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The cheetahs of Zimbabwe, distribution and population status 2015
Abstract and Figures
Zimbabwe used to hold the world third largest cheetah population. By 1999 the country’s cheetah population consisted of more than 1 500 cheetahs, the majority of which (80%) was found on commercial farmland. In those days, human-cheetah conflict was a main conservation threat. Since this last country wide assessment in 1999 there have been considerable changes in land use, which, in combination with poverty and an overall increase of the human population has had a serious impact on the cheetah population. Our survey shows the cheetah’s resident range has declined by 61%. The population has been reduced by at least 85% to 150-170 adult cheetahs, the majority of which reside in wildlife protected areas (80%). As a result, human-cheetah conflict is minimal and no longer regarded as a major conservation threat. With the current situation being the exact opposite of the historical situation there is a need to revise the cheetah management strategy in Zimbabwe by focusing conservation efforts on remaining viable free roaming cheetah populations and secure connectivity of these populations with larger transboundary populations.
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... This affords an opportunity to incorporate crowd-sourced data across large areas to document the range and numbers of cheetahs. Citizen science is emerging as an important tool in cheetah monitoring (Marnewick et al., 2014;Van der Meer, 2016), complementing data derived from other research methods such as interview surveys (Stein et al., 2012), tracks-and-signs based methodologies (Keeping, 2014), Global Positioning System (GPS) collars (e.g., Weise et al., 2015;J Melzheimer, 2002J Melzheimer, -2014 and remote wildlife cameras (Boast et al., 2011). Simultaneously, some research programmes expand to national and regional scales, providing important landscape level information where most cheetahs reside. ...
... Finally, we used spatial clustering and adjacency to remove small, isolated patches of potential habitat. Zimbabwe was the only exception to this process due to the exhaustive survey by Van der Meer (2016). ...
... Our population estimate for cheetah range is lower than that produced by the IUCN/SSC (2015). In Zimbabwe, both studies relied on Van der Meer (2016) and we found few additional data using alternative sources. Our assessment of ''confirmed'' cheetah range relied only on verifiable cheetah observations, resulting in a smaller estimate of known cheetah distribution than that proposed by the IUCN assessment, highlighting the areas in which expert opinion form the basis for proposed cheetah range and for which we were unable to obtain observation data. ...
Assessing the numbers and distribution of threatened species is a central challenge in conservation, often made difficult because the species of concern are rare and elusive. For some predators, this may be compounded by their being sparsely distributed over large areas. Such is the case with the cheetah Acinonyx jubatus. The IUCN Red List process solicits comments, is democratic, transparent, widely-used, and has recently assessed the species. Here, we present additional methods to that process and provide quantitative approaches that may afford greater detail and a benchmark against which to compare future assessments. The cheetah poses challenges, but also affords unique opportunities. It is photogenic, allowing the compilation of thousands of crowd-sourced data. It is also persecuted for killing livestock, enabling estimation of local population densities from the numbers persecuted. Documented instances of persecution in areas with known human and livestock density mean that these data can provide an estimate of where the species may or may not occur in areas without observational data. Compilations of extensive telemetry data coupled with nearly 20,000 additional observations from 39 sources show that free-ranging cheetahs were present across approximately 789,700 km ² of Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, and Zimbabwe (56%, 22%, 12% and 10% respectively) from 2010 to 2016, with an estimated adult population of 3,577 animals. We identified a further 742,800 km ² of potential cheetah habitat within the study region with low human and livestock densities, where another ∼3,250 cheetahs may occur. Unlike many previous estimates, we make the data available and provide explicit information on exactly where cheetahs occur, or are unlikely to occur. We stress the value of gathering data from public sources though these data were mostly from well-visited protected areas. There is a contiguous, transboundary population of cheetah in southern Africa, known to be the largest in the world. We suggest that this population is more threatened than believed due to the concentration of about 55% of free-ranging individuals in two ecoregions. This area overlaps with commercial farmland with high persecution risk; adult cheetahs were removed at the rate of 0.3 individuals per 100 km ² per year. Our population estimate for confirmed cheetah presence areas is 11% lower than the IUCN’s current assessment for the same region, lending additional support to the recent call for the up-listing of this species from vulnerable to endangered status.
... Table 4.2. Source: Modified from Durant et al., 2017;with updated data from Farhadinia et al., 2016;and Van der Meer, 2016. 1. THE CHEETAH 1,212,179 4,021 b S1, S13, S14, S15, S17, S18, S19 ...
