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INTERNSHIP REPORT
TOMATO PRODUCTION THROUGH UTILIZATION OF HYDROPONIC
TECHNOLOGY
AT
BIOBLITZ FARMER PVT LTD
By
SYED ZIA UL HASAN
03-ARID-30
A REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENT
FOR THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (HONS) AGRICULTURE
IN
HORTICULTURE
DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE
FACULTY OF CROP & FOOD SCIENCES,
UNIVERSITY OF ARID AGRICULTURE,
RAWALPINDI, PAKISTAN
2007
Chapter 1
1. INTRODUCTION
Hydroponics is a technology for growing plants in nutrient solutions (water
and fertilizers) with or without the use of artificial medium (e.g., sand, gravel,
vermiculite, rock wool, peat, coir, sawdust) to provide mechanical support. Liquid
hydroponics systems have no other supporting medium for the plant roots: aggregate
systems have a solid medium of support. Hydroponics systems are further categorized
as open, where after the nutrient solution has been delivered to the plant roots, it is
not reused; or closed where surplus solution is recovered, replenished, and recycled.
The definition of hydroponics has been confined to liquid systems only, which blurs
statistical data and leads to underestimation of the extent of the technology and its
economic implications. All hydroponics systems in temperate regions of the world are
enclosed in greenhouse-type structures to provide temperature control, reduce
evaporative water loss, and to reduce disease and pest infestations.
The principal advantages of hydroponics controlled environment agriculture (CEA)
include high-density maximum crop yield, crop production where no suitable soil
exists, a virtual indifference to ambient temperature and seasonality, more efficient
use of water and fertilizers, minimal use of land area, and suitability for
mechanization, disease and pest control. The major advantage of hydroponics’ (CEA)
compared to field grown produce is the isolation of the crop from the soil, which
often has problems of diseases, pests, salinity, poor structure and/or drainage. The
principal disadvantages of hydroponics, relative to conventional open-field
agriculture, are the high costs of capital and energy inputs, and the high degree of
management skills required for successful production. Capital costs may be especially
excessive if the structures are artificially heated and cooled. This is why appropriate
crops are limited to those with high economic value such as tomatoes.
1.1 Tomato
Tomato belongs to solanaceae family. It is one of the very popular vegetables in
Pakistan. It is widely used in salad as well as for culinary purposes. The popularity of
tomato and its products continue to rise as it contains significant amount of vitamin A
and C.
1.1.1 Nutritional Facts of Tomato
Talking about tomato in particular yes it is possible to improve taste by using
higher strength hydroponics solution. Through our sophisticated process in the
hydroponics greenhouses, not only push more nutrients into the plants and produce but
also increases the strength of solution inside the plants, consequently raising the strength
of other beneficial compounds such as sugar, organic acids and vitamins. A well grown
hydroponics tomato does have a finer taste and nutrition benefit compared to those by
other methods.
1 Primary source of lycopene
2 Low fat
3 Low calorie
4 Cholesterol free
5 High in vitamin A
6 High in vitamin C
7 Good source of potassium
8 Very low sodium
1.2 Production in Pakistan
There has been a progressive increase in area and production of tomato in Pakistan.
In 2004-05, the area increased to 41.4 thousand hectares, production 426.2 thousand
tonnes and yield was10.3 tonnes / ha.
1.3 Tomato contents
NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF TOMATO
PER 100 GRAMS
ENERGY 20 K CAL
CARBOHYDRATE 4 g
SUGAR 2.6 g
DIETERY FIBER 1 g
FAT 0.2 g
PROTEIN 1 g
VITAMIN C 13 mg
WATER 95 g
Source; Bioblitz pvt ltd
1.4 Bioblitz Farmer Market (pvt) Ltd
In Pakistan, the use of hydroponics for crop production is not promoted. This
may be due to the lack of knowledge and awareness. The hydroponics introduction at
commercial level has been introduced by an entrepreneur near Rawalpindi incurring
heavy investment with good skill utilization.
BIOBLITZ- Farmers market (pvt) Ltd is situated about 8 kilometers from Rawat
near Kalyam Mughal.it was inaugurated by president of Pakistan GENERAL PERVEZ
MUSHARRAF in June 2006. The area covered by green houses in bioblitz is about 5
hectare. It has limited cold storage facility available on the farm. Nowadays it is doing
maintenance and mechanical work. It possess 5 large tanks for water storage it has one
room for fertilizer making and a packing area containing 4 benches for packing. It has a
small area for experimentation where different beefsteak varieties are tested.
1.4.1 Quality policy
Bioblitz will satisfy the customer requirements in terms of consistent quality and
timely delivery either the active involvement of our skilled work force to ensure bioblitz
future prosperity and take Pakistan in developed countries.
1.4.2 Objectives
Farmers market (pvt) Ltd has taken on the challenge of introducing cutting edge
agricultural technology in Pakistan. Our methods will enhance agricultural productivity
and raise the level of national exports, providing a boost to the country’s economic
growth
1 To introduce highly sophisticated Hydroponics technology in Pakistan.
2 To train future generations through its affiliation with Agricultural
Universities
3 To become international exporters.
Our goal is to become the leading Pakistani company in the domestic and international
greenhouse business.
1.5 Uses
1.5.1 Nutrition
Tomatoes and tomato-based foods provide a convenient matrix by
which
nutrients and other health-related food components can be supplied to
human beings.
Tomatoes and tomato products are rich sources of folate,
vitamin C, and potassium.
Relative to phytonutrients, the most abundant in
tomatoes are the carotenoids. Lycopene
is the most prominent carotenoid
followed by beta-carotene, gamma-carotene and
phytoene as well as several
minor carotenoids. The antioxidant activity of lycopene as
well as several
other carotenoids and their abundance in tomatoes makes these foods rich
sources of antioxidant activity. The provitamin A activity of beta- and
gamma- carotene,
their modest levels in tomato products, and the high
consumption of these foods results in
a rich supply of vitamin A activity
from tomato-based foods. Tomatoes also contain
several other components
that are beneficial to health, including vitamin E, trace
elements,
flavonoids, phytosterols, and several water-soluble vitamins.
