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The efficient assessment of need for cognition
Journal of Personality Assessment
... In order to measure this need, Cacioppo and Petty (1982) established the Need for Cognition Scale (NCS). The current iteration, a short-form self-report with eighteen items, exhibits the same reliability as the original, thirty-four question version but with greater efficiency (Cacioppo, Petty, & Kao, 1984). Scores on the NCS are predictive of other adaptive dispositional traits, such as openness to experience, curiosity, and tolerance (Cacioppo, Petty, Feinstein, & Jarvis, 1996;Sadowski & Cogburn, 1997), along with maladaptive traits and conditions, such as neuroticism, social anxiety, and increased depression (Cacioppo, et al., 1996;Reeves, Watson, Ramsey, & Morris, 1995;Sadowski & Cogburn, 1997). ...
... Scores on the NCS are predictive of other adaptive dispositional traits, such as openness to experience, curiosity, and tolerance (Cacioppo, Petty, Feinstein, & Jarvis, 1996;Sadowski & Cogburn, 1997), along with maladaptive traits and conditions, such as neuroticism, social anxiety, and increased depression (Cacioppo, et al., 1996;Reeves, Watson, Ramsey, & Morris, 1995;Sadowski & Cogburn, 1997). However, rather than an invariant personality trait or disposition itself, the need for cognition exists as a motivational tendency to relish effortful thinking and to enjoy the rewards that result from analytic activity (Cacioppo, et al., 1984). feelings as well as distinguishing emotions from bodily sensations (Taylor & Bagby, 1988;Taylor, Bagby, & Parker, 1992). ...
... In this short-form version of the NCS, nine statements are worded positively and nine are worded negatively and possible scores range from 18 to 90. The NCS has been shown to measure one dominant factor (Sadowski, 1993) and has demonstrated excellent internal consistency with Cronbach alpha estimates as high as 0.92 (Cacioppo, Petty, & Kao, 1984;Sadowski & Gulgoz, 1992b). Test-retest reliability (sevenweek interval) was 0.88 (Sadowski & Gulgoz, 1992b). ...
Background: The need for cognition is a cognitive motivational tendency both to engage in and to enjoy thinking. High need for cognition is associated with positive, adaptive dispositional traits such as openness, high intrinsic motivation, stable self-esteem, and effective coping. Low need for cognition is predictive of such traits as loneliness, social anxiety, high neuroticism, low motivation, and high negative affect. The relationship between the need for cognition and mental health diagnosis has yet to be clarified because of limited research in clinical populations. We examined psychophysiological data, subjective arousal ratings, diagnosis groups, need for cognition scores, symptom severity measures, and associations among both mental health status and mental health diagnosis groups. Methods: Unmedicated participants were recruited online and via advertisements in Chicago and categorized into one of four groups (depressed: n = 32, anxious: n = 43, comorbid: n = 34, healthy: n = 28). Skin conductance and self-reported arousal ratings were recorded during a standardized emotional imagery task. Need for cognition scores as well as depression and anxiety symptomatology were collected via self-port. Results: A main effect of diagnosis was found in that depressed participants possessed significantly lower need for cognition scores than healthy participants. There were negative correlations between BDI-II scores and need for cognition scores in both the healthy and anxious groups. Conclusions: Depressed individuals exhibited significantly lower scores on the need for cognition scale compared to healthy participants, which may reveal a disruption of the protective factors associated with high levels of need for cognition.
... The Need for Cognition Scale (NCS) is a self-report scale measuring individual differences in the tendency to engage in and enjoy thinking. The shortened scale with 18 items (NCS-18;Cacioppo et al., 1984) has widely been administered in research on persuasion, critical thinking, and educational achievement. Whereas most studies advocated for essential uni-dimensionality, the question remains which psychometric model yields the best representation of the NCS-18. ...
... The construct of NFC is strongly tied to a specific measurement instrument-the 18-item short version of the NFC scale (NCS; Cacioppo et al., 1984)-which has been included in several hundreds of articles since its development. Whereas in most studies, a uni-dimensional structure is assumed (e.g., Cacioppo et al., 1984;Sadowski, 1993), there are also alternative multidimensional conceptualizations (e.g., Tanaka et al., 1988), or solutions that incorporate method-specific variance that is caused by negatively worded items. ...
... The construct of NFC is strongly tied to a specific measurement instrument-the 18-item short version of the NFC scale (NCS; Cacioppo et al., 1984)-which has been included in several hundreds of articles since its development. Whereas in most studies, a uni-dimensional structure is assumed (e.g., Cacioppo et al., 1984;Sadowski, 1993), there are also alternative multidimensional conceptualizations (e.g., Tanaka et al., 1988), or solutions that incorporate method-specific variance that is caused by negatively worded items. In the present study, we examined the factor structure of the NCS with meta-analytical structural equation modeling (MASEM) by comparing competing measurement models including models that try to tap method-specific variance such as an acquiescence model (Billiet & McClendon, 2000) and bifactor models (Eid et al., 2017). ...
The Need for Cognition Scale (NCS) is a self-report scale measuring individual differences in the tendency to engage in and enjoy thinking. The shortened scale with 18 items (NCS-18; Cacioppo et al., 1984) has widely been administered in research on persuasion, critical thinking, and educational achievement. Whereas most studies advocated for essential uni-dimensionality, the question remains which psychometric model yields the best representation of the NCS-18. In the present study, we compared six competing measurement models of the NCS-18 with meta-analytic structural equation models using summary data of 86 samples (N = 89,468). Results demonstrated that the negatively worded items introduced considerable measurement bias that was best accounted for with an acquiescence model. In a further analytical step, we showcased how the pooled correlation matrix can be used to compile short versions of the NCS via Ant Colony Optimization. We examined model fit and reliability of short scales with varying item numbers (between 4 and 15) and a balanced ratio of positively and negatively worded items. We discuss the potentials and limits of the newly proposed method.
... It is very likely that many individual differences may be at play and examining them is warranted. However, this exploratory paper, as a first step, focuses on involvement (degree of perceived relevance and personal importance) and need-for-cognition (the tendency to engage in effortful cognitive activity) (Cacioppo, Feinstein, & Jarvis, 1996;Cacioppo, Petty, & Kao, 1984). These two are examined because they are two key variables that have been widely examined in persuasion research, yet their application to the increasingly growing field of DTCA research is largely unknown. ...
... The role of involvement and NFC in these behaviors is unknown. As these are very important variables in persuasion research (Cacioppo, Feinstein, & Jarvis, 1996;Cacioppo, Petty, & Kao, 1984), how they factor into persuasion involving DTCA as it relates to drug requests and physician-patient interactions is worth examining. ...
... The first part of the booklet had a NFC scale. NFC was measured with an 18-item NFC scale used in a previous study (Cacioppo, Petty, & Kao, 1984). Cronbach's α for this study was .89. ...
Direct-to-Consumer Advertising (DTCA) of prescription drugs leads to an increase in physician visits and initiated conversations about advertised drugs, with some patients asking doctors to prescribe the advertised drugs. However, it is largely unknown what types of patients engage in such behavior. To help address this issue, this study examined the role of involvement and need for cognition in talking to doctors and asking them to prescribe drugs in DTCA. Need-for-cognition and involvement were assessed with standardized scales and their impact on these behaviors as well as general responses to DTCA was assessed. Using FDA guidelines, print ads for three fictitious drugs were designed with the help of a professional graphic designer. Measures taken include attitude toward the ad, brand interest, purchase intention, and participants' behavior in relation to DTCA. Findings suggest that high involvement individuals were more likely to talk to doctors and ask them to prescribe DTCA drugs. An interaction effect of need-for-cognition and involvement impacted attitude toward the ad and purchase intention. Also, brand interest influenced both talking to doctors and asking doctors to prescribe. Patients who talk to doctors about DTCA drugs were more likely to ask them to prescribe the drugs. Based on the findings, recommendations were made for DTC advertisers. The findings from this study provide a basis for further exploring DTCA induced behavior.
... There is a problem with the User Group-Driven explainability needs acquisition because beyond users' expertise and knowledge, a large scope of user characteristics can affect how an explanation works for a specific user, such as users' locus of control [119], need for cognition [24], visual literacy [1,18], etc. Due to the diversity of users, there are always complex intersections between different user groups, and even users belonging to the same group are still different in many other perspectives, and these differences can affect their explainability needs and the effects of XAI on them. We believe that the User Group-Driven method can play a guiding role in the design of XAI, and the two methods should be combined. ...
... Recent empirical studies find that there are some other users' characteristics that could affect the effects of an explanation, such as users' general trust in AI [40], locus of control [119], visual literacy [1,18]), cognitive load disposition [52], need for cognition [24] (a personality trait reflecting one's general motivation to engage in effortful mental activities, such as thinking). Also, Anik et al. [5] suggest that users' perceptions can be influenced by their prior exposure to the AI concepts, such as what they have seen in the media. ...
