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EFFECTS OF TRADITIONAL AND PYRAMIDAL
RESISTANCE TRAINING SYSTEMS ON MUSCULAR
STRENGTH,MUSCLE MASS,AND HORMONAL
RESPONSES IN OLDER WOMEN:ARANDOMIZED
CROSSOVER TRIAL
ALEX S. RIBEIRO,
1
BRAD J. SCHOENFELD,
2
STEVEN J. FLECK,
3
FA
´BIO L.C. PINA,
1
MATHEUS A. NASCIMENTO,
1,4
AND EDILSON S. CYRINO
1
1
Metabolism, Nutrition, and Exercise Laboratory, Londrina State University, Londrina, Brazil;
2
Exercise Science Department,
CUNY Lehman College, Bronx, New York;
3
Andrews Research and Education Foundation, Gulf Breeze, Florida; and
4
Parana
´State University, UNESPAR, Paranavaı´Campus, Paranavaı´
, Brazil
ABSTRACT
Ribeiro, AS, Schoenfeld, BJ, Fleck, SJ, Pina, FLC, Nascimento,
MA, and Cyrino, ES. Effects of traditional and pyramidal
resistance training systems on muscular strength, muscle mass,
and hormonal responses in older women: a randomized cross-
over trial. J Strength Cond Res 31(7): 1888–1896, 2017—The
purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of resistance
training(RT)performedinapyramid(PR)versusatraditional(TD)
system on muscular strength, muscle mass, and hormonal re-
sponses in older women. Twenty-five older women (67.6 65.1
years, 65.9 611.1 kg, 154.7 65.8 cm, and 27.5 64.5 kg$m
22
)
performed both a TD and PR system RT program in a balanced
crossover design. The TD program consisted of 3 sets of 8–12
repetition maximum (RM) with a constant load for the 3 sets,
whereas the PR system consisted of 3 sets of 12/10/8-RM with
incrementally higher loads for each set. Training was performed in
2 phases of 8 weeks each, with a 12-week washout between the
8-week phases. One repetition maximum (1RM) tests were used
as measures of muscular strength. Dual X-ray absorptiometry was
used to estimate skeletal muscle mass. Testosterone and IGF-1
concentrations were determined preintervention and postinter-
vention after 12 hours fasting. Significant (p#0.05) increases
were observed in both groups for muscular strength in the 1RM
chest press (TD = 12.4% and effect size [ES] = 0.86 vs. PR =
11.5% and ES = 0.74), knee extension (TD = 12.5% and
ES=0.61vs.PR=11.8%andES=0.62),preachercurl
(TD=10.9%andES=0.63vs.PR=8.6%andES=0.54),
and for skeletal muscle mass (TD = 3.6% and ES = 0.32 vs.
PR = 2.4% and ES = 0.24) with no differences between groups.
There were no significant (p.0.05) main effects for IGF-1 and
testosterone. The results suggest that the PR and TD systems
performed are similarly effective for promoting positive adaptations
in muscular strength and hypertrophy in older women.
KEY WORDS strength training, aging, training system,
hypertrophy
INTRODUCTION
Aging is associated with various physiological
changes that detrimentally affect the neuromuscu-
lar system, including a reduction in muscular
strength and skeletal muscle mass (4,8). The loss
of strength and muscle mass are 2 of the main reasons for
a decrease in performance of daily life activities in older in-
dividuals and negatively affect health, functional autonomy,
survival, and quality of life in older individuals (4,8,24). Older
women are particularly susceptible to the damaging effects of
sarcopenia and dynapenia because of hormonal alterations
after menopause and because women usually have lower ini-
tial levels of strength and muscle mass than do men (4,18).
Resistance training (RT) promotes positive adaptations that
attenuate the deleterious effects of aging (2,5,14). However, it
has been demonstrated that older individuals display an
altered response to RTcompared with the young (21,23), thus
investigations concerning the response of the elderly to vari-
ous RT training programs or systems are warranted. Resis-
tance training prescription involves a number of variables of
which training volume and intensity are key components (2).
Training volume is a summation of the total number of rep-
etitions performed multiplied by the resistance used and is
affected by the number of sets, repetitions, and exercises per-
formed as well as training frequency (2). Intensity refers to the
Address correspondence to Alex S. Ribeiro, alex-silvaribeiro@
hotmail.com.
31(7)/1888–1896
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Ó2016 National Strength and Conditioning Association
1888
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absolute or relative resistance used for a given exercise or
movement (2) and is affected by the rest interval between sets
and exercises and velocity of movement.