1.6
Comparison of Traditional and Hydroponics System of Production
CONVENTIONAL
HYDROPONICS
production duration Seasonal Year round
land use efficiency Less due to
Variation in soil
fertility
Competition with
weeds
Less water availability
As no soil is used so no
such problems thus there is
high plant density(more
plants per square meter)
Water use efficiency Less due to
Shortage of water
High evaporation losses
Less irrigation
efficiency
Require 1/30 the amount of
water that is required for
same area with
conventional method.
Soil degradation High due to poor irrigation
efficiency, high dosage of
fertilizer and pesticides
resulting in problems such as
water logging and salinity
No soil is used in this
system thus no damage is
done to it.
Resource utility More land, labour and capital
is required
Efficient and profitable
utilization of natural and
artificial resources
Resource conservation All natural resources such as
water fertilizer are used in a
non cyclic way.( they are used
only once and not again
resulting in wastage of these
valuable resources
All natural resources such
as water fertilizer are used
in cyclic that is cyclic that
is they are used again and
again
Competition with weeds
High competition Little or no risk of weeds
Intensity of pest/disease
attack
High risk Less chances as there are
many barrier
Effect of location Location affects production
due to different climatic
condition at different location.
Environment is controlled
artificially so location does
not affect crop production.
Benefit cost ratio Less High
Quality Low because field grower
cannot control quality
parameters
Grower can influence
quality parameter by
adjusting pH Ec etc
Market value Less due to poor and variable
quality
Market value is high due to
uniformity in size shape
colour and weight.
Shelf life Short Long
Consistency in
production
Very little or no consistency
because production is
dependent upon climatic
conditions
More consistent production
because production because
production is not dependent
upon climatic condition.
1.7
Misconceptions
Hydroponics has been exaggerated as miraculous. There are many widely held
misconceptions regarding hydroponics, and the following facts should be noted:
Hydroponics will not always produce greater crop yields than with good quality
soil.
Hydroponics plants cannot always be spaced closer together than soil-grown
crops (geoponics) under the same environmental conditions.
Hydroponics produce will not necessarily be more nutritious or delicious than
geoponics.
Most hydroponics crops are grown in greenhouses or controlled environment
agriculture.
If timers or electric pumps fail or the system clogs or springs a leak, plants can die
very quickly in many kinds of hydroponics systems.
Hydroponics usually requires a greater technical knowledge than geoponics. For
the previous three reasons, hydroponics crops are usually more expensive than
soil-grown crops.
Solution culture hydroponics requires that the plants be supported because the
roots have no anchorage without a solid medium
1.8 Present and future
With pest problems reduced, and nutrients constantly fed to the roots,
productivity in hydroponics is high, plant growth being limited by the low levels of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, or limited light. To increase yield further, some sealed
greenhouses inject carbon dioxide into their environment to help growth (CO
2
enrichment), or add lights to lengthen the day, control vegetative growth etc.
Hydroponics can be used to grow plants anywhere, from Antarctica (where salad
vegetables are grown in the 6 month nights) to a coal mine. If vegetables are grown in
future space missions, it is likely to be by hydroponics methods.
Many hydroponic growers have been working diligently to reduce the stigma of these
types of activities, with individuals such as Ray Cogo of the United States and
organizations such as the Progressive Gardening Trade Association promoting outdoor
hydroponics in an effort to show gardeners how simple, fun, and productive it is to grow
food hydroponically in their own backyards.
1.9 Practical work done at Bioblitz
1.9.1 Pruning and Training
Auxiliary branches must be pruned as the plant is trained to a single stem, supported by
string to an overhead wire. In rare occasions, especially when grafted plants are used,
plants may be trained in a double stem configuration.
With varieties that tend to produce small fruit, cluster pruning is used to increase fruit
size, and limit the number of fruit per cluster. Generally, 3-4 fruit per cluster are allowed
to develop with these varieties
1.9.2 Pollination
Pollination can be done with the help of mechanical vibration. This is accomplished using
a hand operated electric vibrator available from horticultural supply companies. These
vibrators operate on 110 volt or battery power. The battery powered models use a 6 or 12
volt motorcycle battery.
Timing is important when using mechanical vibrators to set fruit. Pollen sheds most
readily when temperature is at its peak, and relative humidity lowest on a given day. The
optimum time for that is between 11 a.m. and 3 p.m. during winter and early spring. Each
flower cluster needs to be vibrated every day, as long as flowers are still opening in that
cluster, to accomplish pollination of the flowers that open on that day.
1.9.3 Harvesting
Fruit is harvested when mature green if it is to be held before marketing. Mature green
fruit have well developed internal gel, and may have internal tissues that are beginning to
turn red. Vine ripe fruit ranges from fruit just turning red to fully ripened, depending on
market requirement. When harvesting and handling, avoid bruising fruit.
Harvesting is done with the help of special clipper and normally graded
while harvesting, they are kept in cluster of 4-5 tomato each..
1.9.4 Grading and Packaging
Then the fruits are brought to the packing area and once again grading is done any small
size or diseased fruit is discarded. Then the tomatoes are packed in standard boxes each
containing about 5 kg then air is blown by air pump to remove any dirt left. packing is
done in single layer.
Chapter 2
2 GREEN HOUSE PRODUCTION CONSIDERATION
The basic requirements for entering the greenhouse vegetable industry are:
a site that offers access to markets, labour, good quality water, utilities and
room for future expansion
a high level of production management and the ability to apply intensive
management skills to the crops
the ability to assess market potential
financial resources to invest in the development and operation of the
business
The ability to juggle several activities at once
The ability to manage labour
2.1 Market Basics
Market research should be conducted before any production activities are
started. Since there are only three major greenhouse vegetable crops (cucumbers,
tomatoes and peppers), research should focus on the different markets for these crops
and how to access them. New producers must pay particular attention to evidence of
excess supply in a particular market and trends of declining consumption or prices.
Specific questions to ask when conducting market research for greenhouse vegetables
are:
What products do consumers buy?
Who buys the product(s)?
Where are the buyers located?
What is the market size?
What, when and where do the buyers buy?
