Content uploaded by Trenton Davis
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Trenton Davis on Apr 20, 2023
Content may be subject to copyright.
L
Leadership Development
Trenton J. Davis and P. Cary Christian
Institute for Public and Nonprofit Studies,
Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA,
USA
Synonyms
Leadership education;Leadership training;Man-
agement education;Management improvement;
Management training
Definition
Leadership development is defined as “expanding
the collective capacity of organizational members
to engage effectively in leadership roles and pro-
cesses”(Day 2000, p. 582).
Introduction
Leadership development, while conceptually
intuitive, requires complex interactions between
mentors, peers, and those who are led within a
social network that may extend beyond the orga-
nization. Given today’s competitive and
interconnected environment, organizations of all
sizes and across all sectors should be concerned
with developing effective leaders. Effective
leaders engender innovation, respond and adapt
to market changes, are creative at solving prob-
lems, and maintain a high level of performance
(Amagoh 2009). While there is not a universally
accepted definition of leadership, it is often
described as a form of motivation where a leader
compels action through noncoercive means
(Popper and Lipshitz 1993). Thus, the focus
tends to be on the dyadic relationships between a
leader and follower, rather than the organizational
conditions needed for the development of effec-
tive leaders. Leadership development looks
beyond developing individual skills and is distinct
from leader development. Given this, traditional
leadership theories tend not to be very helpful in
understanding the process of development.
Development implies a change in state over
time from simpler forms of activity to more com-
plex thought processes and activities. For exam-
ple, an employee relegated to carrying out the
same job functions and tasks is not undergoing
development since there are no changes to her
ability to perform new or complex duties. It is
the ongoing cycle of learning, growing, and
becoming more capable that facilitates an individ-
ual’s ability to address more complex problems
and situations. In its simplified form, leadership
development is the process of helping individuals
to develop the skills necessary to become effective
leaders.
Popper and Lipshitz (1993) identify three com-
ponents of a successful leadership development
program. The first is developing self-efficacy or
#Springer International Publishing Switzerland (outside the USA) 2016
A. Farazmand (ed.), Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-31816-5_1892-1
the extent to which an individual believes in his
ability to perform well in a given situation. Sec-
ond is recognizing that developing different types
of leaders requires multiple approaches to moti-
vation. The third incorporates developing specific
leadership skills, both written and oral, that in turn
will enhance interactions between leaders and
followers –and ultimately lead to increases in
followers’motivations. (Day et al. 2014) notes
that leadership development is inherently
multilevel and longitudinal. It requires a focus
on both the development of the individual as a
leader and on the social capital created by the
interaction between the leader, followers, and
social environment. It is also important that indi-
viduals be given an opportunity to practice new
skills and knowledge in an actual work environ-
ment, rather than exclusively within a classroom
setting.
Approaches to Developing
Interpersonal and Intrapersonal
Leadership Skills
According to Day (2000, p. 585), the “primary
emphasis in leadership development is on build-
ing and using interpersonal competence.”
A leader skilled at interacting with and influenc-
ing others has a high degree of interpersonal com-
petence. Enhancing social awareness and social
skills are two primary ways to increase interper-
sonal competence. Specifically, developing skills
related to the ability to coordinate activities, nego-
tiation skills, and skills of persuasion, as well as
cultivating an awareness of the reactions of others
along with an understanding of why they react in a
certain way, will lead to a gain in interpersonal
competence (Mumford et al. 2007). Moreover, the
success of leadership capabilities is partially
dependent upon the social context within which
they are practiced. For example, an otherwise
outstanding manager may be ineffective within
an organization if his skills were developed with-
out reference to the context in which the manager
works. Thus, there is the potential for leadership
development activities to contribute to the social
capital of the organization and make it more
effective overall. As a result, developmental activ-
ities should be designed with their impact on
social capital development in mind (Day et al.
2014).
There are a variety of approaches available that
can be integrated into a leadership development
program. Though most leadership development
programs will entail some degree of formal class-
room training, a myriad of other approaches
should be incorporated in order to address both
the human and social capital components of
development. According to Day (2000, p. 586),
there is a “need to transcend the outdated notion
that leadership development occurs only through
specially designed programs held in particular
locations.”Rather, leadership development is an
ongoing and continuous process that can occur
anywhere.