... ranged over most Savanna ecosystems in the region (Shortridge, 1934 (Farhadinia et al., 2016). Modified from Modified from Durant et al., 2017;with updated data from Farhadinia et al., 2016;and Van der Meer, 2016 Major threats to cheetah persistence in the region are generally shared throughout sub-Saharan Africa (Table 4.3). However, conflict with game farmers over the loss of valuable game animals to cheetah predation is a distinct and important challenge to cheetah conservation in southern Africa and is on the rise (RWCP and IUCN/SSC, 2015). ...
The cheetah has experienced a dramatic decline in its distribution, with an adult and adolescent population of 7100 individuals remaining in the wild. Southern and eastern Africa have the largest populations, whereas west, central, and northern Africa have considerably smaller populations as a regional total. In Asia cheetahs are critically endangered, with small populations remaining only in Iran. For many countries, national and regional efforts to map the distribution of cheetahs have identified resident populations and highlighted knowledge gaps in areas that require surveying. Most (67%) cheetahs are found outside protected areas, suggesting that unprotected private and public lands need increased attention when devising cheetah conservation strategies. Conservation of the world's remaining cheetah populations will require securing the cheetah's habitat and prey base, reducing the causes of human-mediated mortality, while identifying and securing corridors to connect fragmented populations and enable recolonization. Transfrontier cooperation will be critical for reaching these goals.
... Evidence of recent cheetah population declines is consistent with modeling results. For example, in Zimbabwe, where cheetah distribution is relatively well-known, cheetah were distributed across a contiguous population encompassing 132,931 km 2 in 2007, which contracted to a fragmented population occupying only 49,124 km 2 by 2015 (16,20,21). This 63% range contraction over a short period, equivalent to a loss of 11% of distributional range per year, was largely because of the disappearance of cheetah outside PAs associated with major changes in land tenure (22). ...
... This 63% range contraction over a short period, equivalent to a loss of 11% of distributional range per year, was largely because of the disappearance of cheetah outside PAs associated with major changes in land tenure (22). The Zimbabwean cheetah population is also estimated to have declined by at least 85% between 1999 and 2015 (20), equivalent to an annual decline of 13%. Similarly, there have been recent large-scale extinctions of cheetah across western and central Africa (23,24). ...
Establishing and maintaining protected areas (PAs) are key tools for biodiversity conservation. However, this approach is insufficient for many species, particularly those that are wide-ranging and sparse. The cheetah Acinonyx jubatus exemplifies such a species and faces extreme challenges to its survival. Here, we show that the global population is estimated at ∼7,100 individuals and confined to 9% of its historical distributional range. However, the majority of current range (77%) occurs outside of PAs, where the species faces multiple threats. Scenario modeling shows that, where growth rates are suppressed outside PAs, extinction rates increase rapidly as the proportion of population protected declines. Sensitivity analysis shows that growth rates within PAs have to be high if they are to compensate for declines outside. Susceptibility of cheetah to rapid decline is evidenced by recent rapid contraction in range, supporting an uplisting of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List threat assessment to endangered. Our results are applicable to other protection-reliant species, which may be subject to systematic underestimation of threat when there is insufficient information outside PAs. Ultimately, conserving many of these species necessitates a paradigm shift in conservation toward a holistic approach that incentivizes protection and promotes sustainable human–wildlife coexistence across large multiple-use landscapes.
... Evidence of recent cheetah population declines is consistent with modeling results. For example, in Zimbabwe, where cheetah distribution is relatively well-known, cheetah were distributed across a contiguous population encompassing 132,931 km 2 in 2007, which contracted to a fragmented population occupying only 49,124 km 2 by 2015 (16,20,21). This 63% range contraction over a short period, equivalent to a loss of 11% of distributional range per year, was largely because of the disappearance of cheetah outside PAs associated with major changes in land tenure (22). ...
... This 63% range contraction over a short period, equivalent to a loss of 11% of distributional range per year, was largely because of the disappearance of cheetah outside PAs associated with major changes in land tenure (22). The Zimbabwean cheetah population is also estimated to have declined by at least 85% between 1999 and 2015 (20), equivalent to an annual decline of 13%. Similarly, there have been recent large-scale extinctions of cheetah across western and central Africa (23,24). ...