What are the packaging requirements of each market?
What are the market prices?
How much do prices fluctuate?
Is the market mature or growing?
Does the market have room for additional production?
the ability to keep control of the financial affairs of the business as well as
the production operations
Greenhouse vegetables are a perishable crop. As a result, growers must have a
marketing strategy that ensures their produce has timely access to the retail markets.
The majority of greenhouse vegetables are marketed to consumers through retailers.
The retail market is accessed primarily through wholesalers. In fact, all the large
retailers deal only with wholesale buyers.
2.2 Production Basics
The following are the key resource requirements for a greenhouse vegetable
operation:
2.2.1 Site location –
The following factors should be considered in the site selection for a greenhouse
enterprise.
proximity to markets
slope of the land and exposure to the sun
access to adequate amounts of good quality water
access to utilities
access to a main transportation corridor
access to labour
room for future expansion
zoning requirements or limitations
potential environmental hazards such as, industrial pollution and
contaminated water
2.2.2 Water Quantity –
Factors such as the crops being produced, area to be watered, light intensity, growing
medium and time of year all influence the water requirements of a greenhouse operation.
A typical greenhouse operation requires 800 cubic metres of water per 100 square metres
of growing space per year. The irrigation system and pump need to be designed to deliver
adequate water to individual plants during peak consumptive periods.
2.2.3 Water Quality –
Water with high levels of soluble salts is considered to be of poor quality for
greenhouse vegetable crops. Electrical conductivity (EC) and the sodium absorption
ration (SAR) are used to measure the quality of water. Water with a SAR of four or less
and an EC of 0.8 is considered to be good quality water. If the SAR is greater than four
and EC greater than 0.8, special management practices are required.
2.2.4 Facilities –
Developing a greenhouse facility is a major step that affects both the production
efficiency and economic well being of the business for a long time. Producers making
this step must be prepared to do considerable research to determine the most appropriate
facility for their situation.
When developing a new greenhouse facility producers need to consider the following
issues:
1 Size of the greenhouse
2 Orientation of the greenhouse
3 Greenhouse design
4 Type of glazing material
5 Heating requirements and heating system
6 Cooling and ventilation requirements
7 Space requirements for storage, work area and production area
8 Production equipment
9 Water system
2.2.5 Critical production management issues are:
2.2.5.1 Crops –
The decision as to which crops to grow will be based on market research and
production capabilities. The grower also needs to determine how and when to produce, as
well as what varieties are most suitable.
2.2.5.2 Production process –
Producers must consider the production resources available to them and how these
resources can be used to produce the crops. The facilities, site, labour, equipment
resources and potential markets will determine the nature of the production process used
by the producer. New entrants, with limited resources, are likely to have production
processes that are basic in nature. Established operations have more intensive production
processes that use modern technology and equipment, but require larger developed
markets.
2.2.6.3 Scheduling –
The particular crop and levels of light intensity and duration determine the
scheduling of crops. Long English cucumbers require 60 days from seeding to first
harvest during the winter months and 45 days during the summer. Producers can grow
two or three crops per year because it is a relatively fast growing crop. With the two-crop
system, cucumbers are seeded in mid November and harvest begins in early February. A
second crop is seeded in June, planted in July and harvested in early August.
In a three crop system, the spring crop is terminated in late May and a second crop is
planted by the end of May or in early June. The harvest continues until the middle of
August. The third crop is planted by late August and the harvest continues until late
November or early December. Tomatoes need 100 to 110 days from seeding to harvest.
The crop is seeded in the middle of November and planted by early January. Harvesting
begins by early March and continues until late November. Only one crop is produced
each year.
2.2.6.4 Environmental controls –
Controlling a crop's environment to target optimum plant growth accounts for about
90 per cent of the yield. Growers need to manage the key environmental factors in a
timely and economic manner to achieve maximum yields and reduce plant stress. Key
factors are temperature, light, carbon dioxide, relative humidity and vapour pressure
deficit. Most greenhouse operators rely on controlling these factors with the aid of a
computer.
2.3 Growth media –
Greenhouse vegetables can be grown in soil or hydroponically. Hydroponics
production refers to the use of growing media other than soil. It is not economical to
produce greenhouse vegetables in soil due to the build up of soil borne diseases and
insects that require the soil to be replaced or pasteurized.
1 Soil less media are well-drained, uniform, disease free and have good moisture-air
holding capacities. They provide for more efficient use of water and fertilizer.
Media that are used in hydroponic systems include rockwool and sawdust. Nearly
all commercial vegetable growers use a hydroponic system.
2 Growers need to weigh these advantages with the higher capital cost required to
establish a hydroponic production system.
2.3.1 Propagation –
Greenhouse vegetables are grown from seed and then transplanted to the main
growing area of the greenhouse. Transplants help to ensure uniform crop
establishment. Seeds are sown into rockwool plugs or blocks. Each crop has specific
requirements to ensure germination. Growers need to be familiar with the germination
requirements of the crops selected for their operations.
2.3.2 Crop nutrition –
Growers should know the nutritional requirements of the crop and be prepared to
monitor them on a regular basis. Fertilizer management is a critical element in
greenhouse vegetable production. The stage of crop growth, fertilizer formulation and
concentration, climate control and disease control practices must be taken into account
when developing a fertilizer program. The fertilizer is generally delivered through the
irrigation system. Growers should ensure that they have appropriate storage tanks to hold
and deliver the nutrient solution
2.3.3 Irrigation –
Growers need to determine the best method of providing uniform delivery of the
water and fertilizer solution to each plant. Most commercial growers use a drip irrigation
system. Computers, time clocks or programmable irrigation monitors are used to ensure
regular applications at the frequencies necessary for maximum production.
2.3.4 Carbon dioxide enrichment –
Carbon dioxide is necessary for plant growth. An actively growing crop can
quickly deplete a greenhouse of carbon dioxide, thereby limiting crop yields. To
maximize crop production, it is necessary to supplement the carbon dioxide levels in the
greenhouse. There are several different ways to supplement the levels. Producers need to
research which method is best for their operation.