With the advances of AI research, AI has been increasingly adopted in numerous domains, ranging from low-stakes daily tasks such as movie recommendations to high-stakes tasks such as medicine, and criminal justice decision-making. Explainability is becoming an essential requirement for people to understand, trust and adopt AI applications. Despite a vast collection of explainable AI (XAI) algorithms produced by the AI research community, successful examples of XAI are still relatively scarce in real-world AI applications. This can be due to the gap between what the XAI is designed for and how the XAI is actually perceived by end-users. As explainability is an inherently human-centered property, in recent years, the XAI field is starting to embrace human-centered approaches and increasingly realizing the importance of empirical studies of XAI design by involving human subjects. To move a step towards a systematic review of empirical study for human-centered XAI design, in this survey, we first brief the technical landscape of commonly used XAI algorithms in existing empirical studies. Then we analyze the diverse stakeholders and needs-finding approaches. Next, we provide an overview of the design space explored in the current human-centered XAI design. Further, we summarize the evaluation metrics based on evaluation goals. Afterward, we analyze the common findings and pitfalls derived from existing studies. For each chapter, we provide a summary of current challenges and research opportunities. Finally, we conclude the survey with a framework for human-centered XAI design with empirical studies.
... Testing took place across two separate sessions, exactly 7 days apart. On day one, 195 participants provided informed consent and completed a battery of questionnaires measuring 196 traits related to motivation and impulsivity as well as symptoms of apathy and anhedonia, 197 including: the Behavioral Inhibition and Activation System scales (BIS/BAS; Carver & White,198 1994), the short form of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale (Cyders et al., 2014), the Need 199 for Cognition Scale (NFC; Cacioppo et al., 1984), the Snaith-Hamilton Pleasure Scale (SHAPS; 200 Snaith et al., 1995), and the Dimensional Apathy Scale (DAS; Radakovic & Abrahams, 2014). ...
... While this effect was unexpected and should be interpreted with 436 caution, this may suggest that anodal stimulation of the FPC may be particularly beneficial for 437 individuals who perform slower in the MSIT. individual's intrinsic motivation to engage in demanding mental activities (Cacioppo et al., 1984;448 Kührt et al., 2021;Sandra & Otto, 2018;Westbrook et al., 2013;Yan & Otto, 2020;Zerna et al., 449 2023;Zhang et al., 2022). Accordingly, in an exploratory analysis, in which we added 450 participant-level NFC scores as a predictor to our original regression model, we examined the 451 relationship between NFC scores and exit thresholds in the EFT as well as the extent to which 452 low-versus high-NFC participants were differentially responsive to tDCS (see Figure 6). ...
Individuals avoid spending cognitive effort unless expected rewards offset the perceived costs. Recent work employing tasks that provide explicit information about demands and incentives, suggests causal involvement of the Frontopolar Cortex (FPC) in effort-based decision-making. Using transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), we examined whether the FPC’s role in motivating effort generalizes to sequential choice problems in which task demand and reward rates vary indirectly and as a function of experience. In a double-blind, within- subject design, 46 participants received anodal (i.e., excitatory) or sham stimulation over the right FPC during an Effort Foraging Task, which required choosing between harvesting patches for successively decreasing resources or traveling to replenished patches by performing a cognitive task with environment-specific difficulty. As expected, participants exited patches later (i.e., displayed lower exit thresholds) when travelling required greater (versus less) effort, indicating increased travel costs in high-effort environments. Under anodal tDCS, the difference in exit thresholds between environments was significantly smaller relative to sham. Finally, individual differences analyses hint that participants with lower self-reported motivation to exert effort exhibited greater travel cost reductions following tDCS. Together, these findings support the theorized causal role of the FPC in motivating cognitively effortful behavior, expand its role to more ecologically valid serial decisions and highlight the potential for tDCS as a tool to increase motivation with potential clinical applications.
Significance statement
Uncovering the neural mechanisms regulating engagement in effortful behavior is crucial, as it will improve our understanding and treatment of conditions characterized by reduced motivation, e.g., apathy and anhedonia. The Frontopolar Cortex (FPC) has been implicated in increasing effort exertion in settings that provide explicit information about effort demand and reward. Using transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), we investigated whether the FPC retains its motivating capacity in sequential choice problems that vary effort and reward indirectly. We demonstrate that FPC stimulation decreases cognitive effort-based travel costs in an Effort Foraging Task, indicating a causal and general involvement of the FPC in motivating effortful behavior, highlighting the potential of tDCS as a new avenue for increasing motivation with potential clinical applications.
... La necesidad de cognición se refiere a la tendencia de algunas personas por involucrarse y disfrutar los grandes esfuerzos cognitivos para estructurar y comprender el mundo experiencial. Las personas con alta necesidad de cognición están más dispuestas a analizar, elaborar y evaluar la información a la que se han expuesto, lo que les permite cambiar sus actitudes o creencias en función de la calidad de los argumentos del mensaje (Baumeister y Vohs, 2007;Cacioppo et al., 1984;Green, M.C. y Jenkins, K.M., 2020;See et al., 2009). Por tanto, en el presente estudio, se espera que el mensaje informacional produzca efectos positivos sobre las variables procesuales solo en personas con alta necesidad de cognición. ...
... Para este estudio se analizó adicionalmente la variable moderadora necesidad de cognición, definida por Petty y Cacioppo (1984) como la tendencia a involucrarse y disfrutar de los esfuerzos cognitivos (gusto por pensar). Se consideró que esta variable puede ajustar la forma en que se procesan los mensajes, basado en las preferencias de los individuos respecto al esfuerzo cognitivo y que, por tanto, podría condicionar la valoración de su credibilidad, y, en definitiva, su efecto persuasivo (Baumeister y Vohs, 2007;Cacioppo y Petty, 1984). En la Tabla 5 se presentan las variables utilizadas. ...
La promoción de comportamientos saludables se ha realizado tradicionalmente a través de mensajes persuasivos que entregan información sobre cifras o argumentos y son diseñados con un objetivo abiertamente persuasivo. No obstante, recientemente se han establecido otras estrategias como el uso de mensajes narrativos y de formatos mixtos (que combinan información y narran una historia). La evidencia no es concluyente sobre la eficacia de estas tres modalidades de persuasión (informacional, narrativa y mixta) ni sobre los mecanismos responsables. Metodología: Se realizaron dos experimentos que compararon los efectos de las tres modalidades de mensajes persuasivos mencionados y que fueron diseñados para promover la higiene del sueño como un factor de control del peso corporal. Además, se contempló el papel de la implicación con el tema del mensaje y la necesidad de cognición como posibles variables moderadoras. Resultados: Se observó que el mensaje informacional ejercía efectos indirectos significativos sobre la efectividad percibida del mensaje, las creencias y la intención de conducta a través del mecanismo de la auto-referencia. En cambio, los mensajes narrativos y mixto debían su eficacia persuasiva a la activación emocional, el transporte narrativo y la identificación con el protagonista. Conclusiones: El presente trabajo avanza los conocimientos sobre persuasión y sobre las estrategias más efectivas para diseñar campañas de control del peso corporal a través de la promoción de la higiene del sueño.
... No presente trabalho, são de especial interesse os construtos necessidade de cognição e personalidade no entendimento das preferências por gêneros cinematográficos. A necessidade de cognição descreve a propensão do sujeito a envolverse e desfrutar de atividades que demandem esforços cognitivos (Cacioppo et al., 1984;Su et al., 2021). Indivíduos que apresentam uma alta necessidade de cognição são inclinados a explorar estímulos e eventos com conteúdo mais complexo, ao passo que sujeitos com menor nível buscam estímulos mais simples (Coelho et al., 2020). ...
... Elaborada por Cacioppo et al. (1984) e adaptada ao contexto português por Gomes et al. (2013). Trata-se de uma medida multifatorial, composta por 18 itens e três fatores: empenho no esforço cognitivo (e.g., "Pensar sobre as coisas não é a minha ideia de diversão"), preferência pela complexidade (e.g., "a noção de pensamento abstrato me atrai") e desejo pelo entendimento (e.g., "Encontro satisfação no fato de debater ideias intensamente durante horas"), que buscam avaliar a predisposição que o indivíduo possui para executar atividades que exijam esforço analítico. ...
Objetivou-se reunir evidências psicométicas iniciais da Escala de Preferências por Gêneros Cinemetográficos (EPGC) e avaliar as relações dessas preferências com a personalidade e a necessidade de cognição. Dois estudos foram realizados. O primeiro contou com 215 indivíduos com idades entre 18 e 55 anos que responderam a versão inicial da EPGC. Uma Análise de Componentes Principais evidenciou uma estrutura hexa-fatorial da medida, cujos fatores são ação e aventura, comédia, romance, terror e suspense, ficção científica, e animação e fantasia. Do segundo estudo participaram outros 198 indivíduos com idades entre 18 e 54 anos. Além da versão final da EPGC, estes responderam a Escala de Necessidade de Cognição, o Inventário de Marcadores Reduzidos da Personalidade e a Dark Triad Dirty Dozen. Os resultados revelaram uma associação positiva da ficção científica com a preferência pela complexidade. A comédia correlacionou-se positivamente com narcisismo, amabilidade e neuroticismo. Os gêneros romance e ação e aventura correlacionaram-se negativamente com a psicopatia. O traço de abertura mediou significativamente a relação entre a necessidade de cognição e a preferência pela ficção científica. Este estudo propõe uma medida válida e precisa para mensurar as preferências cinematográficas, possibilitando o conhecimento dos fatores relacionados às mesmas e podendo inspirar estudos futuros.