Studies indicate a clear dose-response relationship
between the magnitude of load and muscular strength
increase in older individuals (11,13,27,34). However, for
muscular hypertrophy, greater loads do not necessarily result
in maximal adaptations (29). Muscular hypertrophy is
hypothesized to be stimulated by mechanical and metabolic
stress, muscle damage, and the interaction between these
factors (28), and moderate volume and intensity are pur-
ported to optimize hypertrophic adaptations (2). This is
mainly due to the interdependence between intensity and
volume; that is, high-intensity training does not allow a suf-
ficient training volume to create an optimal anabolic
environment. To optimize the hypertrophic response of
RT systems that allow the use of higher intensities without
drastic reductions in volume have been suggested.
The pyramid system (PR), because of its inherent
characteristic of varying the resistance used and number of
repetitions, permits exercise performance at higher intensi-
ties without necessarily causing a loss in volume, thus
maintaining a favorable anabolic environment for increased
muscle hypertrophy and thus strength gains. Hypothetically,
if a PR system allows training with high intensity and
maintains volume, the metabolic and mechanical stimuli
necessary to maximize muscle growth may be optimized.
Based on this information, we cannot rule out the possibility
that the PR system may elicit greater improvements of
adaptations induced by RT. However, although the PR
system is widely used by practitioners, there is little scientific
basis to support its actual effectiveness.
The main anabolic hormones involved in muscle growth
and remodeling are testosterone and insulin-like growth
factor (IFG-1) (30). Mechanical loading elicits acute in-
creases in anabolic hormones such as testosterone and
IGF-1, although the hypertrophic effects of this response
remain equivocal (28–30). There is evidence that basal levels
of testosterone and IGF-1 influence the anabolic response to
RT (3,12). However, it remains largely unknown whether
there are differential effects between RT systems with respect
to changes in the basal hormonal levels.
Therefore, the main objective of this study was to
investigate the effect of RT performed in a PR system and
traditional (TD) system on muscular strength, muscle mass,
and hormonal responses in older women. We hypothesized
that the PR system would result in greater increases in
muscular strength and hypertrophy compared with a TD
system. The rationale for this hypothesis is based on the
dose-response relationship between intensity and volume on
muscular strength, and hypertrophy, because the PR system
ostensibly allows for the use of higher intensities of load
during the final sets of an exercise without impairing volume
in the target repetition range (i.e., 8–12 repetition maximum
[RM]).
METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem
The study was performed over a period of 36 weeks divided
into 3 phases. In the first phase, participants were randomly
separated into 2 groups that performed 8 weeks (weeks 3–10)
of RT of either a TD and PR system. Phase 2 was a 12-week
period of detraining (weeks 13–24) in which no resistance
exercise was performed. The intent of the detraining phase
was to return participant’s physical fitness levels to baseline
values. Phase 3 used a crossover so that subjects who per-
formed the PR system in phase 1 underwent 8 weeks of
training using the TD system (weeks 27–34) and those who
previously performed the TD system engaged in an 8-week
program using the PR system. At the beginning and the end
of each phase of the experiment, 2 weeks were allocated for
evaluations (weeks 1–2, 11–12, 25–26, and 35–36) consisting
of anthropometric measures, tests of 1 repetition maximum
(1RM), body composition analysis by dual-energy X-ray ab-
sorptiometry (DXA), and blood work for biochemical analy-
sis. The experimental design is displayed in Figure 1.
Subjects
Participants were recruited through newspaper and radio
advertisements and home delivery of leaflets in residential
neighborhoods. All participants completed health history
and physical activity questionnaires and met the following
inclusion criteria: 60 years old or older, physically indepen-
dent, free from cardiac or orthopedic problems, not receiving
hormonal replacement therapy, and not performing any
regular physical exercise more than once a week during the 6
months before start of the study. Participants passed
a diagnostic, graded exercise stress test with a 12-lead
electrocardiogram reviewed by a cardiologist and were
released by the cardiologist for participation in this study
with no restrictions on physical activity. Forty older women
were accessed for eligibility. After individual interviews, 11
women who did not meet the inclusion criteria were
excluded. The remaining 29 older women were selected
for participation and then were randomly assigned to 1 of 2
RTgroups: a group that performed the TD system (n= 14)
or a group that performed the PR system (n= 15) in the first
phase of the study protocol. A total of 25 participants (67.6 6
5.1 years, 65.9 611.1 kg, 154.7 65.8 cm, and 27.5 64.5
kg$m
22
) completed all stages of the study and were included
in the analyses. The reasons for withdrawal from the study
were reported as lack of time, transportation issues, lack of
motivation, and personal reasons. Adherence to the program
was satisfactory, with all subjects participating in .85% of
the total sessions. Figure 2 is a schematic representation of
participants’ recruitment and group assignment.
