elements deposited on the MPs were obtained; additionally, MP polymers were characterized with FTIR. Fibers were the most abundant MP forms in both matrices. Up to 110.87 items L⁻¹ were detected in water and 175 items kg⁻¹ (dry weight) in sediments. Surface wear of MPs was observed, and trace elements were detected, including Al, Fe, Cr, Si, and Zn, among others. The polymers identified in MP samples were polyethylene terephthalate, polyester, polypropylene, high-density polyethylene, polyamide, and polystyrene. The test results revealed the presence of MPs with trace metals on their surface in the freshwater ecosystems of the SGBR, which may be related to mining operations in the study area, changes in land use, wastewater discharges, atmospheric transport, and dry and wet deposition. These findings demonstrated the ubiquity of these pollutants and their presence even in areas intended for conservation.
... MPs in municipal sewage are mainly derived from plastic microbeads in personal care products (Chang, 2015) and microfibers produced during textile washing (Napper & Thompson, 2016). The wastewater treatment plant (WWTPs) can efficiently remove the MPs in the sewage, and the removal rate in primary effluent by the membrane bioreactor (MBR) can reach 99.9% (Talvitie et al., 2017). ...
Article
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The ecological threats of microplastics (MPs) have sparked research worldwide. However, changes in the topics of MP research over time and space have not been evaluated quantitatively, making it difficult to identify the next frontiers. Here, we apply topic modeling to assess global spatiotemporal dynamics of MP research. We identified nine leading topics in current MP research. Over time, MP research topics have switched from aquatic to terrestrial ecosystems, from distribution to fate, from ingestion to toxicology, and from physiological toxicity to cytotoxicity and genotoxicity. In most of the nine leading topics, a disproportionate amount of independent and collaborative research activity was conducted in and between a few developed countries which is detrimental to understanding the environmental fates of MPs in a global context. This review recognizes the urgent need for more attention to emerging topics in MP research, particularly in regions that are heavily impacted but currently overlooked. Graphical abstract
... Moreover, the fragments type of microplastics found in the sample could be from degradation and fragmented plastic debris such as plastic bottles, plastic bags, and plastic bowls. The fiber type of microplastic known could be released from textiles and garments such as clothes (Napper and Thompson, 2016). The fibers are known to remain for a longer period of time on the surface of the water because of their relatively low densities while fragments and granules with higher densities tend to sink (Priscilla and Patria, 2020). ...
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Microplastics (MPs) have become a significant environmental concern globally, with their pervasive presence in various ecosystems posing threats to marine life and human health. This study investigates the MPs contamination in a gastropod species Nerita albicilla found commonly along the Karachi coast. A total of 60 individuals of N. albicilla, 5 specimens from each site monthly were handpicked from the intertidal area of Hawksbay and Buleiji rocky shore from November 2022- April 2023. The shells were noted for morphometrics and visceral tissues were digested in 10% KOH solution in a ratio of 3∶1. Each digested suspension was filtered using 0.45 μm organic filter paper and observed with the help of a compound microscope. A total of 64 MPs (1.4±0.244- 3.6±0.678 item ind.−1) were recorded from 30 N. albicilla specimens collected from Hawksbay and 59 MPs (1.4±0.4 - 3±0.632 item ind.−1) from Buleji. The most dominant MPs types were microfibers, which made up to 84% and 88 % of total MPs at Hawksaby and Buleji, respectively whereas the most of MPs ranged in size range of 0-25 μm indicating anthropogenic pollution sources such as textiles, fishing gears, and synthetic materials commonly found in marine environments. The study underscores the ecological significance of gastropods in monitoring marine pollution and highlights the urgent need for mitigation measures to safeguard coastal ecosystems.
... Adopting a cost-effective circular economy approach based on the principles of reduce, reuse, and recycle is vital for limiting the release of plastics and microplastics into the marine environment (Jiang 2018;Auta et al. 2017a;Napper and Thompson 2016). Waste management is expected to greatly benefit from this circular economy strategy in the coming years. ...