... Over the past three decades, a variety of memory scales have appeared in the literature that reliably measure retrospective memory (e.g., Crawford, Henry, Ward, & Blake, 2006), prospective memory (e.g., Dobbs & Rule, 1987 ), verbal memory (e.g., Sehulster, 1988), cognitive failures (e.g., Broadbent, Cooper, FitzGerald, & Parkes, 1982;Crook, Feher, & Larrabee, 1992 ), need for cognition (e.g., Cacioppo, Petty, & Kao, 1984;Osberg, 1987), and everyday memory (e.g., Herrmann, Sheets, Gruneberg, & Torres, 2005). These scales tend to correlate very well with other scales in expected ways and have good construct validity (e.g., Broadbent et al., 1982;Herrmann, 1982). ...
... This second study provided an opportunity to determine if aging or daily life not focused on the activity of studying academic material made any difference to the power of the rating scales to predict memory performance. Broadbent, Cooper, Fitzgerald, & Parkes (1981) 25 questions, 1 factor Measures perceived problems with memory, attention, and slips of action Need for Cognition (NFC) Cacioppo, Petty, & Kao (1984) 18 questions, 1 factor Measures the degree to which one prefers to think, with effort or complexity, and seeks out opportunities to engage in thinking Memory Complaint Questionnaire (MAC-Q) Crook, Feher, & Larrabee (1992) 6 questions, 1 factor Measures the degree of perceived memory decline Memory Scale (MS) Sehulster (1981;1988) 55 questions, 3 factors Measures perceived verbal memory (e.g., facts), autobiographical memory (e.g., events of your past), and prospective memory (e.g., remembering appointments) Prospective and Retrospective Memory Questionnaire (PRMQ) Smith, Della Sala, Logie, & Maylor (2000) 16 questions, 2 factors Measures perceived prospective and retrospective memory for both short-term and long-term events Memory Assessment Questionnaires (MAC-S) Winterling, Crook, Salama, & Gobert (1986) 49 questions, 5 Ability factors and 5 Frequency factors Measures perceived ability to remember accurately and frequency of forgetting ...
In two experiments, we examine the degree to which ratings on self-report scales correlate with memory performance in laboratory tasks. In Experiment 1, 87 undergraduates (age 19-29) completed free recall, stem-cued recall, fluency, and prospective memory tasks. In Experiment 2, 71 participants (age 30-86) from the community completed free recall, associate-cued recall, recognition with and without distraction, fluency, and prospective memory tasks. In both studies, participants completed a set of rating scales on memory and need for cognition. Whereas experimental measures correlated with each other in predicted ways, and rating scale measures correlated with each other in predicted ways, few experimental measures correlated with rating scale measures. Our findings suggest that data from experimental tasks and self-report rating scales do not overlap and do not support the applied use of self-report scales in lieu of experimental data to assess memory functioning. Further research on and development of self-report measures is needed in order to maximize their potential as a tool to help people best assess their memory.
... The Need for Cognition Scale measured students' tendency to engage in cognition (Cacioppo et al., 1984). The 18-item, five-point Likert-type scale ranges from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). ...
... The 18-item, five-point Likert-type scale ranges from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). As recommended by Cacioppo et al. (1984), scores on nine items were reverse coded. Items were summed for an overall need for cognition score. ...
For students to be successful in online courses, they must be able to understand and control their learning. These abilities are known as self-regulated learning which consists of cognition, metacognition, and motivation. A student's need for cognition refers to the tendency to purposefully engage in cognitive activities. Students with high need for cognition have been found to be more intrinsically motivated to learn and put forth more effort when faced with challenging tasks. Guided by Bandura's social cognitive theory, this study sought to describe the relationship between self-regulated learning and the need for cognition among students enrolled in an online agriculture course. The findings indicated that students are effective at structuring their learning environments and setting academic goals. Furthermore, a moderate correlation was identified between self-regulated learning and the need for cognition. Suggestions are made to research strategies and provide guidance and support for students as they engage in more online courses.
... Historically conceptualized as a need to make sense of the world (Cohen et al., 1955), the original measure of need for cognition (NFC) closely interlinks an individual's inclination toward structure and clarity in the environment (Webster & Kruglanski, 1994). In 1982, NFC was reconceptualized to reflect a relatively stable inter-individual difference (or personality trait) in general tendencies "to enjoy and engage in thinking" across a variety of areas and contexts (Cacioppo & Petty, 1982, p. 116;Cacioppo et al., 1984Cacioppo et al., , 1996. Since then, NFC has been examined in a number of studies evaluating information processing (Cacioppo et al., 1996) personality (Fleischhauer et al., 2010;Hill et al., 2016) and cognitive variables (Fleischhauer et al., 2014;Mussel, 2013). ...
... Nevertheless, there seems to be a lack of agreement in the literature concerning the test dimensionality of NFC scales. While the widely used 34-item NFC scale (Cacioppo & Petty, 1982) and its similarly valid shortened 18-item version (Cacioppo et al., 1984) assume unidimensionality of NFC, the theoretical proposition of NFC and empirical evidence in the field indicates the presence of at least two core aspects measured by NFC. Consequently, the initial assertion of unidimensionality of the NFC scale by Cacioppo and Petty (1982) poses an issue to the representativeness of the scale in accurately reflecting underlying concepts of NFC. ...
Background
Need for cognition (NFC) represents interindividual differences in tendencies to engage and enjoy cognitive endeavors. Exploratory information seeking (EIS) refers to individual tendencies to attain cognitive stimulation through acquiring information related to consumer products or services out of curiosity.
Methods
The current study aims to provide an in‐depth investigation of the relationship between NFC and EIS and extend this relation to determine neuroanatomical correlates of NFC and EIS. This study proposed two central hypotheses: (1) NFC and EIS scores are positively correlated and (2) the gray matter volume (GMV) of brain regions implicated in motivation, valuation, and reward systems are positively associated with both NFC and EIS. Self‐report and structural MRI data of 91 Singaporean Chinese participants were utilized for the study.
Results
No statistically significant correlation was revealed between NFC and EIS scores. Neuroanatomical associations of the GMV of brain regions implicated in visuospatial, attentional, and reward processing with individual constructs of interest were explored. When examining NFC and EIS scores, larger GMV in the right pallidum and left fusiform gyrus was found in participants that reported higher levels of NFC (vs. lower NFC levels), larger GMV in the left precuneus in those with greater tendencies to engage in EIS (vs. lower EIS levels), and larger GMV of the left fusiform gyrus associated with greater endorsement of both NFC and EIS. When investigating the exploratory factor analysis–generated factors of NFC and EIS, similar patterns of associations were found between self‐reported levels of agreement against factors and GMV of brain regions implicated.
Conclusions
Correlational analysis and exploratory factor analysis indicated the absence of a relationship between NFC and EIS. Additionally, voxel‐based morphometry whole‐brain analysis revealed neuroanatomical correlates of the GMV of brain regions implicated in visuospatial, attentional, and reward processing with NFC and EIS.
... Perceived credibility (Ohanian, 1990), word-of-mouth (Lim et al., 2017), and intention to share were measured using the scales and items adopted in Study 1. Need for cognition (Cacioppo et al., 1984), introduced here, was measured using a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree). ...
... Perceived credibility (Ohanian, 1990) and need for cognition (Cacioppo et al., 1984) were measured using the scales and items adopted in Study 2a. Willingness to buy (Sweeney et al., 1999), was measured using a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree). ...
Blockchain technology has been designed to improve the transmission of transparent information across a variety of industries and products. Yet, consumers tend to perceive product information provided by blockchain technology (vs. humans) as less credible. As this may not apply to all consumers, it becomes critical for companies to understand how to improve blockchain perceived credibility. This work investigates how individual differences and marketing actions shape consumer responses to product information provided by blockchain technology (vs. humans). Four controlled experiments demonstrate that consumers perceive the information provided by blockchain technology (vs. humans) as having less credibility, which in turn decreases word‐of‐mouth and intention to share information about the product on social media (Study 1). This effect is stronger for consumers with lower need for cognition (Study 2a), which in turn affects willingness to buy and actual behavior (Study 2b). Providing social proof—that is, the number of satisfied customers who recommend blockchain technology—increases blockchain perceived credibility (Study 3). These insights deepen the understanding of how individual differences shape consumer's responses to product information provided by blockchain technology and offer actionable insights on how to boost technology credibility.
... The 18-item NFC scale, originally developed by Cacioppo et al. (1984), has been extensively employed in previous studies as a reliable instrument for quantifying cognitive motivation (Bruinsma & Crutzen, 2018;Cacioppo et al., 1996). In the current study, a culturally adapted Chinese version of this scale, introduced by Kuang et al. (2005), was employed to evaluate individuals' NFC. ...
Although there is evidence that cognitive training enhances logical reasoning among the elderly, it remains unclear whether cognitive leisure activities (LA), which are inherently enjoyable and more accessible to older adults than cognitive training, can also improve their reasoning performance. Accordingly, we investigated the effect of cognitive LA on reasoning performance among the elderly and further explored the potential mechanism underlying this relationship. 107 elder participants from the community university for the elderly were randomized into two intervention groups (mahjong group N = 34, chess groups N = 33) and the control group (N = 40). Subjects in the intervention groups received activity sessions three times a week for 6 weeks, while those in the control group received regular physical and mental health care sessions. Need for cognition (NFC) was evaluated using the NFC scale before the study and then after intervention administration. Additionally, all participants were tasked to completing a syllogistic reasoning task after the intervention to evaluating their reasoning performances. Results showed that the intervention groups performed better than the control group in the syllogistic reasoning task. Moreover, there were no significant differences in the scores of NFC between the intervention groups and control group in the pretest, while the scores of NFC of the intervention groups were significantly higher than those of the control group in the posttest. Mediation analysis revealed that NFC mediated the effect of cognitive LA on reasoning performances among the elderly. We concluded that participating in cognitive LA represent a potential avenue for enhancing reasoning performances among older adults by boosting their cognitive motivation.