Significance
Here, we compile and present the most comprehensive data available on cheetah distribution and status. Our analysis shows dramatic declines of cheetah across its distributional range. Most cheetah occur outside protected areas, where they are exposed to multiple threats, but there is little information on population status. Simulation modeling shows that, where cheetah population growth rates are suppressed outside protected areas, extinction risk increases markedly. This result can be generalized to other “protection-reliant” species, and a decision tree is provided to improve their extinction risk estimation. Ultimately, the persistence of protection-reliant species depends on their survival outside and inside protected areas and requires a holistic approach to conservation that engages rather than alienates local communities.
... 158 It should be borne in mind in this regard that the issues discussed in this article are not unique to leopards. For example, Van der Meer has recommended lowering Zimbabwe's CITES export quota for cheetahs from 50-a number set in 1992-to 5. 159 The COP, at its 18th meeting in August 2019, did not formally amend Resolution 10.14. This appears due to an oversight, given that prior to and during the COP there seemed to be a general willingness amongst contracting parties to delete the quotas of Kenya and Malawi, in accordance with those parties' own requests, while leaving the other quotas unchanged. ...
Leopard (Panthera pardus) conservation has a strong international dimension. Hunting trophy export quotas established for African range states under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) are a case in point. We test these quotas, and the methods for their establishment, against the benchmark of the general principles of precaution, sustainable use and adaptive management. The various national approaches and the CITES regime condoning them largely fail this test. For decades, CITES bodies have endorsed apparently arbitrary quotas lacking robust scientific bases, without regular adjustment. Thus, the quotas have been inadequately performing their assigned function within the Convention's framework. The way in which the CITES leopard quota regime has been operating is fundamentally at odds with the principles of sustainable use, precaution and adaptive management. To remedy this, we offer recommendations on how to embed a science-based, sustainable, precautionary and adaptive approach to quota-setting within the CITES system.
... Evidence of recent cheetah population declines is consistent with modeling results. For example, in Zimbabwe, where cheetah distribution is relatively well known, cheetahs were distributed across a contiguous population encompassing 133,000 km 2 in 2007, which contracted to a fragmented population occupying only 49,000 km 2 by 2015 (IUCN/SSC, 2007bVan der Meer, 2016). This 63% range contraction over a short period was equivalent to a loss of 11% of distributional range per year, and was largely due to the disappearance of cheetahs outside PAs, associated with major changes in land tenure (Williams et al., 2016). ...
The global cheetah population is estimated at approximately 7100 individuals, now confined to 9% of its historical distributional range. Most cheetahs (76%) persist within two transboundary populations in southern and eastern Africa. The species is subject to multiple threats, including habitat loss and fragmentation, persecution, loss of prey, and illegal trade. These threats result from numerous ultimate drivers, such as lack of capacity, resources, and political will, which must also be addressed if declines are to be halted. Two-thirds of cheetahs live outside protected areas (PAs) and scenario modeling predicts the global population to halve within 15 years, assuming that threats outside PAs suppress population growth rates there. Susceptibility of cheetah to sudden decline is evidenced by recent rapid contraction in range, particularly outside PAs, providing credibility to simulation results. This evidence supports uplisting IUCN Red List threat assessment to Endangered. Conserving low density and wide-ranging species like cheetah necessitates a paradigm shift in conservation toward a holistic approach that incentivizes protection and promotes sustainable human-wildlife coexistence across large multiple-use landscapes.
... However, after an initial population growth ( Purchase and Vhurumuku, 2005) this free-ranging population has declined to three related individuals (van der Meer, 2016). Insufficient area of habitat (due to rising lake levels), increasing human-wildlife conflict on park borders (in response to a growing human population and an economic crisis in Zimbabwe), a lack of subsequent cheetah releases, and limited opportunity for natural colonization are likely to have contributed to its failure (van der Meer, 2016). It is considered inadvisable to conduct future translocations into the area and unfeasible to incorporate the population into a metapopulation plan (van der Meer, personal communication). ...
As cheetah populations continue to decline and cheetah habitat becomes increasingly fragmented, the need for cheetah translocation and reintroduction programs becomes stronger. The majority of translocations into free-ranging environments have been into areas with existing cheetah populations, through which valuable knowledge to guide future reintroductions has been gained. A stable, viable metapopulation of cheetahs has also been established on fenced state owned and private game reserves in South Africa through reintroduction. Potential reintroduction sites in Asia and Africa have been identified by conservationists but require a full assessment of their suitability before cheetahs can be released. Protecting existing cheetah populations, safeguarding their habitat, and securing new areas within the species' former range, for recolonization and potentially for reintroduction, remain the priority for the conservation of cheetahs.