Chapter
Since 1950, there has been a notable surge in plastic production, with approximately 381 million tons of plastics being produced by 2015, sparking global apprehension regarding plastic pollution. Microplastics, which are plastic particles smaller than 5 mm, result from the degradation of plastic-based products across various ecosystems. These particles accumulate in freshwater and seawater bodies, urban and rural areas, as well as ocean in sediments. The primary and secondary sources of microplastics in water bodies include plastic pellets, fragmentation of plastic objects, fishing activities, and offshore drilling, with ocean seabeds serving as significant repositories for plastics. Various analytical techniques, including Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and near-infrared spectroscopy, are discussed in this chapter as effective tools for the identification and quantification of microplastics in water. Concerns about the ecosystem impacts of microplastics in both freshwater and marine environments, as well as their diverse effects on aquatic life such as marine invertebrates, fish, algae, zooplankton, and sea turtles, highlight potential risks to human health through microplastic ingestion and the presence of plastic constituents in human tissues. To address microplastic pollution sustainably, management strategies should encompass regulations and policies to control plastic production and usage, with a focus on regional collaboration, public awareness campaigns, and educational initiatives. Implementing preventive measures such as the 3Rs (reduce, reuse, recycle) is crucial, and international cooperation is imperative to tackle the global issue of microplastic pollution. Sustainable waste management practices and removal technologies are vital for mitigating microplastic pollution in aquatic environments, given the persistence and low degradability of microplastics. The lack of research on microplastics in less affluent nations underscores the need for comprehensive studies, particularly in freshwater settings. Challenges include the difficulty in detecting and quantifying microplastics, the absence of standardized reporting, and the necessity for enhanced methodologies in wastewater treatment facilities. Sustainable strategies for plastic waste management, adherence to circular economy principles, and active public engagement are recommended to diminish plastic and microplastic pollution.
... Poorly treated sewage and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are the main contributors of microfibers to the marine environment. MPs are released during laundry, estimated in the tens to hundreds of thousands per wash depending on the type of clothing, and time, among several factors (De Falco et al., 2019;Napper & Thompson, 2016;Wang et al., 2023). In WWTPs, microfibers are removed at different stages, although tertiary WWTPs are the most effective ones, reaching removal efficiencies of >90% (Iyare et al., 2020;Tang & Hadibarata, 2021). ...
Chapter
The widespread distribution of microplastics (MPs) in the environment poses an evident threat to the well-being of aquatic and terrestrial organisms, many of which are farmed or caught for human consumption. Under this context, MP ingestion seems inevitable. The nature of MPs and their interaction with external contaminants, including organic and inorganic chemicals and pathogens, could derive implications for food security. The present chapter addresses the factors involved in MPs and food security by covering their interaction with chemical contaminants and pathogens, as well as recent studies on the concentration of MPs in seafood and crops and their respective sources. Current studies are still limited primarily to seafood (mostly, fish and mollusks), while other important sources of food, such as vegetables, livestock, and poultry products remain poorly investigated. Furthermore, MP surveys in food products focus on the identification of suspected particles (confirming polymer composition), while overlooking their association with other contaminants, including those that may leach out from food-contact plastic materials. The latter is of particular interest to food safety due to their toxicity. The current literature is still far from being sufficient to estimate realistic MP and MP-related contaminant consumption in humans at a large scale and their potential chronic health effects.
... According to Browne (2015), washing machine waste can include 100 fibers per liter of effluent. According to Napper and Thompson (2016), a significant number of synthetic fibers may be found in home effluent from washing machines. According to Luo et al. ( the prevalence of microfibers in aquatic systems was urban wastewater, particularly home pollution. ...
... Napper and Thompson (2016). This study investigates the discharge of synthetic microplastic fibers from household washing machines. ...