Written informed consent was obtained from all subjects
after a detailed description of study procedures was pro-
vided. This investigation was conducted according to the
Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the local
University Ethics Committee.
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Anthropometry
Body mass was measured to the nearest 0.1 kg using
a calibrated electronic scale (Balmak, Laboratory Equipment
Labstore, Curitiba, Brazil), with the participants wearing
light workout clothing and no shoes. The height was
measured to the nearest 0.1 cm with a stadiometer attached
to the scale with subjects wearing no shoes. The body mass
index was calculated as body mass in kilograms divided by
the square of height in meters.
Muscle Mass
Skeletal muscle mass was estimated by the predictive
equation proposed by Kim et al. (20). The appendicular fat-
free mass used for the equation was determined by a DXA
scan (Lunar Prodigy, model NRL 41990; GE Lunar, Madison,
WI). Before scanning, participants were instructed to remove
their personal objects containing metal. Scans were performed
with the subjects lying in the supine position along the table’s
longitudinal centerline axis. Feet were taped together at the
toes to immobilize the legs while the hands were maintained
in a pronated position within the scanning region. Subjects
remained motionless during the entire scanning procedure.
Both the calibration check and analysis were performed by
a skilled laboratory technician. The equipment calibration was
checked following the manufacturer’s recommendations. Soft-
ware generated lines using standard anatomical landmarks
that separated the limbs from the trunk and head. These lines
were adjusted, if needed, by the same technician using specific
anatomical landmarks. Analyses during the intervention were
performed by the same technician who was blinded to the
intervention time point and which RE training program the
participants were performing at the different time points of
the study. Previous test-retest scans resulted in an SE of mea-
surement of 0.29 kg and intraclass correlation coefficient of
0.997 for skeletal muscle mass.
Muscular Strength
Maximal dynamic strength was evaluated using the 1RM
test assessed for the chest press, knee extension, and
preacher curl performed in the order listed. Testing for each
exercise was preceded by a warm-up set (6–10 repetitions),
with approximately 50% of the estimated load used in the
first attempt of the 1RM. This warm-up was also used to
familiarize the subjects with the testing equipment and lifting
Figure 1. Experimental design.
Resistance Training Systems in Older Women
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technique. The testing procedure was initiated 2 minutes
after the warm-up set. The subjects were instructed to try
to accomplish 2 repetitions with the load in 3 attempts in all
exercises tested. The rest period was 3–5 minutes between
each attempt and 5 minutes between exercises. The 1RM
was recorded as the last resistance lifted in which the subject
was able to complete only 1 repetition (1). The technique for
each exercise was standardized and continuously monitored
to ensure reliability. All 1RM testing sessions were super-
vised by 2 experienced researchers to maximize safety and
test reliability. Verbal encouragement was given throughout
each test. Three 1RM sessions were performed separated by
48 hours (intraclass correlation coefficient $0.96). The
highest load achieved among the 3 sessions was used for
analysis in each exercise. Total strength was determined as
the sum of the 3 exercises.
Biochemical Analysis
Serum levels of testosterone and IFG-1 were measured after
12 hours of fasting with blood taken from the antecubital
vein. The subjects were instructed not to perform vigorous
exercise for the preceding 24 hours and to avoid alcohol or
caffeinated beverages 72 hours before the blood collections.
Measurements were performed by standard methods in
a University Hospital laboratory. Samples were collected in
vacutainers with a gel separator without anticoagulant and
were centrifuged for 10 minutes at 3,000 rpm for serum
separation. Interassay and intra-assay CVs were ,10% as
determined in human serum. Serum testosterone and
IGF-1 concentrations were determined by a chemilumines-
cence method using a Liaison XL Immunoassay Analyzer
(DiaSorin S.p.A, Saluggia, Italy).
Volume Load
During every RTsession, the load and number of repetitions
performed during each set of the 8 exercises were recorded.