... The stage of creating an item pool was conducted in accordance with the eight-step scale development process (DeVellis, 2003). The scale statements were developed by drawing upon existing studies in the literature (Cacioppo et al. 1984;Grol et al, 1990;Bateman & Crant, 1993;Ibarra & Andrews 1993;Scott & Bruce, 1994;Gerrity et al.,1995;Mayer et al., 1995;Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995;Cummings & Bromiley, 1996;Frese et al., 1997;Parker, 1998;Speier & Frese 1997;Judge et al, 1999;Mayer & Davis 1999;Zhou & George, 2001;Baer & Frese 2003;Kaufman & Baer, 2004;Mayer & Gavin, 2005 Gieure et al., 2020). All the concepts that best represent the structure of the study and are seen to be related to initiative taking were grouped under 12 dimensions and named. ...
The purpose of this study is to develop a scale to measure the extent of initiative taking behaviors displayed by hospital personnel, while also investigating the effects of emotional labor on such initiative taking behaviors. The development of the initiative taking scale (ITS) was undertaken among healthcare workers to achieve this objective. The research sample comprised 769 clinical and administrative personnel employed in four public hospitals and one private hospital operating in Istanbul. The exploratory factor analysis (EFA) yielded the ITS, which comprises 5 dimensions and 34 items: perceived organizational support, individual competency, willingness to take risks, job autonomy, and failure related trust to supervisor. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the scale dimensions, accounting for 53.02% of the overall variance, varied from .67 to .90. The total of Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for scale was found to be .93. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed to test the fit of the theoretical model with the data, and it was determined to be a satisfactory fit. The criterion-related validity for ITS was tested using the emotional labor scale (ELS). The results revealed statistically significant positive correlations between all dimensions of both scales, indicating the existence of criterion-related validity. In addition to descriptive statistics, variance analyses were performed, and the effect of emotional labor on initiative taking behavior was measured by structural equation modeling (SEM) path analysis. It was inferred that the ITS developed for healthcare workers is a valid and reliable measurement tool based on statistical data. The SEM path analysis revealed a significant effect of emotional labor on the initiative taking behavior of hospital personnel.
... Intolerance for Ambiguity Scale (Budner, 1962) x x need for cognition Need for CognitionScale (Cacioppo et al., 1984) x x fundamentalism items from the Religion Monitor questionnaire (Huber, 2009) x x pluralism items from the Religion Monitor questionnaire (Huber, 2009) x x ...
In this chapter, we will present the research design of the Bielefeld-Chattanooga longitu-
dinal study of faith development focusing on the methodological discussion about mixed-methods
research and the knowledge produced by the qualitative and quantitative strands we employ. First,
we will present our research in the light of the pragmatic paradigm that enables us to take multiple
perspectives through the triangulation of data as well as research methods and discuss the quality
criteria of such an approach. We then will briefly present our qualitative and quantitative methods
of data collection with a focus on what kind of information we obtain as well as our methods of data
analysis concentrating on the kind of knowledge, we are able to produce. This discussion will demon-
strate how we investigate faith development using the nomothetic and the idiographic approach that
we regard as complementary. The chapter closes by exemplifying our approach by a longitudinal case
study.
... This effect was observed even when the internet was made less convenient to use and even when the information being sought was likely already available in internal memory. Moreover, not only were participants who initially used the internet more likely to rely on the internet than they would have been otherwise but also they spent significantly less time trying to think of the answers before conducting their searches, and they reported significantly depressed levels of need for cognition (Cacioppo et al., 1984). This finding suggests that relying on the internet has the potential to exacerbate cognitive miserliness (see related evidence in, e.g., Barr et al., 2015;. ...
The Oxford Handbook of Human Memory covers the science of human memory, its application to clinical disorders, and its broader implications for learning and memory in real-world contexts. Written by field leaders, the handbook integrates behavioral, neural, and computational evidence with current theories of how humans learn and remember. Following a section of foundational chapters, subsequent sections include chapters that cover forms and attributes of memory, encoding and retrieval processes and their interactions, individual differences, memory disorders and therapies, learning and memory in educational settings, and the role of memory in society. The handbook’s authoritative chapters document the current state of knowledge and provide a roadmap for the next generation of memory scientists, established peers, and practitioners.
... First, we examined whether the effects of ambivalence and behavioral extremity would be limited to behavioral measures within the same domain (i.e., political ambivalence and political behaviors) as our framework predicts, versus extending to irrelevant domains, which we do not predict but could indicate response bias. Second, we examined whether individual differences in the tendency toward thoughtfulness and/or reflectiveness, operationalized as the need for cognition (58) and the cognitive reflection test (59), might explain the effect. Such tendencies would not be involved in the process we propose is occurring, but they might be related to ambivalence and could then plausibly drive response patterns consistent with our data. ...
Political extremism varies across people and contexts, but which beliefs will a person support through extreme actions? We propose that ambivalent attitudes, despite reducing normative political actions like voting, increase support for extreme political actions. We demonstrate this hypothesized reversal using dozens of measures across six studies ( N = 13,055). The effect was robust to relevant covariates and numerous methodological variations and was magnified when people’s attitudinal or ideological positions were more polarized. It appears to occur because being conflicted about political issues can feel psychologically uncomfortable, making extreme actions more appealing. Notably, this emerged when people thought ambivalence was justified, whereas leading them to consider ambivalence unjustified suppressed the effect, suggesting that ambivalent people are coping with but not necessarily trying to reduce their ambivalence. These results highlight the interplay of affective and cognitive influences in extreme behavior, showing that beliefs people feel justifiably conflicted about can promote extremism.
... This included Need for Cognition (NFC) and Intellectual Humility (IH), both of which were measured at pretest and posttest. For the NFC, the 18-item scale was used (Cacioppo et al., 1984). For the IH, the 6-item scale developed by Leary et al. (2017) was used. ...
... Need for cognition: the Need for Cognition scale. The Need for Cognition scale (NFC; Cacioppo et al. 1984) adopts a 5-point Likert scale, where 1 denotes "extremely uncharacteristic of me" and 5 denotes "extremely characteristic of me." This scale has 18 items. ...
This study provides an empirical test of a previously proposed assertion that intelligence as adaptation has an attitudinal as well as an ability component. The ability component deals with what the basic knowledge and skills are that underlie intelligence, and how much of each one an individual has. The attitudinal component deals with how an individual chooses to deploy the abilities they have. In other words, to what use are the abilities put? It is argued that it is impossible fully to separate the measurement of the ability component from the attitudinal one. In a diverse population, even taking an intelligence test will show itself to involve an attitude toward the test, which may enhance or detract from performance, as when one sees the test as irrelevant or harmful to one’s life, or as a sociocultural misfit to one’s life experience. To succeed, people need not only to have abilities, but attitudes that put those abilities to effective use to accomplish individuals’ life goals. In the study, we found that intelligent attitudes are related, but non-identical, to germane constructs, such as wisdom, the need for cognition, creativity, and openness to experience. Scores on the attitudinal measure were not related to scores on tests of fluid intelligence and academic abilities/achievement. Thus, the range of attitudes regarding how to deploy intelligence can vary over ability levels.
... Designers should incorporate user experience and tailor calibration methods according to the attributes of target users. For instance, designers can preassess target users' intrinsic cognitive motivation through Need for Cognition (NFC) scales [9] and then design interventions accordingly. For example, employing Think on people with high NFC. ...
In AI-assisted decision-making, it is crucial but challenging for humans to achieve appropriate reliance on AI. This paper approaches this problem from a human-centered perspective, "human self-confidence calibration". We begin by proposing an analytical framework to highlight the importance of calibrated human self-confidence. In our first study, we explore the relationship between human self-confidence appropriateness and reliance appropriateness. Then in our second study, We propose three calibration mechanisms and compare their effects on humans' self-confidence and user experience. Subsequently, our third study investigates the effects of self-confidence calibration on AI-assisted decision-making. Results show that calibrating human self-confidence enhances human-AI team performance and encourages more rational reliance on AI (in some aspects) compared to uncalibrated baselines. Finally, we discuss our main findings and provide implications for designing future AI-assisted decision-making interfaces. CCS CONCEPTS • Human-centered computing → Empirical studies in HCI.
... Specifically, dual process theory (feedforward component) proposed by Lacroix (1986), the early phase in skill acquisition theory proposed by VanLehn (1996) and motor learning theories proposed by Fitts and Posner (1967), Bernstein (1967) and Gentile (1972) refer to cognitive components including strategy searching, trial and error, or attentional processing. A relevant psychological construct is the need for cognition (NFC), which can be used to describe how much a participant enjoys and can engage in thinking processes (Cacioppo et al., 1984). Although this construct has been associated with the desire for cognition rather than individual aptitude, NFC is associated with differences in willingness to invest cognitive effort in tasks (Kramer et al., 2021), motivation for engaging in and processing information (Sicilia et al., 2005) and goal oriented behaviour (Fleischhauer et al., 2010). ...