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Effluents from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are recognized as an important source for microplastic (MP) pollution in the receiving waters. The removal efficiency of MPs in WWTPs and the discharge flux remain largely unknown. The present study measured the MP abundances in the influents, effluents, and activated sludge in four domestic and one industrial WWTPs in Guangzhou, China. The MP abundance detected in influent samples were approximately one order of magnitude higher than those found in effluents, resulting in high removal efficiencies of MPs (97.4%–98.7%) in these WWTPs. A significant amount of the removed MPs deposited in the activated sludge, with abundances of MPs ranging from 7 to 888 pieces/g dry weight sludge. Microplastics remaining in effluents were discharged into the receiving river with releasing rates of ranging from (1.1±1.0)×107 to (4.54±3.92)×109 pieces per day. Results obtained in the present study suggest that the contribution of MPs from WWTPs to the aquatic environment is non-negligible and the application of sludge in the agricultural environment may bring additional MP pollution to agricultural soils.
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Microplastics (MPs) pollution has raised serious environmental concerns due to its widespread generation and discharge across global ecosystems. It is estimated that approximately 400 million metric tons of plastic are produced annually, with 54% ending up as waste. The MPs account for a significant portion of this pollution. These MPs interact with heavy metals (HMs) in terrestrial ecosystems, such as cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and arsenic (As), which are introduced through various industrial activities at rates of thousands of tons per year. Such interactions may cause synergistic or antagonistic effects on plants. Recent studies suggest that MPs and HMs exposure impacts various physiological and biochemical pathways in plants, thereby increasing the toxicity symptoms. However, the existing scholarly understanding of the coupled effect of HMs and MPs on plants is limited, highlighting the need to explore these complex dynamics further. Through a comprehensive analysis of current research, this review underscores various pathways of MPs and HMs infiltration mechanisms, detailing their penetration, translocation, and bioaccumulation within plants. The physiological and biochemical effects of both pollutants on plants are deliberated individually and in combination. The review reveals that the co-existence of these contaminants results in a multifaceted environmental challenge, affecting overall plant growth, yield, and quality in ways that differ from individual exposure. Building on recent advancements, this article is expected to delineate the complex interactions between MPs, HMs, and plants and enhance the current understanding of the intricate interplay between them.
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There is growing evidence of extensive pollution of the environment by microplastic, with microfibres representing a large proportion of the microplastics seen in marine sediments. Since microfibres are ubiquitous in the environment, present in the laboratory air and water, evaluating microplastic pollution is difficult. Incidental contamination is highly likely unless strict control measures are employed. Here we describe methods developed to minimize the amount of incidental post-sampling contamination when quantifying marine microfibre pollution. We show that our protocol, adapted from the field of forensic fibre examination, reduces fibre abundance by 90% and enables the quick screening of fibre populations. These methods therefore allow an accurate estimate of microplastics polluting marine sediments. In a case study from a series of samples collected on a research vessel, we use these methods to highlight the prevalence of microfibres as marine microplastics. Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
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Marine debris, mostly consisting of plastic, is a global problem, negatively impacting wildlife, tourism and shipping. However, despite the durability of plastic, and the exponential increase in its production, monitoring data show limited evidence of concomitant increasing concentrations in marine habitats. There appears to be a considerable proportion of the manufactured plastic that is unaccounted for in surveys tracking the fate of environmental plastics. Even the discovery of widespread accumulation of microscopic fragments (microplastics) in oceanic gyres and shallow water sediments is unable to explain the missing fraction. Here, we show that deep-sea sediments are a likely sink for microplastics. Microplastic, in the form of fibres, was up to four orders of magnitude more abundant (per unit volume) in deep-sea sediments from the Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean than in contaminated sea-surface waters. Our results show evidence for a large and hitherto unknown repository of microplastics. The dominance of microfibres points to a previously underreported and unsampled plastic fraction. Given the vastness of the deep sea and the prevalence of microplastics at all sites we investigated, the deep-sea floor appears to provide an answer to the question-where is all the plastic?
