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Effects of Velocity Loss During Resistance Training on Performance in Professional Soccer Players
Abstract
Aim:
To analyze the effects of two resistance training (RT) programs that used the same relative loading but different repetition volume, using the velocity loss during the set as the independent variable: 15% (VL15) vs. 30% (VL30).
Methods:
Sixteen professional soccer players with RT experience (age 23.8 ± 3.5 years, body mass 75.5 ± 8.6 kg) were randomly assigned to two groups: VL15 (n = 8) or VL30 (n = 8) that followed a 6-week (18 sessions) velocity-based squat training program. Repetition velocity was monitored in all sessions. Assessments performed before (Pre) and after training (Post) included: estimated one-repetition maximum (1RM) and change in average mean propulsive velocity (AMPV) against absolute loads common to Pre and Post tests; countermovement jump (CMJ); 30-m sprint (T30); and Yo-yo intermittent recovery test (YYIRT). Null-hypothesis significance testing and magnitude-based inference statistical analyses were performed.
Results:
VL15 obtained greater gains in CMJ height than VL30 (P < 0.05), with no significant differences between groups for the remaining variables. VL15 showed a likely/possibly positive effect on 1RM (91/9/0%), AMPV (73/25/2%) and CMJ (87/12/1%), whereas VL30 showed possibly/unclear positive effects on 1RM (65/33/2%) and AMPV (46/36/18%) and possibly negative effects on CMJ (4/38/57%). The effects on T30 performance were unclear/unlikely for both groups, whereas both groups showed most likely/likely positive effects on YYIRT.
Conclusions:
A velocity-based RT program characterized by a low degree of fatigue (15% velocity loss in each set) is effective to induce improvements in neuromuscular performance in professional soccer players with previous RT experience.
... 1 I parametri più rilevanti per quanto riguarda la pianificazione e la risposta all'allenamento contro resistenza sono l'intensità e il carico, il numero di ripetizioni, il numero di serie e il riposo tra di esse, il tipo di esercizio e la loro sequenza di esecuzione. 2 Cambiamenti a livello di queste variabili, in particolare riguardanti l'intensità e il carico, contribuiscono a una diversa risposta fisiologica a questo tipo di allenamento. 3 Esistono molti tipi diversi di allenamento di forza, a dispetto di ciò, quello più comunemente impiegato è l'esercizio con sovraccarichi a cui viene applicato il carico massimale (one-repetition maximum, 1RM). ...
... 1 The most relevant parameters regarding planning and response to resistance training are intensity and load, number of repetitions, number of sets and rest between them, type of exercise, and sequence of execution. 2 Manipulating these variables, particularly intensity and load, contributes to a different physiological response to strength training. 3 There are a lot of different types of strength training; however, the most commonly implemented is strength training based on one-repetition maximum (1RM). ...
... 24 A higher percentage of velocity loss is related to greater muscle hypertrophy, most likely due to the higher number of repetitions. 2,25 The VBT groups showed greater enhancement in explosive power, possibly as a result of more high-speed repetitions. Most studies report an increase in CMJ of approximately 10%, 24, 25 however, it must be noted that jumps are not included in those training processes, which may explain the difference in results in relation to this research. ...
BACKGROUND: Available literature referring to the differences in the efficiency between velocity-based training (VBT) and percentage-based strength training (PBT) relating to the neuromuscular performances and markers of muscle damage in young males is quite scarce. Therefore, the goal of the current study was to investigate the differences between VBT and PBT programs in terms of their effects on absolute strength, explosive power, speed, and agility, as well as their influence on muscle damage as indicated by changes in biochemical markers following a 6-week resistance training programs.
METHODS: The study included 42 young men, divided into two experimental groups, VBT (N.=17) and PBT (N.=15), and the control group (N.=10). Before and after the experimental treatments, the respondents performed the following tests: one-repetition maximum (1RM) in squat and bench press exercises for absolute strength, squat jump (SJ) and countermovement jump (CMJ) for explosiveness, 5m and 20m running for speed, and 505 test around both legs for agility. In addition, creatine kinase (CK) and creatine kinase isoenzyme (CK-MB) were evaluated as markers of muscle damage.
RESULTS: The obtained results suggested statistically significant differences between analyzed groups in terms of absolute strength and explosiveness in favor of the VBT program. It is also indispensable to highlight that VBT group demonstrated greater enhancement than PBT group in the following tests: 1RM squat (Δ% 17.9 and Δ% 11.9, respectively), 1RM bench press (Δ% 13.5 and Δ% 6.96, respectively), SJ (Δ% 13.89 and Δ% 5.15, respectively), CMJ (Δ% 16.96 and Δ% 5.37, respectively). The levels of CK marker were substantially lower at the third measurement in the VBT group compared to the PBT intervention.
CONCLUSIONS: VBT was more effective regarding the development of absolute and explosive strengths and elicited lower muscle damage compared to the PBT program.