The volume for each set of all exercises was calculated by
multiplying the load times the number of repetitions in each
set performed. Volume of each exercise per session was
calculated as the sum of the volume of all 3 sets for each
TABLE 1. Training loads (in kg) at the first and last week of the resistance training program.*
Traditional Pyramid Effects F p
First week 1,219.8 6104.6 1,389.9 6107.1†Group 3.84 0.05
Last week 1,901.2 6189.9z2,064.1 6196.1†zTime 391.05 ,0.001
D% 55.9 48.5 Interaction 2.29 0.11
Effect size 4.63 4.45
*Data are expressed as mean 6SD.
†p,vs. traditional group.
zp#0.05 vs. pretraining.
Figure 2. Schematic representation of participants’ recruitment and allocation.
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exercise. The total volume per session was calculated as the
sum of all 8 exercises. Weekly volume was calculated as the
sum of the 3 sessions performed in a week.
Resistance Training Program
Supervised RT was performed during the morning hours in
the State University facilities. The protocol was based on
recommendations for RT in an older population to improve
muscular strength and hypertrophy (2,14). All participants
were personally supervised by physical education professio-
nals to help ensure consistent and safe exercise performance.
Subjects performed RT using a combination of free weights
and machines. The sessions were performed 3 times per
week on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays. The RT pro-
gram was a whole-body program of 8 exercises with 1 exer-
cise performed with free weights and 7 with machines.
Exercises were performed in the following order: chest press,
horizontal leg press, seated row, knee extension, preacher
Figure 3. Muscular strength (A-D), fat-free mass (E), and skeletal muscle mass (F) at pre- and posttraining. *p#0.05 vs. pretraining. Data are expressed as
mean and SD. There was no statistically significant group-by-time interaction.
Resistance Training Systems in Older Women
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curl (free weights), leg curl, triceps pushdown, and seated
calf raise.
Participants of the TD group performed 3 sets of 8–12 RM
with the same load for all 3 sets, whereas the participants of
the PR group performed 3 sets of 12, 10, and 8 RM. For both
systems, the participants carried sets to muscle failure or an
inability to sustain exercise performance with proper exer-
cise technique.
Participants were instructed to inhale during the eccentric
phase and exhale during the concentric phase of each
repetition while maintaining a constant velocity of movement
at a ratio of approximately 1:2 (concentric and eccentric phases,
respectively). Participants were allowed 1–2 minutes of rest
between sets of an exercise and 2–3 minutes between exercises.
Researchers adjusted the loads of each exercise according to
the subject’s abilities and im-
provements in exercise capacity
throughout the study to ensure
that the subjects were exercising
with as much resistance as pos-
sible while maintaining proper
exercise technique. The incre-
mental adjustment of loads from
set to set was in the magnitude
of approximately 2–5%. Pro-
gression for the TD occurred
when the upper limits of the
repetition zone was completed
for 2 consecutive training ses-
sions. Progression for the PR
occurred when the participant
was able to perform 12 and 10
repetitions with the 12 and 10
RM loads and 10 repetitions
with the 8 RM load. Progression
for both training systems was
accomplished by increasing the
load for the upper limb and lower limb exercises by 2–5% and
5–10%, respectively, in the next session (2).
Statistical Analyses
Two-way analysis of variance for repeated measures was used
for comparisons of the 2 training groups. When an F-ratio
was significant, Bonferroni’s post hoc test was used to identify
where the mean differences were significant. The comparison
between RT systems for the number of repetitions performed
was assessed by Student’s dependent ttest. The effect size
(ES) was calculated as posttraining mean minus pretraining
mean divided by pooled SD before and after training (9). For
all statistical analyses, significance was accepted at p#0.05.
The data were analyzed using STATISTICA software version
10.0 (StatSoft, Inc., Tulsa, OK, USA).
Figure 4. Weekly volume of load during a resistance training program in older women according to resistance
training system. *p#0.05 vs. previous week. **p#0.05 vs. 2 previous weeks. §p#0.05 vs. pyramid. There is
a statistically significant group-by-time interaction.
TABLE 2. Anabolic hormones in older women before and after training according to the resistance training system.*
Traditional Pyramid Effects F p
IGF-1 (ng$ml
21
)
Pretraining 137.1 635.0 134.2 643.7 Group 3.01 0.10
Posttraining 140.1 632.9 137.5 639.2 Time 0.30 0.58
D% 2.2 2.5 Interaction 0.17 0.68
Effect size 0.09 0.08
Testosterone (ng$ml
21
)
Pretraining 0.35 60.7 0.33 60.4 Group 1.37 0.25
Posttraining 0.36 60.5 0.34 60.3 Time 0.29 0.59
D% 2.9 3.0 Interaction 1.56 0.22
Effect size 0.02 0.03
*Data are expressed as mean 6SD.