2.3.5 Pollination –
Pollination of flowers is necessary to produce greenhouse tomatoes and sweet
peppers. Pollination can be done by electric vibrators, bumblebees or air blasts. Growers
need to determine which method is most practical and effective for their operation.
2.3.6 Disease control –
Good disease management is crucial in the production of greenhouse vegetables.
Disease control is achieved through crop monitoring and cultural, chemical, physical and
biological control strategies. Growers need to utilize all of these methods to ensure a
productive operation.
2.3.7 Insect control –
Pest control is necessary to prevent damage to the seedlings and producing
plants. Growers must be familiar with potential insect and mite problems and appropriate
management practices. Biological control methods are widely practiced by commercial
growers, especially if they are using bumblebees for pollination.
2.3.8 Harvest management –
Vegetable crops must be harvested at the appropriate stage of growth or maturity
in order to maximize their shelf life. As well, greenhouse vegetables need to be cooled
after harvest to remove field heat and extend their shelf life. Cucumbers, tomatoes and
peppers require frequent multiple harvests in order to supply a uniform product with
optimal quality.
2.3.9 On-farm food safety –
There is a growing concern among consumers about the safety of their food. The
grower should follow the good agricultural practices in their operation.
CHAPTER 3
3 PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
Tomato is the most commonly-produced greenhouse vegetable crop.
Although claims by greenhouse promoters are made that 30 or more lb marketable fruit
can be expected per plant (or plant-space) per year, such production is only possible with
very high inputs in quality facilities and optimal cultural practices. This would consist of
a fall (August to December) and a spring (January to June) crop. A two crop system is at
less risk from crop pests and allows fruit set and harvest when environmental conditions
are best and competition from outdoor productions is least.
3.1 Closed Insulated Production System (CIPS).
A recent advance in greenhouse soil less tomato production is Closed
Insulated Production System (CIPS) the Plants are grown in boxes that enclose the root
system. The shoot extends through a seal in the lid. Capillary water movement in the
reservoir is plant-driven and fertilizer diffuses from a fertilizer reservoir within a
protected diffusion zone. This technique is still experimental but shows promise for
single-cluster tomatoes. It is a concept that should be examined by those who are
interested in controlled-environment tomato production.
3.2 VARIETIES
Variety selection is made to fit light intensity, fertility and disease resistance
requirements. Check variety descriptions for diseases to which the variety is resistant, and
the season to which it is best adapted. Size, color, lack of cracks and blemishes, shape,
flavor, and productivity are all important factors in variety selection. Most field varieties
do not perform well in the greenhouse environment.
Varieties such as Dombito, Belmondo, Boa, Jumbo, Trend, and Trust are best adapted
some varieties may be too vigorous, and can become too viney under high water and
fertilizer programs. Always test a variety in the season it will be produced before
committing to it.
Parthenocarpic varieties needing little or no mechanical vibration for pollination: Carpy,
Quasar, Barry (these produce 4.0 to 5.0 ounce fruit) which may be too small for most
domestic markets.
3.3 COST OF FACILITIES
Depending on the number of units purchased, double polyethylene greenhouse
costs in 1994 would run about $6.00 to $7.00 per square foot. Hydroponic equipment will
cost another $1.50 to $2.00 per square foot. Land cost, site preparation, foundations,
concrete floors, and electric, water and gas service may cost another $3.50 to $4.00 a
square foot. Modern high-gable glass greenhouses and related automated heating/cooling,
hydroponic, and carbon dioxide enrichment equipment such as those built in Arizona in
the mid-1990s may run $20.00 or more per square foot. A number of different materials
are used in greenhouse structures and coverings which can result in a wide range of total
construction cost. This guide does not address greenhouse engineering or coverings.
Approximately 25,000 to 35,000 square feet of greenhouse tomato production
is considered to be the minimum size economic unit. Smaller units are often used for part
time production. In Oregon, total greenhouse vegetable production was just under one
acre in 1994. This is similar for the state of Washington. A North Carolina publication
reports that about 4000 square feet is considered enough production area to provide
greenhouse tomatoes for about 10,000 people.
3.4 Soilless Culture
Plants have been commonly grown in well fertilized, well drained soil (ground-
bed production). This conventional system is now largely replaced by a soilless culture
system. Soilless culture utilizes totally artificial means of providing plants with nutrients
and anchor. Major advantages are the elimination of the need for soil sterilization by
steam or chemicals, and precise control of the application of nutrients and water.
Due to environmental concerns, restrictions may be in place regarding the
disposal of excess fertilizer solutions and growing media. Possible options are to discard
fertilizer solutions by using it on pastures or in other agricultural applications, and to
recycle growing media by blending it with other potting mixes or agricultural soils.
Consult appropriate agencies for available options.
Soilless culture is more demanding and less forgiving of mistakes than
conventional soil culture. Good nutrient media composition and nutrient balance through
the entire crop cycle are mandatory.
Soilless culture methods allow production of tomatoes in areas where suitable
soil is not available or where disease or other conditions make ground production
unfeasible. Although the system can be automated to minimize irrigation and fertilization
labor input, continuous monitoring of most aspects of plant growth and culture media,
nutrient balance, and a thorough understanding of the crop and its physiology is critical.
Costs of the automatic devices and special nutrient media are substantial.
All other aspects of production remain the same as with conventional culture. There
are little or no yield or quality advantages over conventional production if the quality of
management is equal.
3.4.1 Closed-system hydroponic culture
It is the growing of plants in troughs or tubes, where plants are anchored in
gravel, sand, or artificial soilless mixes; or without artificial media for anchor, such as
nutrient-film technique (NFT). Any system used must be suitably built to allow proper
application and recirculation of the nutrient media. Flow rates of 1 1/2 to 2 quarts per
minute are most common. In a closed-system, the nutrient solution is regularly monitored
and adjusted for pH as needed. Because plants take up nutrients at different rates, and
roots exude certain chemicals, imbalances and problems can occur. To prevent
undesirable build up of certain elements, the nutrient solution may need to be changed
every 2-3 weeks with changes as often as once per week during periods of peak growth.
