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Mapping marine debris across coastal communities in Belize: developing a baseline for understanding the distribution of litter on beaches using geographic information systems

DOI:10.1007/s10661-016-5544-4
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Paulita Bennett-Martin
Paulita Bennett-Martin
Paulita Bennett-Martin
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Christy C Visaggi at Georgia State University
Christy C Visaggi
Timothy Hawthorne at University of Central Florida
Timothy Hawthorne
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Abstract and Figures

Monitoring of marine debris (also known as marine litter) is an essential step in the process to eradicate ecological dangers in marine ecosystems caused by humans. This study examines marine debris in the Caribbean country of Belize using geographic information systems (GIS) to develop (1) a detailed data library for use on handheld Global Positioning System (GPS) units and tablets with mobile mapping applications for deployment in the field and (2) a freely available, online mapping portal to share data with Belizeans to encourage future citizen science efforts. Four diverse communities were targeted ranging from larger more populated towns, to smaller villages across central and southern Belize: San Pedro, Caye Caulker, Punta Gorda, and Monkey River. Fieldwork was conducted over 1 month, during which data points were collected in 50-m surveys followed by debris cleanup and removal. Features in our database included material, quantity, item, brand, and condition. Over 6000 pieces of debris were recorded in GIS for further analysis, and 299 gal of debris were removed from the shores of Belize. The most abundant form of debris observed was plastic (commonly bottles) across all locations; plastic comprised 77.6 % of all debris items observed. Through GIS, a detailed snapshot understanding of debris patterns across multiple settings in Belize was documented. Ongoing collaborations with local organizations in Belize have demonstrated significant interest and utility for such GIS approaches in analyzing and managing marine debris. The data, methodology, visual representations, and online mapping platform resulting from this research are a first step in directly supporting local Belizean community advocacy and policy, while contributing to larger institutional strategies for addressing marine debris issues in the Caribbean.
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Mapping marine debris across coastal communities in Belize:
developing a baseline for understanding the distribution
of litter on beaches using geographic information systems
Paulita Bennett-Martin &Christy C. Visaggi &
Timothy L. Hawthorne
Received: 29 December 2015 / Accepted: 24 August 2016 /Published online: 10 September 2016
#Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
Abstract Monitoring of marine debris (also known as
marine litter) is an essential step in the process to eradi-
cate ecological dangers in marine ecosystems caused by
humans. This study examines marine debris in the
Caribbean country of Belize using geographic informa-
tion systems (GIS) to develop (1) a detailed data library
for use on handheld Global Positioning System (GPS)
units and tablets with mobile mapping applications for
deployment in the field and (2) a freely available, online
mapping portal to share data with Belizeans to encourage
future citizen science efforts. Four diverse communities
were targeted ranging from larger more populated towns,
to smaller villages across central and southern Belize:
San Pedro, Caye Caulker, Punta Gorda, and Monkey
River. Fieldwork was conducted over 1 month, during
which data points were collected in 50-m surveys follow-
ed by debris cleanup and removal. Features in our data-
base included material, quantity, item, brand, and condi-
tion. Over 6000 pieces of debris were recorded in GIS for
further analysis, and 299 gal of debris were removed
from the shores of Belize. The most abundant form of
debris observed was plastic (commonly bottles) across all
locations; plastic comprised 77.6 % of all debris items
observed. Through GIS, a detailed snapshot understand-
ing of debris patterns across multiple settings in Belize
was documented. Ongoing collaborations with local or-
ganizations in Belize have demonstrated significant in-
terest and utility for such GIS approaches in analyzing
and managing marine debris. The data, methodology,
visual representations, and online mapping platform
resulting from this research are a first step in directly
supporting local Belizean community advocacy and pol-
icy, while contributing to larger institutional strategies for
addressing marine debris issues in the Caribbean.