Promoting human-carnivore coexistence is a main component of carnivore conservation. Coexistence programmes are usually informed by attitudinal studies that evaluate intended behaviour towards carnivores. This questionnaire survey assesses attitudes of governmental and non-governmental conservation stakeholders in Zimbabwe towards living with carnivores, large carnivore species and the conservation of wildlife, and determines whether being part of coexistence programmes (CAMPFIRE, TFCAs) positively affects attitudes. Stakeholder attitudes were most positive when employment was directly related to wildlife and stakeholders had knowledge about and exposure to carnivores. Stakeholders who depend on livestock and/or had little knowledge about and less exposure to carnivores were most negative, this included governmental stakeholders responsible for natural resource management. Positive attitudes were largely based on the aesthetic and economic value of carnivores, while negative attitudes were based on the fear of livestock loss and perceived danger to humans. Subsistence farmers were the most negative stakeholders, as such, the focus on this group to promote coexistence seems justified. However, although some stakeholders were more positive in CAMPFIRE areas or TFCAs, CAMPFIRE and TFCAs failed to improve attitudes of subsistence farmers, which highlights a need to evaluate and adapt these programmes.
When selecting prey, carnivores optimise energy gained when consuming prey against energy spent when pursuing and subduing prey. Additionally, predators seem to preferentially predate on prey which presents a low risk of injury. When defending itself against predators, baboons (Papio spp.) can inflict serious injury and cause mortality. Although part of Africa's large carnivores' diet, predation on baboons is usually avoided. We investigated prey selection patterns of African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe. Based on direct and indirect observations and analyses of faecal samples, we show that baboons form a substantial part of the African wild dog diet and were more frequently predated on than would be expected based on availability. Predation on baboons did not vary over baboon sex or age classes but was affected by seasonality. This is the first study to describe a preference for predation on this unusual prey species.
Large terrestrial carnivores especially have experienced substantial declines in range and numbers. Changes in land use are a main driver of such declines, yet various developing countries have accelerated land use change through state-led land reform programmes. One of the most renowned land reform programmes is Zimbabwe’s fast track land reform programme (FTLRP), which resulted in fast and compulsory subdivision of large commercial farms into indigenized small scale commercial and subsistence farms. Several case studies have shown an impact of the FTLRP on wildlife, however, its effect on wildlife populations at a nationwide scale remains largely unknown. Due to its wide-ranging nature, the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is particularly vulnerable to changes in land use. In this study I used questionnaire survey and citizen science data to determine the population status and distribution of the cheetah 15 years after introduction of the FTLRP. I also assessed the level of human-cheetah conflict, and attitudes of commercial and subsistence farmers towards cheetah. I found dramatic range contractions and population declines, particularly in the landscape outside protected areas. Despite minimal conflict, subsistence farmers were less tolerant to cheetah than commercial farmers. Consequently, land reform is likely to have increased the hostility of the cheetah landscape outside protected areas. This study is one of the most comprehensive species assessments to date. It provides valuable empirical data on the implications of land use change and emphasizes how a lack of knowledge impedes our ability to recognize a species vulnerability to (local) extinction risk.
Prey availability and human-carnivore conflict are strong determinants that govern the spatial distribution and abundance of large carnivore species and determine the suitability of areas for their conservation. For wide-ranging large carnivores such as cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus), additional conservation areas beyond protected area boundaries are crucial to effectively conserve them both inside and outside protected areas. Although cheetahs prefer preying on wild prey, they also cause conflict with people by predating on especially small livestock. We investigated whether the distribution of cheetahs' preferred prey and small livestock biomass could be used to explore the potential suitability of agricultural areas in Botswana for the long-term persistence of its cheetah population. We found it gave a good point of departure for identifying priority areas for land management, the threat to connectivity between cheetah populations, and areas where the reduction and mitigation of human-cheetah conflict is critical. Our analysis showed the existence of a wide prey base for cheetahs across large parts of Botswana's agricultural areas, which provide additional large areas with high conservation potential. Twenty percent of wild prey biomass appears to be the critical point to distinguish between high and low probable levels of human-cheetah conflict. We identified focal areas in the agricultural zones where restoring wild prey numbers in concurrence with effective human-cheetah conflict mitigation efforts are the most immediate conservation strategies needed to maintain Botswana's still large and contiguous cheetah population.