Experience-Based Approach
Thomas and Cheese (2005) devised the
experience-based approach, which requires indi-
viduals to continuously examine their own expe-
riences for insight into what it takes to lead and
develop more fully into an effective leader. The
experience-based approach encourages lifelong
learning, as individuals rely on the totality of
their experiences for direction and guidance
(Amagoh 2009). For example, the experience
gained through different job assignments can
push individuals to be better strategic or critical
thinkers. Through different job experiences over
time, individuals acquire increased leadership
capacity.
While there is an assumption that experience
plays an important role in effective leadership, job
tenure has not been shown to be a good predictor
of leadership ability (Day et al. 2014). Leadership
derives from complex interactions between peo-
ple within the social and organizational environ-
ments where they work (Day 2000). Time on the
job alone is insufficient to guarantee the quality of
knowledge, skills, and experiences gained at each
position that aids in the development of leadership
capabilities. Additionally, not all leaders learn at
the same pace or in the same manner, and different
types of experience may be more beneficial in
leadership development at varying points in the
2 Leadership Development
careers of different individuals (Mumford
et al. 2000a). It also takes time for individuals to
move from leadership concepts learned to the
ability to demonstrate those concepts through
leadership behaviors. A benefit of the
experience-based approach, however, is an orga-
nization’s ability to link the formalized compo-
nents of its leadership development program with
actual work assignments.
Skill Development
Not all leaders share the same characteristics and
skills across similar developmental levels. Rather,
there is a diversity of traits, abilities, personalities,
and behaviors among individuals (Mumford
et al. 2000b). This may even be true for individ-
uals who progressed through similar leadership
development regimes. Skill development occurs
in a progressive fashion over time, with an indi-
vidual moving from simpler skills to more com-
plex ones as leaders interact with and learn from
their experiences. Each successive skill level
requires greater sophistication in capabilities
across skill domains focused on how individuals
internalize their experiences. Mumford
et al. (2000a) found that technical training was
more strongly related to increases in skills as
individuals progressed from lower- to mid-level
positions within an organization. As leaders rise to
more senior level positions within the organiza-
tion, acquiring higher-level strategic and business
skills becomes more predictive of increased levels
of performance than other intrapersonal or inter-
personal skills (Mumford et al. 2007).
Personality Development
Historically, the impact of personality traits on
leadership ability has generally not been found
to determine leadership effectiveness, yet studies
have also shown that personality should not be
excluded from the study of leadership (Day et al.
2014). For example, conscientiousness has been
identified as a significant predictor of leader per-
formance. In a large study of identical (N=238)
and fraternal (N=188) twins, Arvey et al. (2006)
found that 30 % of the variance in leadership role
occupancy could be explained by genetic influ-
ences and the remainder by environmental factors.
Mumford et al. (2000b) found that individuals
lacking the ability and motivation required for
skill development were less likely to hold senior
leadership positions. This is consistent with the
finding that self-development activities are pre-
dictive of leader development activities. Specifi-
cally, individuals with personality characteristics
related to work orientation (job involvement,
organizational commitment), mastery orientation
(conscientiousness intellectual maturity), and
career-growth orientation (feedback-seeking
behaviors) display more motivation to engage in
leadership development activities and are more
skilled at engaging in these types of activities.
Self-development enables leaders to adapt to
both internally and externally changing environ-
ments and to be more productive and effective
(Boyce et al. 2010).
The Tools of Leadership Development
Allio (2005) notes that most leadership training
initiatives do not produce leaders because the core
leadership traits of character, creativity, and com-
passion cannot be taught cognitively. Successful
leadership development is less about specific tools
or practices and more about consistent and inten-
tional implementation throughout the organiza-
tion and across organizational levels. However,
effective leadership skills can be taught by
supplementing training with learning challenges
and mentoring. While many of the tools reviewed
in this section were originally developed for pur-
poses other than leadership development, each
has been shown to be at least partially effective
in this area and in many cases may “[...] form the
backbone of contemporary leadership develop-
ment systems”(Day 2000, p. 587).