By careful monitoring of nutrients in solution and especially the electrical conductivity
(EC) daily, and by installing activated charcoal filters to remove certain toxic root
exudates, a large reservoir of nutrient solution may be maintained for one crop cycle (up
to 10-11 months). The EC should be maintained at 2.5, so that fresh water is added when
EC exceeds 2.5 and new, complete nutrient solution is added to bring the EC back to 2.5.
3.4.2 Bag Culture
It uses artificial media (usually rockwool) packaged in 3 or 4-cubic-foot bags.
Rockwool comes in two densities, standard and low density. The low density is used for
one year and discarded. The standard density may be sterilized and reused for up to three
crops. Two common trade names are Redi-Earth and Metro-Mix. The 4 cubic foot bags
are best for tomatoes. Two rows of tomatoes are usually planted per bag with plants
spaced 16 inches apart in each row with rows 16 inches apart. Bags are placed in rows 6
feet apart, and spaced down the row to allow a uniform 16 inch spacing between plants.
A drip irrigation system with spaghetti drippers for each plant is used to distribute the
nutrient solution. A 10%-20% excess solution is applied during cloudy cool periods and
25% to as high as 50% under sunny, warm conditions to provide drainage and prevent
salt buildup. This excess should be collected and discarded or may be reused with certain
restrictions.
Hydroponic greenhouse promoters have often failed to present their product
fairly and have created unrealistic expectations. None of the package offers of equipment
and technical services guarantees success. Investigate thoroughly before making financial
investments.
3.5 Planting
PLATE 3.1 TRANSPLANTING
Greenhouse tomatoes are always grown from transplants. Use a special part of the
greenhouse to grow these transplants. This can be a separate greenhouse, or an area
divided off from the main greenhouse where day and night temperatures can be
separately and accurately maintained. Plants should be trained to a single stem and
supported by strings hanging from overhead wires.
Plant the fall crop in mid-June, and set the plants in their permanent location
about August 1. It takes about 3.5 to 4 months from seeding until first pick for a fall crop,
which should begin in early October, after local tomatoes are no longer available.
3.6 Environmental Control
Accurate temperature, humidity, and carbon dioxide control are important.
Environmental control is accomplished in many ways ranging from totally manual, to
sophisticated computer-assisted control. Computers are also used to monitor fertilizer and
water applications.
A major consideration in environmental control is that of providing
temperature and humidity conducive to active movement of water and nutrients through
the plant for optimum growth. This is done by maintaining a humidity of between 60 and
80% during daylight hours. Dirt, dust, condensation and degradation of the covering
material itself can seriously reduce yields.
If a greenhouse is to be kept closed for long periods (several days at a time) to
conserve heat, you should provide suitable carbon dioxide generating equipment
.Management of irrigation to control increased humidity and control of increased disease
problems also become critical in houses with reduced ventilation.
3.6.1 Temperature Requirements
Temperature requirements for major greenhouse vegetables differ. In general, the
cooler temperatures are used when light intensities are low. For tomatoes, days, 70 to 75
F; nights, minimum 62-65 F. Where day temperatures might exceed 85 to 90 F, cooling
equipment is needed to prevent fruit set failure and to allow proper red color developing
in the maturing fruit.
3.6.2 Cold treatment
Tomato flowers form about 3-4 weeks before they become visible. The first
flowers form about the time the seedling cotyledons unfold and the first true leaf is just
visible. Research has shown that if tomatoes are subjected to a cold treatment at this time,
the first cluster will develop sooner, there will be less leaves and shorter internodes to
the first cluster, the cluster will have more flowers and set more and larger fruit. Varieties
differ in their response to cold treatment. Some varieties may develop rough fruit in the
first cluster after exposure to cold treatment, so always test the variety you are using
before subjecting your whole crop to a cold treatment. Do not subject the variety 'Trust'
to cold treatment for the reason just given.
Cold treatment consists of exposing seedlings at the time of cotyledon unfolding to
continuous (day and night) temperatures of 52 to 56 F until the plants reach the two true
leaf stages. This may take ten days to three weeks. Ten days are sufficient in sunny
weather while up to 3 weeks may be needed during cloudy, winter weather.
Following cold treatment, night temperatures should be raised to 58-62 F and day
temperatures should be maintained at 60-62 F during cloudy days, while 65-75 F should
be maintained during sunny or partly cloudy days.
3.6.3 Carbon dioxide enrichment
Carbon dioxide is normally present in the atmosphere at a concentration of 300
parts per million (ppm). Carbon dioxide levels in greenhouse air may be depleted to
levels that may limit plant growth, especially in tightly sealed greenhouses and when
ventilation is restricted during daylight hours. Addition of carbon dioxide to greenhouses
has been demonstrated to improve vegetable yields. Concentrations of 1,000 ppm. or
more in greenhouse atmospheres have given the best results. Yield increases of 20% or
more have been reported for tomatoes under certain conditions. Carbon dioxide
generating and monitoring equipment is readily available. Flue gasses from certain types
of heaters and fuels, and even liquid carbon dioxide are used. Investigate the various
models and types before purchasing.
3.7 FERTILIZER
Commercial fertilizer mixes are available through horticultural supply companies. Tailor
fertilizer programs for specific crops and soil fertility situations. Proper fertility is
necessary for success. Plants have different fertilizer requirements during different stages
of their growing cycle. Whether you use soil or a soilless system, no single set of
recommendations will apply, so use soil tests to determine initial applications, and
monitor fertility levels by leaf analysis throughout the growing season. Both soil tests and
leaf analyses are available through Oregon State University Extension offices.
3.8 Watering
Maintain an adequate supply of water to plant roots. Excess water reduces soil
aeration. Young plants put in the greenhouse in mid-winter May need to be watered only
once every 10 to 14 days. The same plants in mid- summer may need water every two or
three days in ground beds. A fall crop would need a total of about 15 to 18 inches; a
spring crop may need 20 to 25 inches of water.
With bag culture, mature plants may need to be watered several times a day. One
to 3 quarts per plant per day may be needed depending on growth stage and plant size.