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RESULTS
The average of number of repetitions per exercise performed
throughout the training was statistically (p,0.001) different
between systems with more repetitions per exercise per-
formed during the TD training (32.2 61.6, 95% confidence
interval [CI] = 31.4–32.8) compared with PR training
(30.1 60.3, 95% CI = 30.0–30.3). The total training loads
in both the first and the last week of the RT program are
depicted in Table 1. There was a significant main effect of
group (p#0.05), in which, as expected, the PR presented
higher values than did the TD. There was a significant main
effect of time (p#0.05) with both groups showing increases;
however, no group-by-time interaction was noted (p.0.05).
Figure 3 shows the results for muscular strength, fat-free
mass, and skeletal muscle mass before and after training for
both groups. There was no significant group-by-time inter-
action (p.0.05) for any of the exercises analyzed and for
the sum of the 3 exercises. However, a significant main effect
of time was observed (p,0.001), in which increases were
observed for chest press (TD = 12.4% and ES = 0.86 vs.
PR = 11.5% and ES = 0.74), knee extension (TD = 12.5%
and ES = 0.61 vs. PR = 11.8% and ES = 0.62), preacher curl
(TD = 10.9% and ES = 0.63 vs. PR = 8.6% and ES = 0.54),
and total strength (TD = 11.6% and ES = 0.78 vs. PR =
10.6% and ES = 0.71). For body composition, there was
no significant group-by-time interaction for any of the com-
ponents determined (p.0.05). However, a significant main
effect of time (p,0.001) was observed in which both groups
had increased fat-free mass (TD = 2.1% and ES = 0.27 vs.
PR = 1.3% and ES = 0.18) and skeletal muscle mass (TD =
3.6% and ES = 0.32 vs. PR = 2.4% and ES = 0.24).
Figure 4 depicts the weekly volume load. There was a sig-
nificant group-by-time interaction (p,0.001), in which
differences between both groups started from the third week,
with the TD system reaching higher volume loads in
comparison with PR system.
Resting values before and after training for IGF-1 and
testosterone are presented in Table 2. There were no signif-
icant differences for the hormones tested (p.0.05). The
effect of 12 weeks of detraining is presented in Table 3; there
was no group-by-time interaction (p.0.05) for any of the
outcomes analyzed, which indicates that the TD and PR
systems showed similar loss of adaptations due to detraining.
DISCUSSION
The main and novel finding of this study was that the RT
performed in the PR system is equally as effective as a TD
system for promoting adaptations in muscular strength and
hypertrophy in older women. Based on the premise that
intensity and volume of training are 2 primary variables that
stimulate neuromuscular adaptations (2,28), we had hypoth-
esized that the PR system would produce superior results.
Specifically, it was speculated that the PR system would
allow the use of higher intensities of load during the final
TABLE 3. Changes after 12 weeks of detraining.*
Traditional (n= 13) Pyramid (n= 12) p
Predetraining Postdetraining
ES D%
Predetraining Postdetraining
ES D% Group Time InteractionMean 6SD Mean 6SD
Muscular strength
Chest press (kg) 39.7 65.3 38.0 66.2†20.30 24.3 37.4 64.1 35.6 64.9†20.40 24.8 0.26 ,0.001 0.94
Knee extension (kg) 44.6 64.9 43.3 65.6†20.25 22.9 44.2 69.3 42.4 69.5†20.19 24.1 0.82 ,0.001 0.61
Preacher curl (kg) 22.0 63.7 20.3 63.9†25.53 29.1 21.1 62.9 19.1 62.7†20.71 29.5 0.44 ,0.001 0.68
Total strength (kg) 106.3 612.6 101.6 614.6†20.35 24.4 102.7 613.6 97.2 614.2†20.40 25.4 0.47 ,0.001 0.53
Body composition
Fat-free mass (kg) 39.0 62.4 38.2 62.9†20.30 22.1 38.1 63.1 37.6 63.5†20.15 21.3 0.54 0.01 0.48
Muscle mass (kg) 17.3 61.6 17.0 61.7†20.18 21.7 16.4 61.7 16.1 61.7†20.18 21.8 0.19 0.01 0.96
Hormones
IGF-1 (ng$ml
21
) 143.1 632.4 139.0 628.9 20.26 22.9 138.8 642.8 133.9 639.5 20.12 23.5 0.21 0.09 0.32
Testosterone (ng$ml
21
) 0.37 60.8 0.35 60.7 20.03 25.4 0.32 60.2 0.29 60.1 20.20 29.4 0.15 0.06 0.28
*ES = effect size.