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Background: While the use of plastic materials has generated huge societal benefits, the ‘plastic age’ comes with downsides: One issue of emerging concern is the accumulation of plastics in the aquatic environment. Here, so-called microplastics (MP), fragments smaller than 5 mm, are of special concern because they can be ingested throughout the food web more readily than larger particles. Focusing on freshwater MP, we briefly review the state of the science to identify gaps of knowledge and deduce research needs. State of the science: Environmental scientists started investigating marine (micro)plastics in the early 2000s. Today, a wealth of studies demonstrates that MP have ubiquitously permeated the marine ecosystem, including the polar regions and the deep sea. MP ingestion has been documented for an increasing number of marine species. However, to date, only few studies investigate their biological effects. The majority of marine plastics are considered to originate from land-based sources, including surface waters. Although they may be important transport pathways of MP, data from freshwater ecosystems is scarce. So far, only few studies provide evidence for the presence of MP in rivers and lakes. Data on MP uptake by freshwater invertebrates and fish is very limited. Knowledge gaps: While the research on marine MP is more advanced, there are immense gaps of knowledge regarding freshwater MP. Data on their abundance is fragmentary for large and absent for small surface waters.Likewise, relevant sources and the environmental fate remain to be investigated. Data on the biological effects of MP in freshwater species is completely lacking. The accumulation of other freshwater contaminants on MP is of special interest because ingestion might increase the chemical exposure. Again, data is unavailable on this important issue. Conclusions: MP represent freshwater contaminants of emerging concern. However, to assess the environmental risk associated with MP, comprehensive data on their abundance, fate, sources, and biological effects in freshwater ecosystems are needed. Establishing such data critically depends on a collaborative effort by environmental scientists from diverse disciplines (chemistry, hydrology, ecotoxicology, etc.) and, unsurprisingly, on the allocation of sufficient public funding.
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Plastic debris in the marine environment is more than just an unsightly problem. Images of beach litter and large floating debris may first come to mind, but much recent concern about plastic pollution has focused on microplastic particles too small to be easily detected by eye (see the figure). Microplastics are likely the most numerically abundant items of plastic debris in the ocean today, and quantities will inevitably increase, in part because large, single plastic items ultimately degrade into millions of microplastic pieces. Microplastics are of environmental concern because their size (millimeters or smaller) renders them accessible to a wide range of organisms at least as small as zooplankton, with potential for physical and toxicological harm.
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Marine ecosystem contamination by microplastics is extensively documented. However few data is available on the contamination of continental water bodies and associated fauna. The aim of this study was to address the occurrence of microplastics in digestive tract of gudgeons (Gobio gobio) from French rivers. These investigations confirm that continental fish ingested microplastics while 12% of collected fish are contaminated by these small particles. Further works are needed to evaluate the occurence of this contamination.
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Municipal effluent discharged from wastewater treatment works (WwTW) is suspected to be a significant contributor of microplastics (MP) to the environment as many personal care products contain plastic microbeads. A secondary WwTW (population equivalent 650 000) was sampled for microplastics at different stages of the treatment process to ascertain at what stage in the treatment process the MP are being removed. The influent contained on average 15.70 (±5.23) MP·L–1. This was reduced to 0.25 (±0.04) MP·L–1 in the final effluent, a decrease of 98.41%. Despite this large reduction we calculate that this WwTW is releasing 65 million microplastics into the receiving water every day. A significant proportion of the microplastic accumulated in and was removed during the grease removal stage (19.67 (±4.51) MP/2.5 g), it was only in the grease that the much publicised microbeads were found. This study shows that despite the efficient removal rates of MP achieved by this modern treatment plant when dealing with such a large volume of effluent even a modest amount of microplastics being released per liter of effluent could result in significant amounts of microplastics entering the environment. This is the first study to describe in detail the fate of microplastics during the wastewater treatment process.