Keywords Beach litter .Belize .Caribbean .Central
America .GIS .Marine debris
Introduction and background
Scope of work
The prevalence of anthropogenic litter in marine habitats
is unsightly, environmentally destructive, and, yet, a
potentially manageable problem (e.g., Sheavly and
Register 2007;Slavinetal.2012; Gall and Thompson
2015; Jambeck et al. 2015). Challenges in studying
marine debris include having a baseline understand-
ing of litter composition, concentrations, and
sources necessary for addressing local impacts of this
Environ Monit Assess (2016) 188: 557
DOI 10.1007/s10661-016-5544-4
P. Bennett-Martin (*)
Honors College, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
e-mail: paulitabennettmartin@gmail.com
P. Bennett-Martin :C. C. Visaggi
Department of Geosciences, Georgia State University, Atlanta,
GA, USA
P. Bennett-Martin
Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
T. L. Hawthorne
Department of Sociology, University of Central Florida, Orlando,
FL, USA
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
... Clean-up and citizen science activities remove litter while educating the public and raising awareness on the issue of marine litter (Matthews and Doyle, 2012). Previous beach litter studies in the region reported on average > 75% of macrolitter was comprised of plastic, with plastic bottles being the most prevalent item (Bennett-Martin et al., 2016). Prior studies looking at microplastics in Belize have focused on seagrasses and the potential for microplastics to enter the food chain (Goss et al., 2018), as well as coral tissues (Oldenburg et al., 2021) with, to the best of our knowledge, no previous studies reporting on the presence and abundance of microplastics in Belizean river sediments. ...
... Previous studies in the region reported that the majority of debris collected comprised of plastic (Bennett- Martin et al., 2016;Blanke, 2020), which is comparable with the results presented in this study. On average, across all monitoring location types and time-points, 77.3% by count of all macro and meso litter items collected were plastic, compared to 77.6 and 68.1% reported by Bennett-Martin et al. (2016) and Blanke (2020), respectively. ...
... Previous studies in the region reported that the majority of debris collected comprised of plastic (Bennett- Martin et al., 2016;Blanke, 2020), which is comparable with the results presented in this study. On average, across all monitoring location types and time-points, 77.3% by count of all macro and meso litter items collected were plastic, compared to 77.6 and 68.1% reported by Bennett-Martin et al. (2016) and Blanke (2020), respectively. A clear difference between the river surveys and those on the coast was that the river surveys had far lower numbers of plastic items, in particular fragments, and the top items were broken glass and metal bottle caps. ...
A baseline study of macro, meso and micro litter in the Belize River basin, from catchment to coast
Article
  • Jan 2022
The mismanagement of waste and subsequent presence of litter in the environment is an increasingly significant problem. Globally, rivers have been shown to be a major pathway for mismanaged waste. We investigated the distribution of macro, meso and micro litter along the Belize river basin. The North-East Atlantic OSPAR beach litter monitoring protocol was adapted for Belize, taking into account local issues such as mangroves and Sargassum sp. accumulations. On average, 77.3% of litter items consisted of plastic, and the most common items categories were unidentifiable plastic pieces (0–2.5 and 2.5–50 cm), broken glass, and metal bottle caps. The study indicated that there is an increase in the litter load as you move from catchment to coast, with both Plastic Pieces (PP) and Fishing Related (FR) items also increasing in numbers down the system. Additionally, microplastics abundance was determined in riverine sediments and in the riverine fish Cichlasoma synspilum (n = 22). All sediment samples contained microplastics, with a concentration of 200–6500 particles per kg dry sediment. Microplastics were found to be present in 36% of the riverine fish. The data from this study will provide evidence for the formation of Belizean legislation to reduce marine litter.
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... Kikaki et al. (2020) utilized remote sensing to understand debris provenance and spatial trajectories through Honduran and Guatemalan rivers, finding that debris deposited in the Caribbean Sea arrived during the main rainfall season. Bennett-Martin et al. (2016) investigated litter quantities on both the mainland and cayes and found that plastics dominated all locations, consisting of 58% to 85% of all litter items found. The southern mainland sites at Monkey River and Punta Gorda yielded the highest percentage of plastics at 84% and 85% respectively of total debris, while the northern locations of Caye Caulker and San Pedro were relatively sparse in litter (Bennett-Martin et al., 2016). ...