3.9 Pollination
Tomatoes are self pollinating under open field conditions. Pollen sheds and
fertilization occurs as a function of normal air movement and its agitation of the plants
and flowers. Under greenhouse conditions, flowers need to be agitated mechanically, or
fruit needs to be set using plant chemical hormones that are sprayed on flower clusters on
a regular basis.
Pollination by mechanical vibration is recommended with the large fruited U.S. and
European varieties. This is accomplished using a hand operated electric vibrator available
from horticultural supply companies. These vibrators operate on 110 volt or battery
power. The battery powered models use a 6 or 12 volt motorcycle battery. Units using
flashlight batteries have insufficient action for best pollination. Many other methods have
been tried or tested. None ha have been as good.
Timing is important when using mechanical vibrators to set fruit. Pollen sheds most
readily when temperature is at its peak, and relative humidity lowest on a given day. The
optimum time for that is between 11 a.m. and 3 p.m. during winter and early spring. Each
flower cluster needs to be vibrated every day, as long as flowers are still opening in that
cluster, to accomplish pollination of the flowers that open on that day.
Special bees (bumble bees) are now being used for pollination. These bees
mechanically agitate tomato flower clusters to acquire pollen and thus accomplish
pollination. Currently, the high cost of obtaining these bees has limited them to use in
very large interconnected greenhouse ranges. The bees would have to be obtained from
special bee keepers.
3.10 PRUNING AND TRAINING
Auxiliary branches must be pruned as the plant is trained to a single stem, supported by
string to an overhead wire. In rare occasions, especially when grafted plants are used,
plants may be trained in a double stem configuration.
With varieties that tend to produce small fruit, cluster pruning is used to increase fruit
size, and limit the number of fruit per cluster. Generally, 3-4 fruit per cluster are allowed
to develop with these varieties, with three fruit per cluster during the fall and winter
cloudy weather and four during the sunny late spring and summer period. Fruit number
per cluster is the factor that most affects fruit size, assuming other growth conditions are
adequate.
Chapter 4
4 RISK MANAGEMENT
4.1 Non-Pathogenic Fruit Disorder
4.1.1 Blossom-End Rot:
Varieties differ in susceptibility. Caused by calcium imbalance or deficiency during
critical stage of fruit differentiation and expansion, usually induced by water stress.
4.1.2 Gray-Wall:
Linked to high plant vigor, associated with high rates of nitrogen fertilization with
high soil moisture and low temperature. In some cases certain bacteria, fungi and/or
tobacco mosaic virus are thought to be involved in gray wall. Often associated with
blotchy ripening ().
4.1.3 Blotchy Ripening:
Promoted by low potassium levels in the fruit, high soil moisture and humidity
and fluctuating temperatures during fruit ripening (above 85 F.) and low sunlight levels,
or shaded areas in the plant canopy. Aggravated by compacted soils.
4.1.4 Solar yellowing:
This problem occurs most commonly on fruit ripening in late May and June when
days are longest, sunlight is most intense, and temperatures exceed 85 F. Under such
conditions, lycopene (the red pigment in tomato) fails to develop normally in some
varieties, leaving only the carotene (yellow) pigment to show at the shoulder or, with
green-shoulder type tomatoes, where the dark green portion was. Even with temperatures
under 85 F. the surface temperature of exposed fruit, especially those with dark green
shoulders can become high enough to inhibit normal red color development. In other
parts of the day or night, when temperatures do not exceed 85 F, some red color may
develop, resulting in an orange, rather than a yellow abnormality.
4.1.4.1 Control
To reduce this problem, protect fruit surfaces from short-wave solar radiation by
altering pruning practice in March and April by allowing two leaves to form on axillary
branches rather than removing the axillary branches. The use of non-phytotoxic white
wash will also help if applied when fruit are at the mature green stage. The white wash
will have to be removed before the fruit is marketed.
4.1.5 Roughness and scars:
Varieties differ in susceptibility. associated with large fruit. Particularly severe when
young plants are exposed to cool temperatures, and night temperatures below 50 F. when
flower clusters are differentiating.
4.1.6 Fruit cracks:
Varieties differ in susceptibility. Promoted by fluctuations in soil moisture and
temperature. Often seen when varieties developed for hot, arid climates are subjected to
humid, wet conditions.
4.2 PESTS
PLATE 4.1 Heliothis armigera
Proper control of plant disease is critical in greenhouse environments, where
high temperatures and humidity are ideal for diseases to develop. Insect and nematode
infestations, too, can become rampant under the confined greenhouse conditions.
Early control of white fly, aphid, and spider mite infestation is important. Several
chemicals and a large number of biological controls are available to control these pests
4.3 Diseases
You can control most fungus and virus diseases with fungicides and proper sanitation and
sterilization of soils, growth media, and equipment. The most serious fungus disease on
tomatoes are leaf mold (Cladosporium), early blight (Alternaria), leaf spot (Septoria),
gray mold (Botrytis), and the wilt diseases (Fusarium and Verticillium).
.
Chapter 5
5. HARVEST
5.1 Factors Affecting Quality during Harvest
At harvest main factors affecting the quality of the products comprise maturity stage
and uniformity, harvest method, degree of sanitation and type of packaging. The proper
maturity stage at harvest depends on the nature and expected path of distribution chain.
For longer storage life, tomato harvested should be free from defects, disease, skin breaks
and bruises. Minimizations of mechanical injuries due to harvesting, use of sanitation
procedures and packaging in container which are filled under some criteria are important
steps to reduce quality loss.
5.1.1 Maturity Status Indication
Fruit is harvested when mature green if it is to be held before marketing.
Mature green fruit have well developed internal gel, and may have internal tissues that
are beginning to turn red. Vine ripe fruit ranges from fruit just turning red to fully
ripened, depending on market requirement. When harvesting and handling, avoid
bruising fruit.
The USDA Grade Standards for Fresh Tomatoes recognize 6 official color designations:
1) Green - surface of the tomato is completely green;
2) Breakers - a definite break in color from green to tannish-yellow, pink or red on no
more than 10% of the surface;
3) Turning- more than 10% but less than 30% of the surface, in the aggregate, shows
change as in 2) above;
4) Pink- more than 30% but less than 60% of aggregate surface shows pink or red color;
5) Light Red - more than 60% of aggregate surface is reddish pink or red provided that
not more than 90 % is red;
6) Red- more tan 90% of surface in the aggregate shows red color.