Neurofeedback (NF) is a form of biofeedback that involves individuals monitoring and shifting brain activity towards a desired direction. The objective of this study was to investigate whether there are differences between NF learners and non-learners on psychometric traits such as the NEO PI-R personality factors, self-regulation questionnaire (SRQ) and the need for cognition scale (NFC). A total of 34 participants were randomly allocated to a single-blind randomised sham-controlled protocol 3-arm study of single-session theta NF, with 12 in a spatially defined frontal-midline theta (FM-theta) group, 11 in a functionally defined medial temporal/parietal lobe (MTL-theta) group and 11 allocated to a yoked sham NF group. The baseline session included screening of participants, trait based behavioural measures (SRQ, NFC and NEO PI-R) and the completion of cognitive tasks with EEG recording to determine individualised peak theta activity for NF training. NF learners and non-learners were evaluated using changes in absolute theta power and the percentage of time spent above threshold using Spearman’s correlation coefficient from a total of 30min of NF exposure. Significant differences in psychometric traits between NF learners and non-learners differed depending on learning metrics. Results indicated that NF learners reported higher SRQ total scores, SRQ decision making, SRQ goal setting subfactors and NEO PI-R conscientiousness, but were significantly lower in NEO PI-R extraversion compared to non-learners. Future research should consider replicating methods to larger sample sizes to further establish psychometric differences related to successful NF learning.
... Branston and Stafford (2010) proposed two types of motivational factors, ten sion release and personal integration, and divided audience needs into five parts, n amely cognitive needs, emotional needs, tensio n release, personal integration, and social integration. Cognitive needs belong to the rational thinking part of the individual and are related to the indiv idual's learning habits, which can promote the individual to generate learning-related motivation and make the individual have a higher creative intention (Cacioppo et al., 1984). Emotional need s refer to the satisfaction of emotions such as belonging and self-efficacy through watching media content or interacting with o ther users (De Vries et al., 2017). ...
... Anticipating and avoiding situations where there is more in-depth thinking about something. Getting the job done without caring how or why it works (Cacioppo et al. 1984;Setiawan 2017). ...
The exercise of audit judgment is essential because it is impractical to perform an audit on all types of evidence. These types of evidence are considered in forming an opinion on audited financial statements, making audit judgment a determinant of the audit’s outcome. The objective of this research is to analyze the factors that affect an auditor’s judgment and decision making (JDM) during an audit. This study used an exploratory research design, with the factor analysis approach as its methodology. However, the data were collected using the questionnaire method. The questionnaire was sent to all member auditors of the Lebanese Association of Certified Public Accountants (LACPA). A total of 310 completed questionnaires were collected and analyzed. The data analysis findings indicate that the auditor’s JDM throughout the audit process is affected by three factors: personal, task, and environmental factors. The auditor’s personal factor becomes the dominant factor because it has the largest eigenvalue of 7.949. These findings demonstrate the complex and diverse nature of auditor judgment, highlighting the significance of considering audit JDM factors. Therefore, auditors may improve their abilities to make informed and effective judgments throughout the audit process by acknowledging the importance of personal, task, and environmental factors.
... Then, half of participants were asked to answer the attention-check-question (ACQ), while for the other half it was given towards the end of the study. All participants then completed the Need for Cognition 18-items version scale (Cacioppo, Petty, & Feng Kao, 1984). Afterwards, they were given several questions that examined replicability of known effects: For the framing effect we used the Asian Disease problem (Tversky & Kahneman, 1981), and examined the percent of participants who chose the safe vs. risky option under positive vs. negative framings (the expected effect is that participants choose the 'sure' option more under a positive framing). ...
After decades of using mostly college students, researchers in psychology and social sciences gradually moved online to more cost-effective and flexible audiences. First, to samples of online convenience (CraigsList, Facebook), and then to sophisticated markets like Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk). Now, advanced platforms (such as CloudResearch and Prolific) promise researchers higher data quality using ex-ante vetting and controls on their participants' pool. We systematically examine the impact of these ex-ante controls, and their effects on various measures of data quality, and compare them to standard ex-post approaches of attention checks (in randomized positions). We find that ex-ante controls outperform ex-post checks both on process measures of attention, honesty, and reliability, as well as on outcome measures of replicability. Additionally, while samples from platforms with ex-ante vetting show key differences in representation from the general population, they are still more representative than a major university lab pool, and no less representative than samples that are not ex-ante vetted. We conclude that pre-vetting of participants on the platform level should become the desired standard for online psychological and behavioral research, and could serve as a sufficient condition for ensuring a sample's data quality ex-ante. Disclosure: We wish to acknowledge the fact that one of the authors is currently employed by Prolific and the study was funded by Prolific. However, we have taken several precautions to mitigate any potential conflict of interest. First, the study's design, sampling plan, hypotheses, and analysis plan were preregistered at https://aspredicted.org/ XTK_R33. Second, all the data, materials and analysis code are available at https://researchbox.org/1104&PEER_REVIEW_passcode=GOWTGW. Third, the studies on all platforms were administered by the first author who is not affiliated with Prolific in any way and did not receive any financial or other compensation from Prolific.
... Next, participants completed two established measures of cognitive heuristics-the inherence bias (Salomon & Cimpian, 2014) and need for cognition (Cacioppo et al., 1984). ...
Pronouns often convey information about a person’s social identity (e.g., gender). Consequently, pronouns have become a focal point in academic and public debates about whether pronouns should be changed to be more inclusive, such as for people whose identities do not fit current pronoun conventions (e.g., gender nonbinary individuals). Here, we make an empirical contribution to these debates by investigating which social identities lay speakers think that pronouns should encode (if any) and why. Across four studies, participants were asked to evaluate different types of real and hypothetical pronouns, including binary gender pronouns, race pronouns, and identity-neutral pronouns. We sampled speakers of two languages with different pronoun systems: English (N = 1,120) and Turkish (N = 260). English pronouns commonly denote binary gender (e.g., “he” for men), whereas Turkish pronouns are identity-neutral (e.g., “o” for anyone). Participants’ reasoning about pronouns reflected both a familiarity preference (i.e., participants preferred the pronoun type used in their language) and—critically—participants’ social ideologies. In both language contexts, participants’ ideological beliefs that social groups are inherently distinct (essentialism) and should be hierarchal (social dominance orientation) predicted relatively greater endorsement of binary gender pronouns and race pronouns. A preregistered experimental study with an English-speaking sample showed that the relationship between ideology and pronoun endorsement is causal: Ideologies shape attitudes toward pronouns. Together, the present research contributes to linguistic and psychological theories concerning how people reason about language and informs policy-relevant questions about whether and how to implement language changes for social purposes.
... Specifically, dual process theory (feedforward component) proposed by Lacroix (1986), the early phase in skill acquisition theory proposed by VanLehn (1996) and motor learning theories proposed by Fitts and Posner (1967), Bernstein (1967) and Gentile (1972) refer to cognitive components including strategy searching, trial and error, or attentional processing. A relevant psychological construct is the need for cognition (NFC), which can be used to describe how much a participant enjoys and can engage in thinking processes (Cacioppo et al., 1984). Although this construct has been associated with the desire for cognition rather than individual aptitude, NFC is associated with differences in willingness to invest cognitive effort in tasks (Kramer et al., 2021), motivation for engaging in and processing information (Sicilia et al., 2005) and goal oriented behaviour (Fleischhauer et al., 2010). ...
Neurofeedback (NF) is a form of biofeedback that involves individuals monitoring and shifting brain activity towards a desired direction. The objective of this study was to investigate whether there are differences between NF learners and non-learners on psychometric traits such as the NEO PI-R personality factors, self-regulation questionnaire (SRQ) and the need for cognition scale (NFC). A total of 34 participants were randomly allocated to a single-blind randomised sham-controlled protocol 3-arm study of single-session theta NF, with 12 in a spatially defined frontal-midline theta (FM-theta) group, 11 in a functionally defined medial temporal/parietal lobe (MTL-theta) group and 11 allocated to a yoked sham NF group. The baseline session included screening of participants, trait based behavioural measures (SRQ, NFC and NEO PI-R) and the completion of cognitive tasks with EEG recording to determine individualised peak theta activity for NF training. NF learners and non-learners were evaluated using changes in absolute theta power and the percentage of time spent above threshold using Spearman’s correlation coefficient from a total of 30min of NF exposure. Significant differences in psychometric traits between NF learners and non-learners differed depending on learning metrics. Results indicated that NF learners reported higher SRQ total scores, SRQ decision making, SRQ goal setting subfactors and NEO PI-R conscientiousness, but were significantly lower in NEO PI-R extraversion compared to non-learners. Future research should consider replicating methods to larger sample sizes to further establish psychometric differences related to successful NF learning.
... The self-report measures were a combination of trait and symptom state measures of motivation for cognitive and physical effort (SI Appendix, Text 4 and Table S2). The trait self-reports were the need for cognition (102), behavioral inhibition and behavioral activation (103) . For any measures with subscales, self-report scores were the combined overall averages. ...