... Bennett-Martin et al. (2016) investigated litter quantities on both the mainland and cayes and found that plastics dominated all locations, consisting of 58% to 85% of all litter items found. The southern mainland sites at Monkey River and Punta Gorda yielded the highest percentage of plastics at 84% and 85% respectively of total debris, while the northern locations of Caye Caulker and San Pedro were relatively sparse in litter (Bennett-Martin et al., 2016). Citizen science and public awareness campaigns have conducted beach clean-ups in Belize, but these often do not result in publications. ...
... Absent municipal or privately-owned waste disposal services, residents' resort to using landfills, unregulated dump piles, burning of waste, or direct disposal into rivers (Lu et al., 2013). Bennett-Martin et al. (2016) detailed how Punta Gorda Town, located in the Toledo District, was inundated beyond quantification with marine debris. Dump sites similar to those found by Bennett-Martin et al. (2016) were also visible along some beaches surveyed here. ...
A baseline analysis of marine debris on southern islands of Belize
Article
Marine debris is a global issue with acute impacts. Using beach transect surveys, this study investigates debris prevalence on 7 islands in the Caribbean country of Belize. 1754 items were cataloged based on object size, form, material, condition, and economic use. Most of the litter was plastics (68.1%). Styrofoam was the second highest in abundance (9.46%), followed by foam/rubber items (8.04%), glass (3.82%), metal (2.57%), and aluminum (1.94%). Most litter was associated with an urban source (74.8%), while 4.2% and 2.1% were linked to industrial and fishing activities respectively. This study provides a novel baseline for future studies in the scarcely studied region, especially as Belize's economy continues in the conscious shift away from single-use plastic and styrofoam products.
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... These applications integrate the data in a GIS so that one can collect beach litter data from anywhere with mobile Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) and download it to an online repository. The use of GIS is being proposed to map marine debris and increase the participation of local people to monitor and understand the issue (Bennett- Martin et al. 2016). Moreover, it supports beach clean-ups by analyzing predictable areas of litter accumulation (Haarr et al. 2019). ...
... The use of geospatial facilities to map environmental issues is increasingly being adopted, such as for marine pollution (Bennett-Martin et al. 2016;Cowger et al. 2019;Haarr et al. 2019). For beach litter monitoring, previous efforts created new tools for litter collection (e.g., Jambeck and Johnsen 2015) and analysis (e.g., Schulz et al. 2019). ...
... Citizen science is a way to engage and inform the public with science and can lead to reliable results in a variety of environmental issues, coupled with educational outcomes (Dickinson et al. 2012). Following the trend, beach litter data have increasingly been collected by the commitment of local people (e.g., Bennett-Martin et al. 2016;Cowger et al. 2019;Zettler et al. 2017). The use of mobile platforms engages the public, and nowadays, smartphones work as "networked devices" for data collection (Newman et al. 2012). ...
An open-source geospatial framework for beach litter monitoring
Article
Full-text available
Here, we present a framework for a beach litter monitoring process, based on free and open-source software (FOSS), which allows customization for any sampling design. The framework was developed by means of a GIS project (QGIS), a GIS collector (QField), and an R code, allowing further adjustments according to the area to be surveyed and research questions. The aim is to improve data collection, accessibility, and interoperability, as well as to help to fill the currently existing gap between fieldwork and data analysis, preventing typos and allowing better data processing. Therefore, it is expected to take less than an hour from ending fieldwork to obtaining up-to-date products. To test the developed open-source geospatial framework, it was applied in different sectors and dates on an important southern Brazilian touristic beach. Results obtained from the open-source geospatial framework application produce baseline information on beach litter issues, such as amounts, sources, and spatial and temporal patterns. Adoption of the framework can facilitate data collection by local and regional stakeholders, and the results obtained from it can be applied to support management strategies. For researchers, it produces spatialized data for each item in an already tidy format, which can be used for robust and complex models. A series of supplementary files support reproducibility and provide a guide to future users.
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... These considerations can limit broad implementation within developing PPGIS settings. Groups participating in collaborative research and management projects often include a diverse range of user groups varying in backgrounds [27][28][29]. In addition, capacity for participatory engagement, including the number of personnel within a group participating, their time allocation to a project, and the technological tools at their disposal, may also differ across project participants [3,30]. ...