Mammalian carnivores have suffered the biggest range contraction among all biodiversity and are particularly vulnerable to habitat loss and fragmentation. Therefore, we identified priority areas for the conservation of mammalian carnivores, while accounting for species-specific requirements for connectivity and expected agricultural and urban expansion. While prioritizing for carnivores only, we were also able to test their effectiveness as surrogates for 23,110 species of amphibians, birds, mammals and reptiles and 867 terrestrial ecoregions. We then assessed the risks to carnivore conservation within each country that makes a contribution to global carnivore conservation. We found that land use change will potentially lead to important range losses, particularly amongst already threatened carnivore species. In addition, the 17% of land targeted for protection under the Aichi Target 11 was found to be inadequate to conserve carnivores under expected land use change. Our results also highlight that land use change will decrease the effectiveness of carnivores to protect other threatened species, especially threatened amphibians. In addition, the risk of human-carnivore conflict is potentially high in countries where we identified spatial priorities for their conservation. As meeting the global biodiversity target will be inadequate for carnivore protection, innovative interventions are needed to conserve carnivores outside protected areas to compliment any proposed expansion of the protected area network.
Large carnivores are decreasing in number due to growing pressure from an expanding human population. It is increasingly recognised that state-protected conservation areas are unlikely to be sufficient to protect viable populations of large carnivores, and that private land will be central to conservation efforts. In 2000, a fast-track land reform programme (FTLRP) was initiated in Zimbabwe, ostensibly to redress the racial imbalance in land ownership, but which also had the potential to break up large areas of carnivore habitat on private land. To date, research has focused on the impact of the FTLRP process on the different human communities, while impacts on wildlife have been overlooked. Here we provide the first systematic assessment of the impact of the FTLRP on the status of large carnivores. Spoor counts were conducted across private, resettled and communal land use types in order to estimate the abundance of large carnivores, and to determine how this had been affected by land reform. The density of carnivore spoor differed significantly between land use types, and was lower on resettlement land than on private land, suggesting that the resettlement process has resulted in a substantial decline in carnivore abundance. Habitat loss and high levels of poaching in and around resettlement areas are the most likely causes. The FTLRP resulted in the large-scale conversion of land that was used sustainably and productively for wildlife into unsustainable, unproductive agricultural land uses. We recommended that models of land reform should consider the type of land available, that existing expertise in land management should be retained where possible, and that resettlement programmes should be carefully planned in order to minimise the impacts on wildlife and on people.
Observations of cheetahs, Acinonyx jubatus, in Matusadona National Park, Zimbabwe five years after the release of a founder population found that range sizes had reduced considerably since the animals were first released. Two male cheetahs were observed to have ranges of 11 km2 and 53.2 km2 compared to an average of 135.5 km2 recorded for males shortly after release. A female cheetah was observed to have a range of 23 km2 compared to 236 km2 recorded for females shortly after release. Ranges included areas of woodland and grassland and overlapped considerably. The pattern of habitat use observed was found to be the same as that reported soon after release, the cheetahs preferring open grassland for hunting and eating and dense woodland for resting and moving through the Park. Impala was the preferred prey species both shortly after release and 5 years later. Measurements of prey availability suggest that the introduced population of cheetahs is well below ecological capacity (17 animals were counted compared to a theoretical 40 animals). However, the park has other resident large predators that would reduce the number of cheetah able to survive in the park, either indirectly through competition for prey, or directly by preying on cheetah cubs.
Prior to 2000 Zimbabwe was hailed as a conservation success story, with large areas of commercial (private) land outside of national parks being used to support wildlife. In 2000, however, a Fast-Track Land Reform Programme (FTLRP) was initiated, resulting in the resettlement of most commercial land. This had well known socio-economic impacts, but to date little research has been conducted on the effects on wildlife and human-wildlife conflict. This study aimed to determine the impact of the FTLRP on the conservation of large carnivores and on human-carnivore conflict, focussing on the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus). A case study compared three land use types (LUTs): commercial (Savé Valley Conservancy private wildlife reserve); resettlement (area of the conservancy that had been resettled); and neighbouring communal land. Spoor density of large carnivores was on average 98% lower in the resettlement LUT than the commercial LUT, while sighting reports and historical written records showed that the abundance of large carnivores had declined since the onset of the FTLRP. Aerial census data demonstrated a reduction in carnivore carrying capacity in both the commercial and resettlement areas. Habitat loss and fragmentation, alongside poaching, appeared to be the main mechanisms affecting changes in carnivore abundance. Interviews revealed that in the resettlement LUT, rates of livestock losses to large carnivores were perceived to be greater than in the communal LUT, and attitudes towards carnivores were more negative than the commercial LUT. It appears that the FTLRP had a significant negative impact on wildlife conservation and human-carnivore conflict, and is estimated to have driven a 70% decline in Zimbabwe’s cheetah population. It is recommended that future resettlement is carefully planned to mitigate these problems, and that schemes are established to allow communities to benefit from wildlife while minimising the impact of resettlement on human-wildlife conflict.