Effort-based decisions, in which people weigh potential future rewards against effort costs required to achieve those rewards involve both cognitive and physical effort, though the mechanistic relationship between them is not yet understood. Here, we use an individual differences approach to isolate and measure the computational processes underlying effort-based decisions and test the association between cognitive and physical domains. Patch foraging is an ecologically valid reward rate maximization problem with well-developed theoretical tools. We developed the Effort Foraging Task, which embedded cognitive or physical effort into patch foraging, to quantify the cost of both cognitive and physical effort indirectly, by their effects on foraging choices. Participants chose between harvesting a depleting patch, or traveling to a new patch that was costly in time and effort. Participants’ exit thresholds (reflecting the reward they expected to receive by harvesting when they chose to travel to a new patch) were sensitive to cognitive and physical effort demands, allowing us to quantify the perceived effort cost in monetary terms. The indirect sequential choice style revealed effort-seeking behavior in a minority of participants (preferring high over low effort) that has apparently been missed by many previous approaches. Individual differences in cognitive and physical effort costs were positively correlated, suggesting that these are perceived and processed in common. We used canonical correlation analysis to probe the relationship of task measures to self-reported affect and motivation, and found correlations of cognitive effort with anxiety, cognitive function, behavioral activation, and self-efficacy, but no similar correlations with physical effort.
... Need for cognition is a psychological trait that predicts one's predisposition for engaging in effortful thinking (Cacioppo and Petty, 1982) and is hence controlled in our analysis. We used the 18-item short Need for Cognition scale (Cacioppo et al., 1984). Sample items include "I would prefer complex to simple problems" and "Thinking is not my idea of fun (R)" (M = 4.52, SD = 1.15, α = .93). ...
Do people process information differently on mobile phones compared to computers? We investigate this question by conducting two online field experiments. We randomly assigned participants to use their mobile phones or personal computers (PCs) to process different kinds of information. Study 1 ( N = 116) discovered that participants using mobile phones process emails more efficiently (i.e., spend less time) than those using PCs. Study 2 ( N = 241) extended this to online deceptive content and found that individuals using mobile phones, especially habitual users, are more efficient, but engage in less information processing, are less attentive and less vigilant about misinformation, compared to those using PCs. However, the latter are more likely to succumb to phishing emails by clicking on malicious links. We discuss theoretical implications for information processing across media devices and practical implications for combating misinformation and cybersecurity attacks.
... Furthermore, there may be individual differences in susceptibility to the biased hypothesis-testing process. Others have shown that individuals high in need for cognition (Cacioppo & Petty, 1982;Cacioppo, Petty, & Kao, 1984) are likely to process information thoroughly and consider more alternatives when making judgments than those low in need for cognition (cf. Cacioppo, Petty, Kao, & Rod-riguez, 1986;D'Agostino & Fincher-Kiefer, 1992). ...
The role of selective hypothesis testing in probability overestimation and gambling behavior was explored in 3 experiments. Participants in each experiment who evaluated the probability of success of a National Basketball Association team overestimated the probability that the focal team would win, were more likely to bet on the focal team than on other teams, and were more willing to gamble in general than control participants. The results demonstrate that selective hypothesis-testing processes increase willingness to gamble. Data suggest that this increased willingness to gamble is mediated by the overestimation of the probability of the focal outcome and the increased desire to bet on the focal outcome. These results illuminate a cognitive mechanism that can lead to gambling and suggest some potential strategies that may help reduce the likelihood that such risky decisions are made.
... However, prior research has found some evidence for individual differences predicting performance in other forecasting or prediction contexts. For instance, Haran et al. (2013) examined how predictions under uncertainty were related to individual differences, including actively open-minded t hinking (AOT; Baron, 1993;Stanovich & West, 2007) and need for cognition ( NFC; Cacioppo et al., 1984). Of the exa mined variables, only AOT was associated with accuracy (β = .209) ...
... In Study 1, the VoPE scale was administered as part of a general survey. To construct the VoPE scale, we adapted items from the Need for Cognition Scale (NfCS; Cacioppo et al., 1984) -a well-established instrument that measures "an individual's tendency to engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive endeavors" (p. 306). ...
Physical effort has instrumental value because it helps people attain their goals. Growing evidence suggests that people might also experience the exertion of effort itself as valuable. To test this idea, we developed and examined the 4-item Value of Physical Effort (VoPE) scale. Across three independent studies (total N = 1267), we established the basic psychometric properties of the VoPE scale and showed consistent associations with measures of sports and exercise behavior. In a study with a longitudinal design, we demonstrated the test-retest reliability of the VoPE scale and its ability to forecast physical activity and exercise behavior. Finally, psychometric network analysis and elastic net regression indicated that the VoPE scale covers a unique content area and makes novel contributions to the prediction of sports behavior. Taken together, the present research yields robust empirical evidence for the idea that people value physical effort to varying degrees. These differences can be efficiently measured with the VoPE scale, which is a short, reliable, and valid instrument that predicts sports and exercise behavior and extends our understanding of how people decide to allocate effort.
... Age was measured as a continuous variable, education on a 7-pointscale. To measure the moderator Need for Cognition, we shortened a scale provided by Cacioppo, Petty, and Kao (1984) (Cronbach's α = .85). Our dependent variable, argument credibility, was measured in two ways: First, we asked the respondents straightforwardly to rate the credibility of the argument on a ten-point scale. ...
Twitter, blogs and alternative news sites play an increasingly important role in the realm of news and journalism. Journalists often use Twitter to survey the public opinion and to gather information for their articles. At the same time, there has been an explosive growth of non-journalistic websites that have started to compete with professional news organizations for the attention from the audience. What do these trends mean for the credibility of news that citizens consume? In a survey-embedded experiment (N=1,979) we address this question by investigating argument credibility within news articles, varying the sources that are cited, the type of news outlet and the style of information gathering by the journalist. Confirming our hypothesis, the results show that arguments are more credible when experts are cited instead of random citizens. However, it appears that the credibility of arguments is judged the same, regardless of the type of online outlet (either the website of an interest group or the website of an independent quality newspaper). Further, arguments based on information from Twitter and based on face-to-face interviews are judged differently under specific conditions. The apparent indifference of citizens towards the origin and interests of information sources has significant democratic implications.
... Scale reliability was excellent, ω = .92. The value of mental effort was measured with the NfC scale 14,29 . The NfC scale consists of 18 items (sample item: "I find satisfaction in deliberating hard and for long hours") which were answered on the same scale as the VoPE. ...
Effort is instrumental for goal pursuit. But its exertion is aversive and people tend to invest as little effort as possible. Contrary to this principle of least effort, research shows that effort is sometimes treated as if it was valuable in its own right, and people exhibit stable differences with respect to their valuation of effort. Critically, individual-difference research that investigates if this valuation of effort is domain-general or specific to cognitive or physical contexts is lacking. Simply put, do people value (or not) any effort or are preferences specific to the cognitive and/or physical domain? Here, we investigate this question using a formalized mathematical approach (study 1) and from a developmental perspective (study 2). Study 1 employed a validated decomposed binary decision task to measure preferences regarding the allocation of cognitive versus physical effort. In a sample of N = 299 paid online workers (37% female, Mage = 38.79 ± 11.24 years), we found that people differ markedly with respect to their preferred effort allocation. Multinomial regression analyses revealed that the disposition to value cognitive effort was linked to a preference for high cognitive effort, whereas the disposition to value physical effort was associated with a preference for physical effort. In study 2, we tested the robustness of these hypothetical preferences for effort allocations in a field context: In a sample of N = 300 schoolchildren (61% female, Mage = 15.25 ± 1.57 years), we found that the disposition to value cognitive effort was linked to better grades in mathematics but not sports, whereas valuing physical effort was linked to better grades in sports but not mathematics. Supporting the hypothesis that people find activities of low value boring, valuing cognitive effort was linked to less boredom in mathematics and valuing physical effort was linked to less boredom in sports. Taken together, these results suggest that people are specific in the type of effort they value (or not), and these preferences are present already at young age. This has theoretical and practical implications with respect to how people approach effortful tasks.
... Research also shows that personality affects preferences for movie recommendations and corresponding explanations [10]. In the context of a music recommender system, the need for cognition (a trait that measures one's appreciation for effortful cognitive activities [14]) [41] as well as musical sophistication and openness (one of the personality traits in the Big-Five Factor Model [21], which measures the breadth and complexity of an individual's mental and experiential life) [42] have a significant impact on explanation effectiveness. ...
We explore eXplainable AI (XAI) to enhance user experience and understand the value of explanations in AI-driven pedagogical decisions within an Intelligent Pedagogical Agent (IPA). Our real-time and personalized explanations cater to students’ attitudes to promote learning. In our empirical study, we evaluate the effectiveness of personalized explanations by comparing three versions of the IPA: (1) personalized explanations and suggestions, (2) suggestions but no explanations, and (3) no suggestions. Our results show the IPA with personalized explanations significantly improves students’ learning outcomes compared to the other versions.
... Previous research reveals that CT can be improved through interventions ranging from 4-weeks (e.g., Cloete, 2018;Ghanizadeh, 2017;Simonovic et al., 2022) to 8 weeks (e.g., Dwyer & Walsh, 2020, 2007. The measures used in such interventions were primarily focused on reasoning and problem-solving (e.g., the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal, Watson & Glaser, 1964;Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment, Halpern, 2010) or thinking dispositions (e.g., Need for Cognition Scale, Cacioppo et al. 1984; reflective thinking questionnaire Kember et al., 2000) rather than CT skills, thus relying on formal reasoning tasks that are somewhat limited in scope The analysis and evaluation of skills and thinking dispositions are most used and some authors focus on the skills such as interpretation and analysis (e.g., Vertecchi et al., 2017), thus neglecting other metacognitive processes such as self-regulation, control, monitoring and reflective judgement (Dwyer et al., 2012(Dwyer et al., , 2014Dwyer and Walsh, 2020). ...