... We suggest that teams weigh the costs and benefits of investing in training as they consider the inclusion of drones in their workflows. Such training is increasingly important as participants in collaborative research and management projects often include a diverse range of user groups, including community-based organizations, citizen scientists, students and teachers, scientists from other disciplines, and practitioners from a range of institutions [27][28][29]. In such cases, this large range of potential drone users may affect the level of knowledge and worldview that participants bring to the project, which can differentially impact a group or individual's receptivity to, and ability to uptake new knowledge, educational materials and training. ...
Developing an Introductory UAV/Drone Mapping Training Program for Seagrass Monitoring and Research
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  • Nov 2020
Unoccupied Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), or drone technologies, with their high spatial resolution, temporal flexibility, and ability to repeat photogrammetry, afford a significant advancement in other remote sensing approaches for coastal mapping, habitat monitoring, and environmental management. However, geographical drone mapping and in situ fieldwork often come with a steep learning curve requiring a background in drone operations, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), remote sensing and related analytical techniques. Such a learning curve can be an obstacle for field implementation for researchers, community organizations and citizen scientists wishing to include introductory drone operations into their work. In this study, we develop a comprehensive drone training program for research partners and community members to use cost-effective, consumer-quality drones to engage in introductory drone mapping of coastal seagrass monitoring sites along the west coast of North America. As a first step toward a longer-term Public Participation GIS process in the study area, the training program includes lessons for beginner drone users related to flying drones, autonomous route planning and mapping, field safety, GIS analysis, image correction and processing, and Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) certification and regulations. Training our research partners and students, who are in most cases novice users, is the first step in a larger process to increase participation in a broader project for seagrass monitoring in our case study. While our training program originated in the United States, we discuss our experiences for research partners and communities around the globe to become more confident in introductory drone operations for basic science. In particular, our work targets novice users without a strong background in geographic research or remote sensing. Such training provides technical guidance on the implementation of a drone mapping program for coastal research, and synthesizes our approaches to provide broad guidance for using drones in support of a developing Public Participation GIS process.
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... 11−13 Most, if not all, marine environments (e.g., coastal zones, open ocean, and deep-sea sediments) are now contaminated by debris, 14,15 with significant quantities reported even in the most remote corners of the Earth. 16,17 Debris distribution is influenced by ocean currents, wind, and waves, all of which can fragment items and transport them over vast distances. 18 Plastic debris can result from numerous human activities but is broadly categorized into either land-or marine-based sources. ...
... For example, more debris, especially microplastics, accumulates in finer sediments, 18,69 and there is often considerably more debris reported buried in the sediment, as it is less affected by wave action and daily tides than superficial debris. 16,70 Therefore, a consistent depth, usually the top 5 cm of sediment, should be sampled across studies, to maintain temporal and spatial comparability. 62 Reporting the size or size class of the collected debris is imperative; however, 19.5% of publications did not report this information (Table 1), or in some cases, data for both micro and macro items were pooled together. ...
Global Review of Beach Debris Monitoring and Future Recommendations
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Full-text available
  • Oct 2019
Marine debris is distributed worldwide and constitutes an increasing threat to our environment. The exponential increase of plastic debris raises numerous concerns and has led to an intensification in plastic monitoring and research. However, global spatial and temporal patterns and knowledge gaps in debris distribution, both on land and at sea, are relatively poorly understood, mainly due to a lack of comprehensive datasets. Here we critically review the quality of the available information on beach plastic debris worldwide to highlight where the most urgent actions are required, and to promote the standardization of reporting metrics and sampling methods among researchers. From a total of 174 studies evaluated, 27.0% reported marine debris densities in metrics that were not comparable. Some studies failed to report basic parameters, such as the date of the sampling (9.8%) or the size of the collected debris (19.5%). Our findings show that current research regarding beach debris requires significant improvement and standardization and would benefit from the adoption of a common reporting framework to promote consensus within the scientific community
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... Therefore, knowledge of the kinds of plastic waste is essential because it can be used as an indicator of management and the source of plastic waste (PlasticEurope 2017). Marine debris can refer to a variety of solid materials that are produced and processed continuously, directly or indirectly, intentionally or unintentionally, and are disposed of and left in the marine environment and often consist of plastic materials (NOAA 2013;Jambeck et al. 2015;Martin et al. 2016;Rochman et al. 2016). That is influenced indirectly by the geographical shape of the coast, the level of slope, the level of exposure, and environmental factors such as wind and ocean currents (Galgani et al. 2015; Critchell and Lambrechts 2016; Barboza et al. 2019). ...