Background
Patterns of genetic and genomic variance are informative in inferring population history for human, model species and endangered populations.
Results
Here the genome sequence of wild-born African cheetahs reveals extreme genomic depletion in SNV incidence, SNV density, SNVs of coding genes, MHC class I and II genes, and mitochondrial DNA SNVs. Cheetah genomes are on average 95 % homozygous compared to the genomes of the outbred domestic cat (24.08 % homozygous), Virunga Mountain Gorilla (78.12 %), inbred Abyssinian cat (62.63 %), Tasmanian devil, domestic dog and other mammalian species. Demographic estimators impute two ancestral population bottlenecks: one >100,000 years ago coincident with cheetah migrations out of the Americas and into Eurasia and Africa, and a second 11,084–12,589 years ago in Africa coincident with late Pleistocene large mammal extinctions. MHC class I gene loss and dramatic reduction in functional diversity of MHC genes would explain why cheetahs ablate skin graft rejection among unrelated individuals. Significant excess of non-synonymous mutations in AKAP4 (p<0.02), a gene mediating spermatozoon development, indicates cheetah fixation of five function-damaging amino acid variants distinct from AKAP4 homologues of other Felidae or mammals; AKAP4 dysfunction may cause the cheetah’s extremely high (>80 %) pleiomorphic sperm.
Conclusions
The study provides an unprecedented genomic perspective for the rare cheetah, with potential relevance to the species’ natural history, physiological adaptations and unique reproductive disposition.
The cheetah Acinonyx jubatus has had a long association with man, but its first contact with humans was actually in India and on the plains of southern Africa. Because of their speed and hunting prowess, captive cheetahs have been used by man as food hunters for many centuries. The oldest record of a captive cheetah is depicted on a decorated silver vase from a Scythian burial site at Maikop in the Caucasus Range, which shows the cheetah wearing a collar. This vase dates back to approximately 700 to 300 BC. However, it is likely that early man joined other scavengers in robbing cheetahs of their kills long before the Maikop culture. In doing so, these early hunters probably exploited the cheetah’s relative timidity, daytime hunting habits, and also its open plains habitat. The Moghul Emperor Akbar the Great is also said to have kept up to 3000 cheetahs to hunt antelope, while sketches of a Dionysian procession in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy II from 309 to 246 BC show a cheetah on a leash. Even before the ancient Assyrian empire in Mesopotamia and during the reign of the pharaohs in Egypt, captive cheetahs were used for coursing game. During the fifth century and the early Renaissance in Italy cheetahs were also employed for this purpose. Despite its timidity, the ancient Egyptians endowed the cheetah with the spirit of courage, but today it is regarded more as a symbol of elusive grace in a declining wilderness than as a fierce hunter.
Human-predator conflict is one of the biggest threats to large carnivore species worldwide. Its intensity is closely linked to farmer's attitudes and perceptions of predators. As a result, farmers' estimates of the number of livestock or game-stock animals killed by predators are often formed based on the perceived number of predators present and their perceivably favoured prey species. This study aims to examine the prey preferences of cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus in relation to farmers' perceptions and the relative contribution of livestock and game-stock to the cheetahs' diet. Cheetahs' prey preferences were determined through the cross-sectional analysis of prey hair, found in cheetah scat. Cheetahs were found to predominantly prey on free-ranging abundant game species, primarily kudu Tragelaphus strepsiceros. Game ranchers overestimated the prominence of game-stock to the cheetahs' diet, especially springbok Antidorcas marsupialis. Potential reasons for these discrepancies and the importance of abundant natural prey as a potential human-predator coexistence strategy are discussed.