5.1.2Harvest Techniques
5.1.2.1 Harvesting Requirement
a) All equipments which are to be utilized for the harvest are properly washed and
clean.
b) Proper hygiene condition must be provided to the labour which is involved in the
harvesting process.
c) Proper training of labour should be done
5.1.2.2 Harvest Method
a) Harvesting was done by using the scissors manually.
b) Harvested fruits were put into crates of 5 kg in the greenhouse in single layer to
reduce physical and mechanical injury.
5.2 Sorting
During harvest sorting is done on the basis of following criteria
a) very small sized
b) diseased or damaged
c) soft or wounded
5.3 Packaging
One function of post-harvest handling in packing houses today is the washing, brushing
and cleaning of produce to remove any pesticide residues that may be on the fruit.
Tomatoes lend themselves well to such procedures.
Package tomatoes by size in 8 to10-lb (4-5 kg), single layer cartons Use only
containers intended for greenhouse-produced fruit, and so designated. In general only top
grade fruit is marketed. Greenhouse tomato fruit is usually individually differentiated
with stick-on labels. Misshapen and defective fruit should be removed from vines as soon
as it is so recognized.
5.5 Storage
Store mature-green tomatoes at 55 to 70 F; ripe fruit at 45 to 50 F and a relative
humidity of 90 to 95%.
Mature-green tomatoes cannot be successfully stored at temperatures that greatly
delay ripening. Tomatoes held for 2 weeks or longer at 55 F may develop abnormal
amount of decay and may fail to develop a deep red color. The optimum temperatures for
ripening mature-green tomatoes range from 65 to 70 F. Tomatoes will not ripen normally
at temperatures above 80 F. A temperature range of 57 to 61 F is probably most desirable
for slowing ripening without increasing decay problems. At these temperatures the more
mature fruit within the mature-green range will ripen enough to be packaged for retailing
in 7 to 14 days.
Fruit held below 50 F become susceptible to Alternaria decay during subsequent
ripening. Increased decay during ripening occurs after 6 days of exposure at 32 or 9 days
at 40 F. Mature-green tomatoes may also be damaged by low temperatures in the field. A
high percentage of tomatoes exposed to temperatures below 50 F for a week before
harvest would probably develop alternaria rot even at recommended storage
temperatures. Some loss due to chilling can be expected in fall-grown tomatoes exposed
for over 95 hours to temperatures below 60 F during the week before harvest. Severity of
chilling increases with increases in exposure time, so 135 hours exposure to below 60 F
may result in heavy losses.
Chilling periods for fruit in storage and during transit, have a cumulative effect.
Thus, fruit chilled for only a short period in storage can become very susceptible to decay
when held for only a short period at chilling temperature during marketing. Tomatoes
should be kept out of cold, wet rooms because in addition to potential development of
chilling injury, extended refrigeration damages the ability of fruit to develop desirable
fresh tomato flavor.
Semi-ripe tomatoes with 60 to 90% color can be held up to a week at 50 F. If held
longer, they will probably not have a normal shelf life during retailing. Riper tomatoes
will tolerate lower temperatures. For example, "firm-ripe" tomatoes can be held a few
days at 45 to 50. Long holding of ripened tomatoes at low temperatures (40 and below)
results in loss of color, shelf life, and firmness.
When it is necessary to hold fully-ripe tomatoes for the longest possible time
before their immediate consumption upon removal from storage, as for example, for ship-
board or overseas use, they can be held at 32 to 35 F. for up to 3 weeks. Such tomatoes,
although acceptable, would not be of high quality and would have little if any shelf life
remaining.
Fully ripe: When it is necessary to hold fully ripe tomatoes for the longest possible
time before their immediate consumption upon removal from storage, as for example, for
ship-board or overseas use, they can be held at 32 to 35 F for up to 3 weeks. Such
tomatoes, although acceptable, would not be of high quality and would have little if any
shelf life remaining. Mature- green, turning, or pink tomatoes should be ripened before
storing at such low temperatures.
A storage temperature of 50 to 55 F is recommended for semi-ripe to fully ripe
greenhouse-grown tomatoes. Ripening of less mature tomatoes at 70 F is recommended
before storage at 50 to 55 F.
Research showed that an atmosphere with 3% oxygen and 97% nitrogen extended the life
of mature-green tomatoes up to 6 weeks at 55 F and that the flavor of the ripened fruit
had no off-flavor and was acceptable to the taste panel. A 1% or lower oxygen level can
cause off-flavor. Increased carbon dioxide levels provide no benefit; in fact, levels of 3 to
5% have been reported to cause injury at 55 F.
Marketing of Hydroponic Tomato
Although there are no statistical figures available on hydroponic tomato production and
supply, an increasing number of greenhouse operations are now using hydroponics for
their greenhouse production and the operation is considered to be a high-technology
production system. According to a USDA /ERS report, the volume of greenhouse and
hydroponic tomato imports from countries such as Canada, the Netherlands, and Mexico
has increased dramatically since the mid-1990s and now account for a significant share of
all U.S. fresh-market tomato imports (ERS/USDA, 2005). Domestic producers have
recognized an opportunity in this market niche and the number of new or expanded
hydroponic operations is growing fast in several states. The largest share of hydroponic
tomatoes is expected to be coming from medium-, and large-size growers. Despite this
development, hydroponic tomatoes still appear to have a small share of the total fresh
tomato market. Some sources suggest that, in terms of annual per capita consumption,
only four of the 18 pounds per person (about 22%) are hydroponically grown (American
Hydroponics, 2005). As in the case of the soil-grown greenhouse tomatoes, domestic
hydroponic tomato production and supply has faced high competition from growers in
Canada over the last few years.
Hydroponic tomatoes appear to represent the high-end of the fresh tomato market. One
market advantage of these tomatoes is that they have more uniform appearance than other
tomatoes. Some hydroponic tomatoes are also said to be produced in a healthy
environment without using inorganic chemicals. This could possibly provide an
opportunity to differentiate the products based on their contribution to wellness. Until
now, however, hydroponic tomatoes have not differentiated themselves from other fresh
products. Also, there are no brands or an established customer base for these products.