†p#0.05 vs. predetraining.
Resistance Training Systems in Older Women
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sets of an exercise without impairing volume in the target
repetitions range (i.e., 8–12 repetitions maximum). The
greatest gains in maximum strength are achieved by training
with higher loads, and there is a dose-response relationship
between magnitude of load and muscular strength in older
adults (11,13,27,34). Contrary to our hypothesis, the results
of this study failed to demonstrate superiority of the PR over
the TD system.
Previously, Hunter et al. (19) investigated the effect of
variable loads in older adults and observed that a varied daily
loading approach (80, 65, and 50% of 1RM) reduced the
difficulty of performing daily activity tasks to a greater extent
than did training with a constant load (80% of 1RM) despite
similar increases in muscular strength and fat-free mass
between groups. However, some methodological differences
between this study and the study by Hunter et al. (19) need
to be pointed out. The study by Hunter et al. (19) had a wider
variance of load and included both older men and women,
which might affect the results because older women respond
differently than older men to a RT program (25). Moreover,
we used a crossover design, an experimental procedure that
reduces interindividual bias, and therefore strengthens
confidence in our findings.
A confounding issue when evaluating muscle mass increases
in studies that compare different intensities of training is that
the total volume often differs between models (32). When the
aim is to analyze hypertrophic responses, studies show that
the total volume does affect the hypertrophic response. For
example, studies that compared different intensities with
matched volumes did not find statistical differences in muscle
hypertrophy between low and high intensities (6,31). Alterna-
tively, studies without volume equalization generally show
that lower intensity RT results in inferior hypertrophic gains
compared with moderate intensities (7,26). The PR system
theoretically allows training with higher loads, at least during
the final sets of an exercise, without reducing the training
volume from a loading zone standpoint. The results observed
in this study indicate that increases in skeletal muscle mass are
similar between the RT systems, despite a significantly lower
volume load observed in the PR condition. A clear dose-
response relationship has been reported between RT volume
and muscular strength and hypertrophy (22). The current re-
sults show that the PR system did allow higher loads, but the
weekly training volume was lower with the PR system than
with the TD system. However, beneficial effects of increasing
the volume undoubtedly follows an inverted-U curve, whereby
once a given threshold is reached, any further increases in
volume would have no further effect and at some point lead
to regression in gains. The results of our study would seem to
indicate that the threshold for volume in the population stud-
ied was achieved in the PR system, making the discrepancies
in the volume of load irrelevant in terms of producing a hyper-
trophic response. Alternatively, it is possible that increased
intensities of load used in the later sets may have compensated
for the reduced volume, thereby balancing out gains between
training groups. These hypotheses warrant further
investigation.
Blood concentrations of anabolic hormones are dimin-
ished with aging (10,17,33), which may lead to attenuation of
anabolic effects on muscles. No statistically significant
changes were observed with respect to resting circulating
testosterone and IGF-1 levels after the RT period. These
results are in line with previous studies that investigated
the effects of RT on testosterone and IG F-1 in older women
(15,16). Despite low levels of anabolic hormones, older
women nevertheless show significant increases in muscular
hypertrophy after RT. Our study measured only serum hor-
monal values; it is possible that the RT program induced
changes at the hormone receptor level that enhanced the
anabolic processes (35).
It is important to note that this study has several limitations.
The findings are specific to untrained older women and
cannot necessarily be extrapolated to other populations.
Whether results would differ for younger individuals, men,
or those with previous RT experience remains to be deter-
mined. Moreover, our results are limited to a short-term RT
period, and we cannot rule out the possibility that findings
would differ over longer training durations.
We conclude that RT performed in a PR system is an
effective method to promote positive short-term adaptations
of muscular strength and hypertrophy in older women.
However, it does not provide any inherent advantages over
a TD system. Thus, the practitioner can decide which system
to use depending on the trainees’ personal preference.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Our findings show that both RT systems (PR and TD) are
equally effective for increasing strength and muscle mass in
older women. The results indicate that practitioners have the
flexibility of choosing the RT system based on the trainees’
preference. Practitioners also have the option of using a com-
bination of different RT systems over time, as this may help
to maintain interest in and motivation to perform RT by
allowing a varied RT program.
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