360-Degree Feedback
360-degree feedback (also known as multisource
feedback, multi-rater feedback, and 360-degree
assessments) has been widely used in the area of
performance management and has become a
prominent process in leadership development
(Day et al. 2014). It is a form of assessment that
captures not only an individual’s perceptions of
Leadership Development 3
their own leadership skills but also the perspec-
tives of others connected to the organization. The
assumption is that there will likely be differences
between these perspectives, thus providing the
leader with valuable feedback regarding how
others view his overall performance and effective-
ness. 360-degree feedback processes hold a meth-
odological advantage over other assessment tools
by minimizing the validity threats of self-report
bias. Donaldson and Grant-Vallone (2002) sug-
gest at least two data sources, such as peers, sub-
ordinates, supervisors, and, on occasion, external
stakeholders. This ties into an important assump-
tion that individuals behave differently with dif-
ferent constituencies and are perhaps more
effective with some than others.
Coaching
Coaching is a form of one-on-one learning and
behavioral change. It involves practical, goal-
oriented interactions between a coach and an indi-
vidual aimed at improving individual perfor-
mance and personal satisfaction (Day 2000). In
turn, this leads to improvements in overall orga-
nizational effectiveness. Coaching relationships
typically unfold over the course of several
months, but can be limited to a discrete event or
specific area of growth and improvement.
Coaches are oftentimes external to the organiza-
tion, but may be internal, and engage in a process
of diagnosis, intervention, and follow-up mainte-
nance and support. While coaching can be a pro-
active process aimed at enhancing one’s
leadership skills, it has been estimated that three-
quarters of coaching relationships begin due to a
perceived crisis (Day 2000). Organizations should
be sensitive to any potential stigma attached to
beginning a coaching relationship. Day (2000)
suggests that when everyone has a coach, it
helps to avoid the potential for negative stigma
as well as possible feelings of favoritism that
might occur when coaching is limited to a single
individual. While there are many benefits of uti-
lizing coaching as a leadership development tool,
the relatively high cost of coaching may make it
difficult for all, but the largest organizations to
afford even though productivity gains from
coaching may be large when integrated with
other development activities.
Mentoring
Mentoring is a form of leadership development
that occurs between a more experienced or skilled
mentor and a less experienced or skilled protégé.
This usually entails pairing a senior executive or
manager with a junior one. This dynamic leads to
greater intrapersonal competence, as it provides
the protégé with a more sophisticated and strate-
gic perspective on the organization. Mentoring
relationships can also take the form of peer or
group mentoring depending on the needs and
preferences of the organization and individuals
involved. Mentoring relationships are intended
to be of benefit to both the mentor and the protégé.
Through mutual learning, mentors are able to
hone their leadership skills by leading the protégé;
by contrast, the protégé develops leadership capa-
bilities from the feedback received and role
modeling that occurs (Amagoh 2009).
Mentoring programs can be formal in nature,
where they are planned, monitored, and evaluated
by the organization. Informal mentoring may also
occur and, in fact, may be encouraged by the
organization (Day 2000). Additionally, gender
has been shown to play a role in mentoring rela-
tionships. Dreher and Cox (1996) found that
protégés of male mentors experienced greater
financial benefits than those of female mentors.
There is also a line of research (Day 2000) indi-
cating that race plays a role in the mentoring
process, specifically in the way that different
racial minorities accept critical feedback given
by a mentor.
Mentoring relationships are complex as they
are based on a social exchange between at least
two individuals. Mentoring programs are intended
to foster teamwork, enhance motivation, and
improve the competency and skill levels of those
involved (Day 2000).
Networks
As a leadership development tool, networking is
intended to assist individuals with fostering
broader peer connections and relationships. As
Day (2000, p. 596) noted: “An important goal of
4 Leadership Development
networking initiatives is to develop leaders
beyond merely knowing what and knowing how,
to knowing who in terms of problem-solving
resources.”Networks provide individuals with
an additional source of expertise and support out-
side of their immediate work group or organiza-
tion that can be tapped into when needed.
Networking initiatives tied specifically to leader-
ship development initiatives might take the form
of formal seminars or workshops or less formal
weekly or monthly luncheons. Networks can also
be established through electronic dialogue
(an electronic mail list serve or discussion
board), where individuals seek out guidance, dis-
cuss mutual challenges, and share opportunities.
A primary emphasis is placed on building support
among peers, which in turn leads to individual
growth and development. Peer relationships tend
to be long-term relationships covering years as
opposed to the shorter-term relationships devel-
oped in mentoring and coaching activities (Day
2000). In the area of leadership development,
organizations should promote both informal and
formal networking initiatives by making such
opportunities known as well as promoting the
benefits of networking.