Some supermarkets are attempting to differentiate these tomatoes from other greenhouse
tomatoes by labeling the company name and using the term “hydroponic tomatoes” on
each package or tomato. Currently, this does not mean that prices for these products are
higher than for other greenhouse tomatoes.
There are no studies that show consumers’ preferences and attitudes towards hydroponic
tomatoes. According to some sources, some of the hydroponic tomatoes that are currently
coming into the marketplace are perceived as sweeter and firmer than soil-grown
tomatoes (American Hydroponics, 2005). In terms of prices, the perception is that
consumers think hydroponic tomatoes are high priced, but this may directly be affected
by the supply and demand of hydroponic tomatoes on the market place. With regard to
retail markets, supermarkets are the most significant outlets for hydroponic tomatoes.
Currently an increasing number of supermarkets are carrying these products. In the
future, a bundle of market factors, technology, and state and federal regulations will
determine the pace of development in hydroponic tomatoes. Some states have already
started defining their greenhouse production. For example, according to the definition
given by the state of California in 2004, greenhouse tomatoes are those tomatoes to be
grown in a fixed structure using nutrient solutions that substitute for soil, which would in
effect mean they have to be hydroponically grown (Cook and Calvin, 2005).
Chapter 6
6 BRIEF MODE OF HYDROPONICS
PLATE 6.1 GREEN HOUSE AT GLANCE
6.1 Available resources
The greenhouse structures are based on the available sources as the capital investment.
These structures are constructed to control the growing climatic condition mainly
including light, temperature, air circulation, humidity etc. for proper growth and
development of the crops. The structures should be erected in such a manner that
optimum advantage should be taken from the prevalent seasonal weather conditions.
6.2 Orientation of Green house
The direction of greenhouse is also important factor to make use of better crop production
by consuming the sunshine entering into the structure from a certain direction. The
structures are designed with a specific shape, viz. raised cutters and scre of green net is
usually introduced to give shade to the plants during scorching heat or when the plants
need less light for the proper growth.
6.3 Rain water conservation
The rainwater consumed for crop production can efficiently be collected in the form of
reservoir and this idea has negated the claim that Hydroponic crop production need
surplus water. Rather this technique drastically saves the water and is a potential and
practical application of modern but well established technique for getting higher and
quality yield of a number of crops. The rain water falling in the surrounding area and
dropped through the raised cutters of greenhouses are collected into the channels
constructed nearby and is ultimately accumulated in the reservoirs.
It should be kept in mind that if circumstances do not permit for water harvesting
through such reservoirs, even then a limited amount of water could serve the purpose to
canalize the production routine.
6.4 Reuse of drainage water
In many a countries of the world, the drainage water after proper treatment based on
latest technology, enables the water to be reused for crop production. The arrangement of
irrigation can be manipulated by applying mist system; drip irrigation and also the
controlled cooling pad system to maintain the requisite humidity in the greenhouse. In
greenhouse production, the introduction of supplemental CO2 inside the plant growing
environment is made to enhance the crop growth. The logical reasoning of CO2 that
plants use this gas to manufacture their food under the action of a biological process
called photosynthesis. .
The sources of plant nutrients (salts) for macro (nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, calcium, magnesium, etc.) and micro (zinc, sulphur, iron, cupper,
molybdenum, manganese, etc.) elements are acquired from the reliable source. A suitable
air system has to be installed to regulate the heating and cooling in accordance with the
temperature requirement of the crop schedule. This is heavily practiced in most of the
greenhouses.
6.5 Sustainability of Temperature
However, in the areas where energy crises prevail and the fuel cost is hard to
bear, in such instances cold glasshouses (unheated glasshouses) are undertaken for
production objective. And the use of energy for the sustainability of temperature inside
the greenhouses is to the level at critical stage when temperature either very low or very
high to operate the heating or cooling system. This kind of exercise is done to overcome
the critical moments in plants to avoid the risk of high mortality under adverse climatic
conditions. Some of the climatic components are automated with the help of computer
and are very common and cost effective when compared with the manual routine where
the labour charges come out exorbitant. .
In advanced countries, every component of greenhouse system is directly
attached with the computer control, thus has been monitored in the office. Any fault in
any part of the system in the greenhouse can certainly be identified instantly to rectify the
problem within no time. As an example, the flow of feed provided to the plants in the
greenhouse can give clear-cut indications for the level of pH, EC, amount of micro and
macronutrients etc. If any interruption appears in the smooth channeling of the solution
flow, it will be localized through computer screen, and the concerned individual will
remove the chocking thus maintains the flow in the channel. .
6.6 Prospects of hydroponics industry
The crops grown by hydroponics have a sizable volume of market within the
country and a lot of prospects that have been explored to export the crop like tomato,
lettuce, strawberry, cut flowers etc. For example, tomato is grown in thousand tonnes of
volume around the world moreover different types of tomatoes including beefsteak,
cluster, cherry etc. are produced by hydroponics. The seeds must be hybrid in nature to
get the optimum yield. The crop can be obtained round the year without any break
followed by a strict schedule. .
6.7 Hydroponics in Pakistan
In Pakistan, the use of hydroponics for crop production is not promoted. This may
be due to the lack of knowledge and awareness. The hydroponics introduction at
commercial level has been introduced by an entrepreneur near Rawalpindi incurring
heavy investment with good skill utilization.
6.8
Conclusion
The trend indicates that people have started showing interest in this area of crop
production which is a health sign on the part on implementation of new technology in
Pakistan. But still a lot have to do to catch the real goal and objectivity. The work on
hydroponics at university level can change the face of the agriculture sector in crop
production technology. .
The present government has shown its seriousness to promote the intensive cultivation
for increasing per acre yield. This is only possible if innovative technology of
hydroponics is introduced and should be induced deep into the farmer community.
Needless to say that introducing the hydroponics greenhouse production will raise the
future column and can give a boost to such productive technologies in our country.