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Pilling is a serious problems in clothes, not only impairs its appearance but also reduces its service life. Several factors involved have been identified by some researchers. In this paper the combined effect of weave type and weave density on pilling has been studied. Worsted fabrics with plain, twill 2/1 and twill 2/2 weave patterns and different warp/weft density are subjected to abrasion test and pilling intensity is evaluated by counting the pills. It is shown that these two factors influence the total floating yarn length [L]. It is also shown that L has a considerable effect on pilling. An empirical equation is introduced relating the combined effect of weave type and fabric density to L. Also the effect of reduced ultimate bending stiffness on pilling has been tested by three kinds of low pilling polyester. ASTM D4970 is used in this research. In this method for better displaying the results, instead of comparing the tested specimens with visual standards and evaluated degree of fabric pilling by scale ranging 5 to 1, the number of pills was counted. The results shows that the pilling decreased with increasing the yarn and fabric density however in order to preserve the products feature and properties, the use of modified polyester yarn are preferred which is also reducing the pilling.
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This study was undertaken to examine the unresolved questions surrounding the influence of household fabric softeners and cellulase-enzyme containing laundry detergents on pilling and strength of selected fabrics. Results showed that dryer sheet softeners were not associated with an increase in pilling, a greasy hand, nor increased breaking strength losses in any of the cotton or polyester fabrics included in this study. This was true for both the recommended dose and an overdose of dryer sheet softeners. In contrast, rinse cycle softeners (both the recommended dosage and an overdose) were associated with increased pilling and/or an increase in the size of pills formed on all cotton-containing fabrics, as well as increased breaking strength losses in both the cotton flannel and polyester woven fabric. Cellulase enzyme detergent additives significantly reduced the amount of pilling on all cotton fabrics, except the cotton interlock knit. It appears that rinse cycle softeners negated some of the beneficial effects of cellulase enzymes on pilling which is another reason to avoid rinse cycle liquid softeners when laundering cotton flannel clothing. The cellulase enzyme detergent additives had no significant negative effects on breaking strength in either of the cotton or polyester woven fabrics included in this study.
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Environmental context Plastics production has increased considerably in recent years, leading to pollution by plastics, including microplastics (comprising particles smaller than 5mm). This work addresses the issue of microplastics from urban sources and in receiving waters in Greater Paris. Microplastics were found in all urban compartments investigated, namely atmospheric fallout, waste- and treated water, and surface water. Abstract This study investigates the microplastic contamination of both urban compartments (wastewater and total atmospheric fallout) and surface water in a continental environment. These first investigations on an urban environment confirm the presence of microplastics in sewage, fresh water and total atmospheric fallout and provide knowledge on the type and size distribution of microplastics in the 100-5000-μm range. For the first time, the presence of microplastics, mostly fibres, is highlighted in total atmospheric fallout (29-280particlesm-2day-1). High levels of fibres were found in wastewater (260-320×103particlesm-3). In treated effluent, the contamination significantly decreased to 14-50×103particlesm-3. In the River Seine, two sampling devices were used to collect both large and small microplastic particles: (i) a plankton net (80-μm mesh), and (ii) a manta trawl (330-μm mesh). Sampling with the plankton net showed a predominance of fibres, with concentrations ranging from 3 to 108particlesm-3. A greater diversity of both microplastic shapes and types was found during manta trawl sampling but at much lower concentrations (0.28-0.47particlesm-3). This combined approach could be relevant and implemented in future studies to provide an accurate overview of microplastic distribution in freshwater.
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Plastic contamination is an increasing environmental problem in marine systems where it has spread globally to even the most remote habitats. Plastic pieces in smaller size scales, microplastics (particles <5mm), have reached high densities (e.g., 100 000 items per m3) in waters and sediments, and are interacting with organisms and the environment in a variety of ways. Early investigations of freshwater systems suggest microplastic presence and interactions are equally as far reaching as are being observed in marine systems. Microplastics are being detected in freshwaters of Europe, North America, and Asia, and the first organismal studies are finding that freshwater fauna across a range of feeding guilds ingest microplastics.