Characteristics of plastic waste and perceptions of coastal communities in the MLC Baluno mangrove ecotourism area, West Sulawesi, Indonesia
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Full-text available
  • Jan 2023
Massiseng ANA, Tuwo A, Fachry ME, Bahar A. 2022. Characteristics of plastic waste and perceptions of coastal communities in the MLC Baluno mangrove ecotourism area, West Sulawesi, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 23: 6262-6274. Plastic pollution is a global problem that threatens coastal and marine ecosystems and human livelihoods and requires effective solutions that can be adapted to local conditions. Management of coastal areas is one sector focusing on world development in general and Indonesia in particular. This research was conducted from July to October 2021 in the mangrove ecotourism area of ??MLC Baluno, Sendana Sub-district, Majene District, West Sulawesi Province, Indonesia. The type of data used is the primary data from measurements and observations at ecotourism sites. The purpose of this study was to identify the characteristics of plastic waste and analyze its impact on the socio-economic community in the MLC Baluno mangrove ecotourism area. The results showed (1) The percentage of plastic waste types from all observation stations in the MLC Baluno mangrove ecotourism area consisted of 22% HDPE, 20% LDPE, 17% PVC, 9% PETE, 12% PE, 10% PP, 6 % PE, and 4% PU, (2) The volume percentage of plastic waste from observation stations in the mangrove ecotourism area of ??MLC Baluno by type consists of 32% PVC plastic volume, 17% HDPE, 14% PE, 10% LDPE, 10% PETE, PP 11%, 4% PS and 2% PU, (3) The influence of plastic waste factors (types and volume) has a positive effect on the socio-economic community (livelihood and income). The variable factors of plastic waste influencing socio-economic based on the perceptions of coastal communities in the MLC Baluno mangrove ecotourism area are TW2, VW3, VW4, LV1, LV2, IC1, IC3, and IC5.
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... The review highlighted the need for the long-term monitoring and quantification of marine debris and its effects on the marine environment using comparable measures to inform policy and actions. In Belize, baseline assessments of the state of marine litter found that >70% of all litter surveyed was plastic (Silburn et al., 2022), in line with other studies in Belize (Bennett-Martin et al., 2016;Blanke et al., 2021) and global estimates (Tekman et al., 2019), and that proportions of single-use plastics (SUP), fishing related, and plastic pieces were comparable to previous studies from Europe and the South Pacific (Binetti et al., 2020). ...
A Blue Future: developing a national marine litter action plan in SIDS—lessons learnt in Belize
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Full-text available
  • Dec 2022
Marine litter is a significant global threat. The complex and cross cutting nature involved in tackling marine litter requires a coordinated response involving multiple sectors and a broad range of stakeholders. Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are particularly vulnerable to detrimental impacts of marine litter on quality of life and economies, particularly tourism and fisheries sectors. This paper presents national Marine Litter Action Plans (MLAP) as effective tools for coordinating responses addressing marine litter and specifically outlines the process undertaken to develop a national MLAP for the country of Belize, a Caribbean SIDS. Actions included in the MLAP, adopted by Belize in 2019, focused on developing science related to marine litter through monitoring and capacity building, tackling land- and sea-based sources through enforcement and planning, and boosting awareness through outreach and education. The paper further summarizes common challenges faced by SIDS and identifies key enabling conditions that facilitated MLAP development and adoption from perspective of a Caribbean SIDS. These experiences from Belize include stakeholder engagement, communication, governance, transparency, equity, scientific surveys, data gaps, and capacity building. The lessons learned from this practical application can be applied when developing and implementing MLAPs in other SIDS and beyond.
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... Thus, this item represents a global problem and may even reach remote places such as uninhabited oceanic islands (Lavers et al. 2019). There seems to be no marked contribution of residues near the two studied small villages, our results differed from our expectations and that of the villages investigated by Taffs and Cullen (2005) and Bennett-Martin et al. (2015). The latter authors examined coastal villages with different population size with the beach separated by distance categories and showed that most of the small communities had fewer debris. ...