Critical thinking (CT) is an essential element of Higher Education and is central to graduate
achievement and employability. This study examined the effect of an online CT intervention
(developed using dual process and meta-reasoning theoretical frameworks) on Higher Education
students’ attitudes about CT and their CT skills. One hundred and forty-eight participants were
allocated either to an intervention or control group, assessed at pre and post-test for perceptions
and attitudes towards CT, cognitive reflection, argument evaluation, and analytical writing style
(via an essay writing task). The analyses results revealed a significant increase from pre- to postintervention
on all CT measures except for analytic writing style and valuing critical thinking,
with the intervention group performing significantly better at post-test than the control group. It
was concluded that CT can be improved with brief online interventions based on ’’how to think’’
rather than ’’what to think’’ and that attitudes and beliefs play an important part in the development
of students’ CT skills.
... In addition, mirroring the results of Beissert et al., need for cognition was positively correlated with openness to experience and uncorrelated with conscientiousness in Study 1, which speaks in favor of nomological and divergent validity of the Need for Cognition Short Scale across different studies. But still, of course, future studies could further investigate a possible connection between CrMF and need for cognition using a longer and more reliable self-report measure (e.g., Cacioppo et al., 1984). In a related manner, it could also be investigated if CrMF is (un)related to general intelligence and to the level of education (see Ellul, 1973). ...
Relating the worldwide impact of the COVID-19 crisis on the human psyche to the phenomenon of mass formation (an extreme form of collectivism and groupthink in the face of a perceived common threat and strategies to deal with it), the present studies had two objectives: To create a reliable and valid scale to measure COVID-19 related mass formation (CrMF) and to identify correlates of CrMF in relation to personality, ideological convictions, and media consumption. In both studies, Swiss inhabitants were presented statements pertaining to CrMF online and then filled out several other measures. The internal consistency of the COVID-19 related Mass Formation Scale (CrMF-S) and its split-half reliability were good, as was its (albeit in Study 2 diminished) convergent validity with authoritarian submission, and there were no correlations between scores on the CrMF-S and need for cognition. Also, in both studies, CrMF-S scores correlated positively with the advocacy of the ideologies of reductive materialism and transhumanism, respectively. In Study 1 (N = 77), no correlations between CrMF and the Big Five personality dimensions resulted, but the correlation between scores on the CrMF-S and the frequency of media consumption (mainstream minus alternative) was remarkably strong. Finally, in Study 2 (N = 76), CrMF-S scores correlated negatively with the personality traits dispositional autonomy and cognitive flexibility, respectively, as well as with the character strengths spirituality (as in Study 1), bravery, integrity, open-mindedness, prudence, zest, and persistence. Alongside the discussion of the results, further research in this field is encouraged by presenting suggestions for future studies.
... In all trials, the lotteries were easily identifiable as having, respectively, high or low variance (ranges of 120 vs. 30 points between the possible values). The total EV of the lotteries was constant at 500 points, but relative EV (ΔEV, defined as the EV of the high variance lottery minus the EV of the low variance lottery) was randomly drawn with uniform probability from the fol- 10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80,90,110]. Keeping the sum of EV constant simplified the design of the task and allowed us to adopt a simple criterion for magnitude judgments on the Estimate task. ...
In natural settings, people evaluate complex multi-attribute situations and decide which attribute to request information about. Little is known about how people make this selection and specifically, how they identify individual observations that best predict the value of a multi-attribute situation. Here show that, in a simple task of information demand, participants inefficiently query attributes that have high individual value but are relatively uninformative about a total payoff. This inefficiency is robust in two instrumental conditions in which gathering less informative observations leads to significantly lower rewards. Across individuals, variations in the sensitivity to informativeness is associated with personality metrics, showing negative associations with extraversion and thrill seeking and positive associations with stress tolerance and need for cognition. Thus, people select informative queries using sub-optimal strategies that are associated with personality traits and influence consequential choices.
... Need for cognition (NFC) was based on a five-item scale from the short NFC measure by Cacioppo et al. (1984). ...
The Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT) is a widely used measure of individual propensity to rely on analytic thinking. This measure is consistently related to decision-making tasks, beliefs and real-life decision outcomes and also inversely related to conformist and mindless decision making. Drawing from previous studies showing that food choices are related to cognitive style, we hypothesised that an analytic cognitive style would be inversely related to meat consumption and beliefs supporting meat eating. In two highly powered studies (total N = 7,283), we investigated the relationship between the CRT and meat consumption and associated beliefs, controlling for relevant demographics. Our results showed that a higher CRT score predicted self-identification as vegetarian, exclusion of meat and fish from diet and lower belief that meat consumption is normal and necessary for health (study 1). This link remained when need for cognition and self-esteem were introduced as concurrent predictors (study 2). Despite a small observed effect size, these results confirm the relevance of the CRT for investigating consequential decision making and habits.
We show that learners generalized more broadly around the learned stimulus when they expected more variability between the learning set and the generalization set, as well as within the generalization set. Experiments 1 and 3 used a predictive learning task and demonstrated border perceptual generalization both when expected variability was manipulated explicitly via instructions (Experiment 1), and implicitly by increasing temporal distance to the anticipated application of learning (Experiment 3). Experiment 2 showed that expecting to apply learning in the more distant future increases expected variability in the generalization set. We explain the relation between expected variability and generalization as an accuracy-applicability trade-off: when learners anticipate more variable generalization targets, they “cast a wider net” during learning, by attributing the outcome to a broader range of stimuli. The use of more abstract, broader categories when anticipating a more distant future application aligns with Construal Level Theory of psychological distance.
Ensuring quality human-AI interaction (HAII) in safety-critical industries is essential. Failure to do so can lead to catastrophic and deadly consequences. Despite this urgency, existing research on HAII is limited, fragmented, and inconsistent. We present here a survey of that literature and recommendations for research best practices that should improve the field. We divided our investigation into the following areas: 1) terms used to describe HAII, 2) primary roles of AI-enabled systems, 3) factors that influence HAII, and 4) how HAII is measured. Additionally, we described the capabilities and maturity of the AI-enabled systems used in safety-critical industries discussed in these articles. We found that no single term is used across the literature to describe HAII and some terms have multiple meanings. According to our literature, seven factors influence HAII: user characteristics (e.g., user personality), user perceptions and attitudes (e.g., user biases), user expectations and experience (e.g., mismatched user expectations and experience), AI interface and features (e.g., interactive design), AI output (e.g., perceived accuracy), explainability and interpretability (e.g., level of detail, user understanding), and usage of AI (e.g., heterogeneity of environments). HAII is most measured with user-related subjective metrics (e.g., user perceptions, trust, and attitudes), and AI-assisted decision-making is the most common primary role of AI-enabled systems. Based on this review, we conclude that there are substantial research gaps in HAII. Researchers and developers need to codify HAII terminology, involve users throughout the AI lifecycle (especially during development), and tailor HAII in safety-critical industries to the users and environments.
Effort is commonly characterized as a negative, unpleasant experience. This research explores the extent to which individuals vary in whether they believe effort to be enjoyable or aversive and how this relates to a range of behavioural and physiological indicators of effort exertion. In 4 studies (N = 1690), participants either completed an Effort Enjoyment Belief Scale or were experimentally led to believe that effort is enjoyable or aversive. Results showed that on average, participants tended to believe that effort is enjoyable. Both measured and manipulated effort enjoyment beliefs predicted difficulty selection on an arithmetic task. Further, the beliefs predicted effort exertion as assessed via cardiovascular measurements (β-adrenergic sympathetic activity) and were associated with high school grades and subjective evaluation of academic success at university. These results imply that the subjective cost or value of effort may be affected by (social) learning experiences, shaping individual’s effort enjoyment beliefs and, in turn, their tendency to approach or avoid demanding tasks and the exertion of effort. Thus, when modelling behaviour as the result of a cost-benefit analysis, effort may not contribute exclusively to the costs but also add value to a course of action, depending on individuals’ effort enjoyment beliefs.
The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of the Philosophy for Teachers Education Program (P4TEduP) on the professional identity perception, need for cognition, and educational beliefs of teachers and pre-service teachers. In the research, a pretest-posttest design with a non-equivalent control group, one of the quasi-experimental designs, was used. The research includes three separate experimental applications called Experimental Application I, Experimental Application II and Experimental Application III. In all experimental applications, one of the groups was assigned as the experimental group and the other as the control group. Experimental Application I consisted of 32 pre-service teachers (15 experimental-17 control) studying in different departments and grade levels of Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University Faculty of Education in the spring term of the 2021-2022 academic year; Experimental Application II consisted of 12 pre-service teachers (6 experimental-6 control) studying in different departments and grade levels of Maltepe University Faculty of Education in the spring term of the 2022-2023 academic year. Experimental Application III consisted of 28 teachers (13 experimental-15 control) working at different levels and disciplines of a private school in the Gaziosmanpaşa district of İstanbul in the 2023-2024 academic year. In the practices carried out with pre-service teachers, P4TEduP is in the form of distance education within the scope of the “Critical and Analytical Thinking” course; In the practices carried out with teachers, P4TEduP was carried out face to face under the name of “Philosophy for Teachers Workshop” within the scope of the school's professional development program. In both contexts, philosophical inquiry studies were conducted with the P4T stimulus package prepared and applied by the researcher.
In the study, “Educational Belief Scale”, “Need for Cognition Scale” and “Early Teacher Identity Measure” were applied as pre-test and post-test to measure the effect of P4TEduP.