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Marine debris is listed among the major perceived threats to biodiversity, and is cause for particular concern due to its abundance, durability and persistence in the marine environment. An extensive literature search reviewed the current state of knowledge on the effects of marine debris on marine organisms. 340 original publications reported encounters between organisms and marine debris and 693 species. Plastic debris accounted for 92% of encounters between debris and individuals. Numerous direct and indirect consequences were recorded, with the potential for sublethal effects of ingestion an area of considerable uncertainty and concern. Comparison to the IUCN Red List highlighted that at least 17% of species affected by entanglement and ingestion were listed as threatened or near threatened. Hence where marine debris combines with other anthropogenic stressors it may affect populations, trophic interactions and assemblages. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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Recent research has documented microplastic particles (< 5 mm in diameter) in ocean habitats worldwide and in the Laurentian Great Lakes. Microplastic interacts with biota in these habitats, including microorganisms, raising concerns about its ecological effects. Rivers may transport microplastic to marine habitats and the Great Lakes, but data on microplastic in rivers is limited. In a highly urbanized river in Chicago, Illinois, USA, we measured concentrations of microplastic that met or exceeded those measured in oceans and the Great Lakes, and we demonstrated that wastewater treatment plant effluent was a point source of microplastic. Results from high-throughput sequencing showed that bacterial assemblages colonizing microplastic within the river were less diverse and were significantly different in taxonomic composition compared to those from the water column and suspended organic matter. Several taxa that include plastic decomposing organisms and pathogens were more abundant on microplastic. These results demonstrate that microplastic in rivers are a distinct microbial habitat and may be a novel vector for the downstream transport of unique bacterial assemblages. In addition, this study suggests that urban rivers are an overlooked and potentially significant component of the global microplastic life cycle.
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Enzymatic bio-polishing offers a finish for pill prevention. The present study demonstrates that a cutinase can be used for bio-polishing of polyester fabrics and can be combined with a compatible cellulase to treat polyester and cotton blended fabrics. Two different cutinases were investigated with 100% polyester woven fabric. One cutinase and one cellulase were tested separately and in combination with 50%/50% polyester/cotton blend knit fabric. Following enzymatic treatment, weight loss, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis of the treatment liquor and pilling note were evaluated. An improvement in pilling note for both polyester and polyester blends was demonstrated. Additionally, HPLC analysis of the treatment liquors indicated polyester hydrolysis due to cutinase activity which correlated well with pilling note results
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Recent research into the formation, growth, and wear-off of pills is summarized. A sequential staining process is described allowing the identification of the pull-out/ roll-up mechanism of pill growth. A number of common pilling situations are considered with reference to five pilling rate differentials; if pill formation, pull-out, and roll-up continue at a high rate, the process of pill growth can remove sufficient fiber from a localized area to precipitate yam breakdown and fabric failure.
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Polyesters ranging in tenacity from 238 kN . m/kg (3.0g/d) to 583 kN . m/kg (6.6 g/d), in elongation from 24% to 41%, and in fineness from 0.139 mg/m (1.25 d) to 0.250 mg/m (2.25 d) were blended with combed cotton (minimum 20% polyester, maximum 40% polyester) and evaluated in both woven and knitted fabric structures. The best overall performance in fabric strength and abrasion resistance was obtained with the finest, high-tenacity fiber, but the fine fiber caused some pilling problems in knitted structures. Results showed that full-performance-treated fabrics with accept able strength and abrasion resistance could be produced from blends of 70% to 75% cotton with the fine, high-tenacity polyester.