The influence of small human settlements on marine litter in the northeast coast of Brazil
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  • Sep 2019
The influence of small human settlements on the distribution of marine litter is not well known. We investigated the potential contribution of such settlements in the distribution of the abundance and richness of macro litter (>1 cm) along a beach stretch in the northeast coast of Brazil coast. In order to investigate if the garbage would increase near coastal villages, we collected stranded marine litter in 45 transects, along 8.1 km of the beach stretch, including the ocean front of two small human settlements (Siribinha and Poças). We used a generalized additive model (GAM) and found greater waste richness in Siribinha and between Siribinha and Poças. No clear variation trend was evidenced in the amount of marine litter along the sampling sites. This indicate an unsystematic pattern of the distribution of litter near small villages, opposing to patterns observed in large urban centers. Therefore, litter produced far away may be a worse problem, then local litter, in remote coastal areas.
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... Shorelines of The Bahamas are constantly supplied with plastic from the ocean, driving the need for more research and management of marine debris. Marine debris citizen science monitoring provides a baseline understanding of debris composition, concentrations and sources and helps inform policies to reduce ecological impacts of plastic debris on marine ecosystems (Bennett-Martin et al., 2015). The application of citizen science monitoring has established a large scale and long-term marine debris dataset for The Bahamas with greater spatial coverage, making it more accessible and easier to facilitate cost effective research efforts (Ribic et al., 1992;Ryan et al., 2009;Falk-Andersson et al., 2019). ...
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The status of marine debris/litter and plastic pollution in the Caribbean Large Marine Ecosystem (CLME): 1980–2020
Article
Plastic pollution is one of several anthropogenic stressors putting pressure on ecosystems of the Caribbean Large Marine Ecosystem (CLME). A ‘Clean Ocean’ is one of the ambitious goals of the United Nations (UN) Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development. If this is to be realized, it is imperative to build upon the work of the previous decades (1980–2020). The objectives of the present study were to assess the state of knowledge about: (i) the distribution, quantification, sources, transport and fate of marine debris/litter and microplastics in the coastal/marine environment of the CLME and, (ii) the effects of plastics on biodiversity. Snapshots, i.e., peer-reviewed studies and multi-year (1991–2020) marine debris data from International Coastal Cleanup (ICC) events, indicated that plastic debris was a persistent issue in multiple ecosystems and environmental compartments of the CLME. Collectively, a suite of approaches (debris categorization, remote sensing, particle tracking) indicated that plastic debris originated from a combination of land and marine-based sources, with the former more significant than the latter. Rivers were identified as an important means of transporting mismanaged land-based waste to the marine environment. Oceanic currents were important to the transport of plastic debris into, within and out of the region. Plastic debris posed a threat to the biodiversity of the CLME, with specific biological, physical, ecological and chemical effects being identified. Existing data can be used to inform interventions to mitigate the leakage of plastic waste to the marine environment. Given the persistent and transboundary nature of the issue, further elucidation of the problem, its causes and effects must be prioritized, while simultaneously harmonizing regional and international approaches.
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Citizen-Based Litter and Marine Debris Data Collection and Mapping
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Marine debris and plastic in our oceans is a global issue of increasing concern. However, the monitoring of litter and debris is challenging at the global scale because of disconnected local organizations and the use of paper and pen for documentation. The Marine Debris Tracker mobile app and citizen science program allow for the collection of global standardized data at a scale, speed, and efficiency that wasn't previously possible. The app also serves as an outreach and education tool, with a Web portal that instantly shows the data that users have logged. User engagement through a top tracker competition and social media keeps people interested in the Marine Debris Tracker community. More than 400,000 items have been tracked, with plastic being the most common category noted; maps provide both global and local distribution of data. The Marine Debris Tracker community and dataset continue to grow daily.