... In each set, VL control enables a consistent control of movement velocity, power, perceived exertion rating, and blood lactate level. 12,14 Several studies have compared the training effects of low (0%-20%) and high (30%-45%) rating, 11,[15][16][17][18][19] and their results have indicated that VL magnitude may influence subsequent training adaptations. For example, improvement in power or tasks involving high movement velocities, such as squat velocity against light load (MCV or MPV of >1 m/s), jump height, and sprint time, may be more effectively achieved using low VL training. ...
... For example, improvement in power or tasks involving high movement velocities, such as squat velocity against light load (MCV or MPV of >1 m/s), jump height, and sprint time, may be more effectively achieved using low VL training. 11,[15][16][17][18] By contrast, high VL training may lead to more optimized hypertrophy and muscular endurance outcomes. 15,18 Relevant studies have been equivocal regarding a superior training effect of high and low VL for maximal strength improvement. ...
... 11,[15][16][17][18] By contrast, high VL training may lead to more optimized hypertrophy and muscular endurance outcomes. 15,18 Relevant studies have been equivocal regarding a superior training effect of high and low VL for maximal strength improvement. 11,[15][16][17] Previous review studies have evaluated the differences in performance improvement before and after training with high or low VL, 7,20-23 as well as the dose-response relationship between the training effect and VL. ...
This study assessed the effects of squat training with different velocity loss (VL) thresholds on squat strength, heavy-load squat velocity (HLSV), light-load squat velocity (LLSV), countermovement jump (CMJ) height, and sprint time (ST). A systematic search of electronic databases was conducted. Meta-analysis was used to examine effects of trainings with different VL thresholds and used meta-regression to examine the interaction effects (correlation) between training effects and VL in different performance-based outcomes. Our systematic search yielded 1017 articles, 13 of which were included in the present study. Meta-analysis revealed that resistance training with both low (0%–20%) and high (30%–45%) VL thresholds improved squat strength, HLSV, LLSV, and CMJ height, but only low VL improved ST (p < 0.05). Training gains for HLSV, LLSV, CMJ (p = 0.088), and ST with low VL were superior to those with high VL (p < 0.05). Meta-regression revealed that CMJ (p = 0.076) and ST (p = 0.010) demonstrated improvements as VL decreased in the range of 0% to 45%. In conclusion, squat resistance training with low (≤20%) VL provides relatively more effective training stimuli, improving performance in power and speed tasks. Optimal VL ranges may be in the range 10% to 20%, ≤20%, and ≤10% for the HLSV and LLSV, CMJ, and ST, respectively.
... Resistance training (RT) has been shown to have a beneficial effect on improving high-speed actions that are crucial for performance in soccer players, including vertical jump, acceleration capacity, change of direction ability, repeated sprint ability, or kicking ball (KB) speed [1][2][3][4][5]. However, the effectiveness of an RT program depends on how the different acute training variables (e.g., relative load; number of sets and repetitions; type and order of the exercises; recovery time between sets, repetitions, and exercises; frequency; and execution velocity) are manipulated [6]. ...
... In this regard, several studies have analyzed the effect of velocity-based RT using different initial movement velocities and %VLs in the set in different exercises. In general, studies using the full-squat (SQ) exercise have shown that a low %VL (5-15%) induces less fatigue accumulation [18,19] and produces similar or even greater gains in strength, running speed, and jumping ability compared to a high magnitude of %VL in the set (>20%VL), regardless of the relative load used [5,[10][11][12][19][20][21]. In addition, for the same %VL in the set, RT programs with lower relative loads tend to show greater gains in vertical jump and acceleration capacity [5,11,20,21]. ...
... In general, studies using the full-squat (SQ) exercise have shown that a low %VL (5-15%) induces less fatigue accumulation [18,19] and produces similar or even greater gains in strength, running speed, and jumping ability compared to a high magnitude of %VL in the set (>20%VL), regardless of the relative load used [5,[10][11][12][19][20][21]. In addition, for the same %VL in the set, RT programs with lower relative loads tend to show greater gains in vertical jump and acceleration capacity [5,11,20,21]. Despite the importance that this new procedure has currently gained in the prescription and control of RT, to the best of our knowledge, there has been only one study using this approach in soccer players [5]. ...