During the analysis of the data, descriptive analyzes were made using the SPSS Statistics 21 program and the normality distribution of the data was checked. Accordingly, comparisons within-groups Paired Samples t Test was used for normally distributed variables, and Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test for non-normally distributed variables; In comparisons between groups, the Independent Samples t Test was applied when the variables had a normal distribution, and the Mann-Whitney U Test was applied when the variables did not have a normal distribution.
At the end of the research, within-group comparisons in Experimental Application I and Experimental Application II showed that P4TEduP had a positive effect on the professional identity perceptions and need for cognition of the pre-service teachers in the experimental group; On the other hand, it revealed that it did not have an impact on educational beliefs. In the Experimental Application III application, within-group comparisons showed that P4TEduP had a significant effect on the educational beliefs and need for cognition of the teachers in the experimental group; Comparisons between groups similarly showed that teachers in the experimental group had a significant effect on the need for thinking. Contrary to this result, it was observed that P4TEduP did not have a significant effect on teachers' professional identity perceptions.
This book encompasses the foundational aspects of strategic leadership, leader communication as a catalyst for change management, managing strategy in dynamic markets, the strategic design process, organizing strategic leaders, functions and roles of strategic leadership within organizations, stages of building organizational culture, skills requisite for a strategic leader, characteristics of a strategic leader, communication in the workplace, and a participative approach to enhancing motivation and productivity.
Literature highlights the distinction between intuitive and analytic thinking as a prominent cognitive style distinction, leading to the proposal of various theories within the framework of the dual process model. However, it remains unclear whether individuals differ in their thinking styles along a single dimension, from intuitive to analytic, or if other dimensions are at play. Moreover, the presence of numerous thinking style measures, employing different terminology but conceptually overlapping, leads to confusion. To address these complexities, Newton et al. suggested the idea that individuals vary across multiple dimensions of intuitive–analytic thinking styles and distinguished thinking styles between 4 distinct types: Actively open-minded thinking, close-minded thinking, preference for effortful thinking, and preference for intuitive thinking. They proposed a new measure for this 4-factor disposition, The 4-Component Thinking Styles Questionnaire (4-CTSQ), to comprehensively capture the psychological outcomes related to thinking styles; however, no independent test exists. In the current pre-registered studies, we test the validity of 4-CTSQ for the first time beyond the original study and examine the association of the proposed measure with various factors, including morality, conspiracy beliefs, paranormal and religious beliefs, vaccine hesitancy, and ideology in an underrepresented culture, Türkiye. We found that the correlated 4-factor model of 4-CTSQ is an appropriate measure to capture individual differences based on cognitive style. The results endorse the notion that cognitive style differences are characterized by distinct structures rather than being confined to two ends of a single continuum.
Der vorliegende Band ist dem Verhältnis von Informationen, Wahlen und Demokratie gewidmet. Deutschland, aber auch andere Länder in den Blick nehmend, widmen sich die Autor:innen vor allem den Bürger:innen, ihren Einstellungen, Interessen und Wahlentscheidungen. Auch die Rolle von Kontexten wird beleuchtet, insbesondere von Informationskontexten: Wie und mit wem sprechen Menschen über Politik, wie informieren sie sich über neue und alte Medien, welche Rollen spielen intermediäre Instanzen?
The role of motivation in determining age differences in social representations was examined. Adults aged 20 to 83 years were given an impression formation task that attempted to manipulate motivation by varying the characteristics of the target and the extent to which participants would be held accountable for their impressions. It was hypothesized that increasing age would be associated with greater selectivity in the use of available cognitive resources to support the construction of accurate representations. Support for this hypothesis was obtained when trait inferences and recall were examined. Specifically, older adults made more accurate trait inferences and recalled more information when the target was similar in age or they were held accountable for their impressions. In contrast, younger adults demonstrated similar levels of accuracy across conditions. The fact that these effects were observed when cognitive resources was controlled suggests a motivational effect that is independent of age differences in cognitive ability.
Objectives: This study aimed to explore impact promotional pages on social media and their relation to the purchasing intention among Jordanian women. Additionally, the study investigated the volume of interaction and sought to understand the cognitive and emotional effects that occur as aresult of using those promotional pages on social media. Methods: In this study, data, information, and descriptions about the research phenomenon were obtained by using a questionnaire. The sample consisted of 441 Jordanian women. Results: The study found that the overall average change of purchasing intentions of Jordanian women increased because the pages of promotional companies on social media sites and reached to the average of (M= 3.54). In addition, the results showed a statistically significant correlation between the extent to which Jordanian women use promotional companies' pages on social media sites and purchasing intentions. The findings also revealed that there are statistically significant differences between the extent of use of promotional companies' pages on social media sites and demographic factors (age18 to 25 and social status single). Moreover, the findings stated that there are statistically significant differences between purchasing intentions and demographic factors (age18 to 25, social status single, and place of residence- rural). The study found that the overall average change in the purchasing intentions of Jordanian women increased due to the presence of promotional company pages on social media sites, with an average score of (M=3.54). Furthermore, the results showed a statistically significant correlation between the extent to which Jordanian women use promotional company pages on social media sites and their purchasing intentions. The findings also revealed statistically significant differences between the extent of usage of promotional company pages on social media sites and demographic factors (age 18 to 25 and social status single). Moreover, the findings stated that there are statistically significant differences between purchasing intentions and demographic factors (age 18 to 25, social status single, and place of residence - rural). Conclusions: Cognitive influences were found to be more prominent than emotional effects in Jordanian women's exposure to promotional pages, with a higher perceived power of influence (M=2.92) compared to emotional effects (M=2.77). Additionally, the results indicate a significant relationship between cognitive and knowledge influences and purchasing intention.
Metakognicija, shvaćena kao znanje o sopstvenim kognitivnim procesima, pri čemu se odnosi, između ostalog, i na aktivno praćenje i posledično regulisanje ovih procesa, uključena je u različite aktivnosti tokom procesa učenja (obrazovanja). Sastoji se iz dva različita, međusobno povezana dela, metakognitivno znanje, koje je svest o svom razmišljanju i metakognitivna regulacija, koja je sposobnost upravljanja sopstvenim procesom razmišljanja. Cilj rada je ispitivanje i procena nivoa razvijenosti metakognitivne svesnosti studenata, razvijenost određenih domena metakognicije (orijentacija ka cilju, metakognitivno znanje, metakognitivna iskustva, metakognitivni izbor, metakognitivno praćenje), kao i odnos pola, godine studija i prosečne ocene na studijama, sa nivoom metakognicije. Istraživanje obuhvata ispitivanje 160 studenata Specijalne edukacije i rehabilitacije u Novom Sadu (152 ženskog pola i 8 studenata muškog pola), korišćenjem Upitnika za procenu metakognitivne svesnosti – GMAC (Generalized Measure of Adaptive Cognition). Rezultati ukazuju na prisutnost visokog nivoa metakognitivne svesnosti, pri čemu nisu pronađene statistički značajne razlike po polu, prosečnoj oceni tokom studija i godini studija, osim na dimenziji Orijentacija ka cilju, gde studenti ženskog pola pokazuju bolje rezultate. Dimenzija Orijentacija ka cilju se statistički značajno razlikuje od preostalih dimenzija Metakognitivno iskustvo, Izbor i Praćenje. Na ovoj dimenziji se ujedno beleže i najviši prosečni skorovi. Nalazi istraživanja upućuju na važnost proučavanja metakognicije i imliciraju mogućnosti unapređivanja metakognicije studenata.
From the perspective of passengers’ cognitive needs, this paper discusses the impact of changes in subway space on passengers’ cognitive activities in the current development of subway. Based on the theory of emotional design, it focuses on the application of emotional factors brought by regional culture in subway sign design. It can provide theoretical basis and practical model for the healthy development of metro spatial information dissemination and regional culture. The purpose of this study is to explore the new needs of passengers under the condition of subway station expansion and complex development through investigation, and to explore the application of regional culture based on emotional design in subway space identification from the perspective of cognitive needs. Based on the grounded theory, this paper constructs the theoretical framework of emotional regional culture in Wuhan Jiedaokou subway Station. According to this theoretical framework, the location sign of escalator on the riding floor of subway Station No. 8 is designed. The results show that the design of subway space signs based on the affective region theory can help to lower the threshold of cognitive active behavior and improve the cognitive needs of subway passengers for signs.KeywordsSubway space guideCognitive needEmotional design
The effect of different amounts of risk information in DTC ads on recall was examined in an experiment. Three versions of DTC ads, containing different amounts of risk information were developed based on FDA guidelines and shown to participants in a 3 x 3 between group design. Participants’ unaided recall of ad information suggest a main effect of ad version on recall, with the ads that have moderate amount of risk information eliciting the most recall of risk information. The moderating role of involvement was inconclusive. Since the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) eased restrictions on Direct to Consumer (DTC) advertising of prescription drugs in the 1980s, the debate regarding appropriate risk disclosures that would enable consumers make accurate assessment of drugs continues. At the core is what risk disclosure formats lead to adequate recall of risk information. This paper explores the role of involvement in recall of risk disclosures in print ads containing varying amounts of risk information. This exploratory study uses experimental methodology and helps provide preliminary insights into this important issue. Findings from this study could serve as a basis for developing larger studies to examine this issue in more depth to reach actionable conclusions that would inform policy recommendations on what level of risk disclosure should be encouraged to achieve the desired levels of risk information recall.
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