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Incorporating Fishermen’s Local Knowledge and Behavior into Geographical Information Systems (GIS) for Designing Marine Protected Areas in Oceania
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Drawing on our experience in establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) in the Roviana and Vonavona Lagoons, New Georgia, Solomon Islands, this paper shows how a geographical information system (GIS) database can be used to incorporate socio-spatial information, such as indigenous knowledge and artisanal fishing data, along with biophysical and other information to assist in MPA design. We argue that converting peoples' knowledge and socioecological behavior into geo-spatial data allows researchers to formulate hypotheses regarding human responses to inter- and intra-habitat variability, along with other marine ecological processes, and help in the designing and implementation of resource management strategies in a cost-effective and participatory way, bridging the gap between indigenous and Western cognitions of seascapes. More generally, we show the significance of combining spatial tools, anthropological fieldwork, and social and natural science methods for studying artisanal fisheries with the goal of aiding the design of marine protected areas.
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Pelagic Plastics and Other Seaborne Persistent Synthetic Debris: A Review of Southern Hemisphere Perspectives
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For centuries humans have indiscriminantly discarded their waste into, and on the mar-gins of, oceans, lakes, and rivers. Seafarers traditionally disposed their garbage by simply heaving it overboard, and the practice continues to this day despite international agreements such as the London Dumping Convention (LDC) and the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL). When quantities of mostly (bio) degradable waste were low, environmental and other consequences remained minimal. However, the advent of nondegradable synthetic materials has had profound biological and environmental effects (Laist 1987; Laist, Chapter 8, this volume) on shores and in oceanic and coastal surface waters (Pruter 1987a).
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Marine debris on beaches of the Greater Sydney Region
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Marine debris directly threatens and indirectly impacts upon marine wildlife and humans throughout the world. Proper management requires information on debris abundance, distribution and sources for specific regions. This data was previously unavailable for the Greater Sydney Region, Australia. Thus, a marine debris survey was conducted on six selected beaches from the Greater Sydney Region. Two beaches from each of three areas with differing degrees of urbanisation were sampled once a month for five months. Sampling was conducted from within a series of transects, zones and strata to obtain information on the abundance, distribution, composition and sources of debris. On average sampled beaches had 33.3 items per 250m2 transect equating to 2,664 items per kilometre of beach with a 20m wide cross-shore sub-aerial zone. The vast majority (89.8%) of debris found was plastic, particularly hard plastic (52.3%) predominantly originating from stormwater or beachgoers. The beaches with the highest debris density were those within the least urbanised area, possibly due to the relatively small distance (<50km) between sample areas and the ability of debris to disperse quickly from its source and travel long distances. Significant differences in debris abundance were found between sample areas, beaches, beach strata and over time. The abundance of marine debris within the Greater Sydney Region was comparable to some of the most polluted beaches around the world, and is thus a problem that requires immediate attention.
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The impact of debris on marine life
Article
  • Feb 2015
Marine debris is listed among the major perceived threats to biodiversity, and is cause for particular concern due to its abundance, durability and persistence in the marine environment. An extensive literature search reviewed the current state of knowledge on the effects of marine debris on marine organisms. 340 original publications reported encounters between organisms and marine debris and 693 species. Plastic debris accounted for 92% of encounters between debris and individuals. Numerous direct and indirect consequences were recorded, with the potential for sublethal effects of ingestion an area of considerable uncertainty and concern. Comparison to the IUCN Red List highlighted that at least 17% of species affected by entanglement and ingestion were listed as threatened or near threatened. Hence where marine debris combines with other anthropogenic stressors it may affect populations, trophic interactions and assemblages. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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Marine pollution. Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean
Article
  • Feb 2015
Plastic debris in the marine environment is widely documented, but the quantity of plastic entering the ocean from waste generated on land is unknown. By linking worldwide data on solid waste, population density, and economic status, we estimated the mass of land-based plastic waste entering the ocean. We calculate that 275 million metric tons (MT) of plastic waste was generated in 192 coastal countries in 2010, with 4.8 to 12.7 million MT entering the ocean. Population size and the quality of waste management systems largely determine which countries contribute the greatest mass of uncaptured waste available to become plastic marine debris. Without waste management infrastructure improvements, the cumulative quantity of plastic waste available to enter the ocean from land is predicted to increase by an order of magnitude by 2025. Copyright © 2015, American Association for the Advancement of Science.
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