Action Learning
According to Amagoh (2009, p. 996), “Action
learning is a vital component of most leadership
development programs, and constitutes one of the
core leadership development methods at best-
practice organizations.”Action learning is pre-
mised on the belief that individuals learn best
when working on real-time organizational prob-
lems (Revans 1980). Action learning entails learn-
ing through doing, as opposed to traditional,
lecture-based classroom instruction. As Revans
(1998, p. 14), the founder of action learning,
noted, “there can be no action without learning,
and no learning without action.”This is because
lessons learned through traditional classroom
instruction most often do not alter an individual’s
long-term behavior. Rather, shortly after the train-
ing has concluded, there is a strong tendency to
slip back into previous behavioral patterns. Action
learning involves a continuous process of learning
and reflection, with the primary goal of getting
work done. When individuals are engaged in
meaningful action coupled with conscientious
inquiry and reflection, the opportunity for long-
term learning emerges. As such, action learning
has been rated higher than coaching and
360-degree feedback as a leadership development
tool (Leonard and Lang 2010).
While the basic action learning model is simi-
lar across organizations, a benefit of action learn-
ing is that learning is focused on developing skills
and competencies deemed important to the indi-
vidual. In other words, it is not based on a standard
curriculum or universal set of skills. Moreover,
action learning can be used in the development of
virtually any leadership behavior or skill, but it is
particularly effective in developing collaboration,
conflict resolution, and sharing skills (Leonard
and Lang 2010).
The Challenge of Leadership
Development in Public Organizations
Given funding constraints in government, leaders
in the public sector generally must function with
fewer resources than their counterparts in the pri-
vate sector. Fewer resources often lead to an
inability to provide adequate incentives, which
makes it more difficult to motivate employees.
However, the overriding concern in the public
sector is greater than employee job performance
and satisfaction: leadership deficits have a direct
influence on the quality of governance. Public
managers also require extended leadership com-
petencies related to service delivery through part-
nerships, networks, and other types of contractual
arrangements. Resource constraints and the
impact of networked governance tend to make
effective leadership development a critical issue
in the public sector. Yet, Schofield et al. (2008)
note that only 36 % of public sector respondents in
a UK study reported that their organization was
doing enough to develop the next generation of
leaders. In the 2015 update to the study examining
the best places to work in the US federal govern-
ment, only 51.6 % of federal employees thought
their agency had effective leadership with only
43.8 % saying their senior leaders were effective
Leadership Development 5
(Partnership for Public Service 2016). In a study
of US federal government leadership develop-
ment programs, Ingraham and Getha-Taylor
(2004, p. 111) found that private and public sector
approaches to leadership development have more
similarities than differences, but that the “public
sector needs to get serious about leadership.”
They further note that the design of public leader-
ship development programs will depend on the
organization’s goals, specific needs, and core
competencies and must target the development
of leaders at all levels. Leadership development
in public administration is not necessarily differ-
ent from leadership development in other disci-
plines, but designing the development program
within the framework of the public context is
essential to maximize the effectiveness of the
organization.
Conclusion
The importance of leadership development
extends beyond the individual level. The nature
of today’s complex and interconnected organiza-
tions requires strong leadership. Effective leaders
can have a positive impact on their organizations,
while similarly ineffective leaders can have a neg-
ative one. Leadership development programs
should focus on building interpersonal and intra-
personal leadership skills, as well as employ a
variety of development tools. Tools such as
360-degree feedback, coaching, mentoring, net-
working, and action learning are found in many of
the most successful leadership development pro-
grams. The key to effective leadership develop-
ment, however, is intentional and sustained
implementation of the specific development tech-
niques endorsed by the organization. Leadership
development need not be confined to the upper
echelon of the formal organizational hierarchy;
rather, it should be infused throughout the organi-
zation. Groves (2007, p. 256) recommends that
organizations focus on six leadership develop-
ment pipelines: (1) develop a mentoring network
by engaging all managers in mentoring relation-
ships, (2) engage managers in the process of iden-
tifying high-potential employees, (3) engage
managers at all levels in development activities
of high-potential employees, (4) avoid heir appar-
ent designations when engaging in succession
planning and instead base those decisions on a
diverse pool of candidates, (5) seek to establish a
supportive organizational culture by engaging
senior management in development and perfor-
mance management activities, and (6) evaluate
the success of the leadership development activi-
ties within the organization.