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Studies of the mechanism of pilling have demonstrated that pilling propensity is determined by the rates of fuzz formation, entanglement, and pill wearoff. Motion pictures of fabrics subjected to an abrading action showed that the abradant acted on exposed fiber sections to pull loops which then opened to form fuzz. A pill formed quickly when the fuzz density reached a critical level. The fibers were then twisted and entangled, gradually involving nearby fibers. As the abrading action continued, pills wore away. Techniques were developed which permitted independent quantitative study of each of these three phenomena. The physical properties of several textile fibers were correlated with their behavior in these tests. Interfiber friction and bending stiffness were important factors in fuzz formation. Entanglement tendency was correlated with denier, cross-sectional shape, and bending stiffness. Pill wearoff was determined by abrasion resistance and tenacity. The general applicability of this mechanism has been demonstrated with modified polyester fibers. The reduced pitting tendency of ribbon staple fibers was attributed to a directional bending which reduced their entanglement tendency. Heat-setting increased bending stiffness, which reduced pilling by lowering fuzzing tendency. The most pronounced effect on pilling tendency of polyester fibers was obtained by changes in abrasion resistance, which affected the rate of pill wearoff.
Article
It has been speculated that marine microplastics may cause negative effects on benthic marine organisms and increase bioaccumulation of persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Here, we provide the first controlled study of plastic effects on benthic organisms including transfer of POPs. The effects of polystyrene (PS) microplastic on survival, activity, and bodyweight as well as the transfer of 19 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), were assessed in bioassays with Arenicola marina (L.). PS was pre-equilibrated in natively contaminated sediment. A positive relation was observed between microplastic concentration in the sediment and both uptake of plastic particles and weight loss by A. marina. Furthermore, a reduction in feeding activity was observed at a PS dose of 7.4% dry weight (DW). A low PS dose of 0.074% increased bioaccumulation of PCBs by a factor 1.1 - 3.6, an effect that was significant for ΣPCBs and several individual congeners. At higher doses, bioaccumulation decreased compared to the low dose, which however, was only significant for PCB105. PS has statistically significant effects on the organisms' fitness and bioaccumulation, but the magnitude of the effects was not high. This may be different for sites with different plastic concentrations, or plastics with a higher affinity for POPs.
Article
An 80:20 polyester/viscose blended woven fabric was subjected to different softening and sanforising treatments. The effect of different softeners and sanforising treatments on the pilling propensity of the fabric was investigated. It was found that, while some types of softeners had no effect on pilling, the others may result in extreme deterioration of the pilling performance of polyester/viscose blended fabrics. It was further found that, in all cases, sanforising after softening adversely affects the fabric pilling performance.
Article
Because of concerns regarding health, safety, and aesthetics, a test that identifies the presence of sewage sludge or its products (biosolids) in commercial materials such as soil conditioners and composts would be useful. This test could also trace the effluent plume from a sewage treatment plant. We have discovered that synthetic fibers serve as such an indicator. Synthetic fibers are abundant in sludge, sludge products, and sewage treatment plant effluents. The fibers evidently are introduced from clothes-washing machines and survive the sewage treatment process. Synthetic fibers were identified using polarized light microscopy, which provided a simple, rapid method for determining the presence or absence of municipal sewage sludge or its products. False positives or false negatives have not occurred with any of the materials examined so far. We also monitored synthetic fibers in surface sediments of Huntington Harbor, Long Island, NY, a harbor receiving the effluent from a trickling filter sewage treatment plant. Fibers generally decrease in size and abundance with distance from the source. In Oyster Bay Harbor, Long Island, an advanced sewage treatment plant is operated with a final microfiltration step. Synthetic fibers are less abundant in the sediments of this harbor.
Article
Rinse cycle, wash cycle, and dryer type softeners are reviewed and their compositions discussed. Ashland’s conclusions are: (a) Rinse cycle softeners give the best performance from a softening and anti-static point of view. They are, however, less convenient to use since they must be introduced into the final rinse, (b) Wash cycle softeners are convenient to use, but higher use levels are necessary to impart adequate softening and anti-static properties making their use more expensive. They also tend to decrease the cleaning properties of the detergent used, (c) Dryer type softeners are convenient to use, but they impart less softening because of nonuniform deposition of softener on the fabric. The anti-static properties, on the other hand, imparted by these softeners are very good.