Strong leadership is viewed as a precursor to
organizational performance and growth. It is also
understood that most leaders are not born; rather,
they are made or are “grown”(Blunt 2010, p. 38).
This implies that the knowledge, skills, behaviors,
mind-sets, and abilities needed to be an effective
leader can be developed. Thus, effective leader-
ship development benefits not only the individual
but also the organization as it seeks to develop the
workforce necessary to meet current and future
challenges.
Cross-References
▶360 Degree Feedback
▶Authentic Leadership
▶Bureaucracy and Leadership
▶Leadership Effectiveness
▶Leadership Group Coaching
▶Leadership in Organizations
▶Managerial Leadership
▶Managing Leader Effectiveness
References
Allio RJ (2005) Leadership development: teaching versus
learning. Manag Decis 43(7/8):1071–1077
Amagoh F (2009) Leadership development and leadership
effectiveness. Manag Decis 47(6):989–999
Arvey RD, Rotundo M, Johnson W, Zhang Z, McGue
M (2006) The determinants of leadership role occu-
pancy: genetic and personality factors. Leadersh
Q 17(1):1–20
Blunt R (2010) How leaders are grown: the lessons of
example and experience. In: Perry JL (ed) The Jossey-
Bass reader on nonprofit and public leadership. Jossey-
Bass, San Francisco, pp 38–54
6 Leadership Development
Boyce LA, Zaccaro SJ, Wisecarver MZ (2010) Propensity
for self-development of leadership attributes: under-
standing, predicting, and supporting performance of
leader self-development. Leadersh Q 21(1):159–178
Day DV (2000) Leadership development: a review in con-
text. Leadersh Q 11(4):581–613
Day DV, Fleenor JW, Atwater LE, Sturm RE, McKee RA
(2014) Advances in leader and leadership develop-
ment: a review of 25 years of research and theory.
Leadersh Q 25(1):63–82
Donaldson SI, Grant-Vallone EJ (2002) Understanding self
report bias on organizational behavior research. J Bus
Psychol 17(2):245–260
Dreher G, Cox TH Jr (1996) Race, gender, and opportu-
nity: a study of compensation attainment and the estab-
lishment of mentoring relationships. J Appl Psychol
81(3):297–308
Groves K (2007) Integrating leadership development and
succession planning best practices. J Manag Psychol
26(3):239–260
Ingraham PW, Getha-Taylor H (2004) Leadership in the
public sector models and assumptions for leadership
development in the federal government. Rev Public
Pers Adm 24(2):95–112
Leonard HS, Lang F (2010) Leadership development via
action learning. Adv Dev Hum Resour 12(2):225–240
Mumford M, Marks MA, Connelly MS, Zaccaro SJ,
Reiter-Palmon R (2000a) Development of leadership
skills: experience and timing. Leadersh
Q 11(1):87–114
Mumford M, Zaccaro SJ, Johnson JF, Diana M, Gilbert JA,
Threlfall K (2000b) Patterns of leader characteristics:
implications for performance and development.
Leadersh Q 11(1):115–133
Mumford TV, Campion MA, Morgeson FP (2007) The
leadership skills strataplex: leadership skill require-
ments across organizational levels. Leadersh
Q 18(2):154–166
Partnership for Public Service (2016) The best places to
work in the federal government. Retrieved 29 May
2016, from http://bestplacestowork.org
Popper M, Lipshitz R (1993) Putting leadership theory to
work: a conceptual framework for theory-based leader-
ship development. Leadersh Organ Dev J 14(7):23–27
Revans RW (1980) Action learning. Blond & Briggs,
London
Revans RW (1998) ABC of action learning: empowering
managers to act and learn from action. Tavistock,
London
Schofield CP, Holton V, Pegg M, Sweeney AD, Rizzello
J (2008) Leadership and management issues in the UK
public sector. Ashridge and National School of Gov-
ernment, Berkhamsted
Thomas RJ, Cheese P (2005) Leadership experience is the
best teacher. Strateg Leadersh 33(3):24–29
Leadership Development 7