Article
Plastic debris <1 mm (defined here as microplastic) is accumulating in marine habitats. Ingestion of microplastic provides a potential pathway for the transfer of pollutants, monomers, and plastic-additives to organisms with uncertain consequences for their health. Here, we show that microplastic contaminates the shorelines at 18 sites worldwide representing six continents from the poles to the equator, with more material in densely populated areas, but no clear relationship between the abundance of miocroplastics and the mean size-distribution of natural particulates. An important source of microplastic appears to be through sewage contaminated by fibers from washing clothes. Forensic evaluation of microplastic from sediments showed that the proportions of polyester and acrylic fibers used in clothing resembled those found in habitats that receive sewage-discharges and sewage-effluent itself. Experiments sampling wastewater from domestic washing machines demonstrated that a single garment can produce >1900 fibers per wash. This suggests that a large proportion of microplastic fibers found in the marine environment may be derived from sewage as a consequence of washing of clothes. As the human population grows and people use more synthetic textiles, contamination of habitats and animals by microplastic is likely to increase.
Article
Previous studies of neustonic debris have been limited to surface sampling. Here we conducted two trawl surveys, one before and one shortly after a rain event, in which debris and zooplankton density were measured at three depths in Santa Monica Bay, California. Surface samples were collected with a manta trawl, mid-depth samples with a bongo net and bottom samples with an epibenthic sled, all having 333 micron nets. Density of debris was greatest near the bottom, least in midwater. Debris density increased after the storm, particularly at the sampling site closest to shore, reflecting inputs from land-based runoff and resuspended matter. The mass of plastic collected exceeded that of zooplankton, though when the comparison was limited to plastic debris similar to the size of most zooplankton, zooplankton mass was three times that of debris.
Article
Synthetic fabric fibers have been proposed as indicators of past spreading of wastewater sludge. Synthetic fiber detectability was examined in sludges (dewatered, pelletized, composted, alkaline-stabilized) and in soils from experimental columns and field sites applied with those sludge products. Fibers (isolated by water extraction and examined using polarized light microscopy) were detectable in sludge products and in soil columns over 5 years after application, retaining characteristics observed in the applied sludge. Concentrations mirrored (within a factor of 2) predictions based on soil dilution. Fibers were detectable in field site soils up to 15 years after application, again retaining the characteristics seen in sludge products. Concentrations correlated with residual sludge metal concentration gradients in a well-characterized field site. Fibers found along preferential flow paths and/or in horizons largely below the mixed layer suggest some potential for translocation. Synthetic fibers were shown to be rapid and semi-quantitative indicators of past sludge application.
Article
Plastic debris litters marine and terrestrial habitats worldwide. It is ingested by numerous species of animals, causing deleterious physical effects. High concentrations of hydrophobic organic contaminants have also been measured on plastic debris collected from the environment, but the fate of these contaminants is poorly understood. Here, we examine the uptake and subsequent release of phenanthrene by three plastics. Equilibrium distribution coefficients for sorption of phenanthrene from seawater onto the plastics varied by more than an order of magnitude (polyethylene > polypropylene > polyvinyl chloride (PVC)). In all cases, sorption to plastics greatly exceeded sorption to two natural sediments. Desorption rates of phenanthrene from the plastics or sediments back into solution spanned several orders of magnitude. As expected, desorption occurred more rapidly from the sediments than from the plastics. Using the equilibrium partitioning method, the effects of adding very small quantities of plastic with sorbed phenanthrene to sediment inhabited by the lugworm (Arenicola marina) were evaluated. We estimate that the addition of as little as 1 microg of contaminated polyethylene to a gram of sediment would give a significant increase in phenanthrene accumulation by A. marina. Thus, plastics may be important agents in the transport of hydrophobic contaminants to sediment-dwelling organisms.