The aim of this study was to compare the effects of two velocity-based resistance training (RT) programs using moderate loads (45–60% 1RM) but different magnitudes of velocity loss (VL) limits (10% vs. 30%) on the changes in physical performance in young soccer players. Twenty young soccer players were randomly allocated into two groups: VL10% (n = 10) and VL30% (n = 10). All participants were assessed before and after the 8-week RT program (twice a week) involving the following tests: 20 m running sprint (T20), countermovement jump (CMJ), kicking a ball (KB), and progressive loading test in the full squat (SQ) exercise. The RT program was conducted using only the SQ exercise and movement velocity was monitored in all repetitions. Significant ‘time × group’ interaction (p < 0.05) was observed for sprint performance, KB and 1RM in the SQ exercise in favor of VL10%. No significant changes between groups at post-test were observed. The VL10% resulted in significant (p < 0.05–0.001) intra-group changes in all variables analyzed, except for KB, whereas VL30% only showed significant (p < 0.05) performance increments in a sprint test and 1RM in the SQ exercise. The percentage of change and the intra-group’s effect size were of greater magnitude for VL10% in all variables analyzed compared to VL30%. In conclusion, our results suggest that, for non-trained young soccer players, squat training with low to moderate relative loads and 10%VL is sufficient to elicit significant increases in muscle strength and sport-specific actions compared to 30%VL in the set.
... The first is the fixed number of repetitions per set with a given percentage of one-repetition maximum (% of 1RM), a daily changeable value. Coaches cannot be sure if the athletes are training with the appropriate loads in each session (Pareja-Blanco et al., 2017b). The other approach is the number of repetitions until failure (Galiano et al., 2020;González-Badillo et al., 2011;Pareja-Blanco et al., 2017b) however, it is thought that this method could not be optimal for some athletes (Davies et al., 2016;Pareja-Blanco et al., 2017b). ...
... Coaches cannot be sure if the athletes are training with the appropriate loads in each session (Pareja-Blanco et al., 2017b). The other approach is the number of repetitions until failure (Galiano et al., 2020;González-Badillo et al., 2011;Pareja-Blanco et al., 2017b) however, it is thought that this method could not be optimal for some athletes (Davies et al., 2016;Pareja-Blanco et al., 2017b). Therefore, coaches should use new strategies that guarantee low-level fatigue and high-level potentiation to PAPE (Boullosa et al., 2013). ...
... Coaches cannot be sure if the athletes are training with the appropriate loads in each session (Pareja-Blanco et al., 2017b). The other approach is the number of repetitions until failure (Galiano et al., 2020;González-Badillo et al., 2011;Pareja-Blanco et al., 2017b) however, it is thought that this method could not be optimal for some athletes (Davies et al., 2016;Pareja-Blanco et al., 2017b). Therefore, coaches should use new strategies that guarantee low-level fatigue and high-level potentiation to PAPE (Boullosa et al., 2013). ...
Velocity loss (VL) approach during squat exercise may increase post-activation potentiation enhancement effect on squat jump performance. If this method succeeded, then different conditions of VL should be researched before its implementation to the field. This study hypothesized that squat jump performance will be increased after different volumed VL conditions during half-squat exercise. Eighteen resistance-trained men (mean ± SD; age: 24.0±3.5 years; body mass: 78.3±5.5 kg; height: 179.3±7.0 cm; one-repetition maximum half squat: 110.8±11.9 kg) voluntarily performed squat jump under unloaded and four different VL conditions (R6: six repetitions, Ruf: repetitions until failure, VL10: velocity loss thresholds 10%, VL20: velocity loss thresholds 20%) after a set of half-squat exercises at 80% of one-repetition maximum separated by at least 72 hours. The results show that subjects demonstrated significantly better squat jump performance in VL10, VL20 and R6 conditions compared to the unloaded and Ruf conditions (p
... In this sense, different velocity loss thresholds may be fixed, which are the maximum movement velocities recorded during the set supposedly occurring during the very first set of repetitions in a non-fatigued state, with possible moderating effects on performance. For example, fixing the threshold at −15% vs. −30% in the in-season weekly routine of professional soccer players resulted in greater achievements in jump height albeit no group improved in sprints [86]. Overall, both thresholds below and above −20% velocity loss appear effective in improving jumps and sprints [49], even though low-velocity loss thresholds (<−15%) seem recommended [87]. ...
... Fourth, and strictly connected with the previous point, the recovery after the training session may be considerably slowed, with possible repercussions in terms of injury risk [88]. Fifth, training to failure is perceived as more fatiguing [90] and is based on more repetitions [86], and this may undercut adherence to training. On these bases, non-failure training is overall recommended and there is no apparent reason to include failure in the in-season RT program to improve jumps, sprints, and CODs. ...
Citation: Bartolomei, S.; Beato, M.; Coratella, G. Manipulating Resistance Exercise Variables to Improve Jumps, Sprints, and Changes of Direction in Soccer: What We Know and What We Don't Know. J. Funct. Morphol. Abstract: The present review summarizes the effects of manipulating different resistance exercise variables on jumps, sprints, and changes of direction (CODs) in soccer. Regarding jumps, moderate-to-high loads, full range of movement (ROM), non-failure sets, and a moderate training volume are recommended. Different external resistances like constant-load, flywheel, or elastic bands, as well as various movement velocities and select exercises, are equally effective. As for sprints, moderate-to-high loads, constant load or flywheel but not elastic resistances, movements performed at full ROM, non-failure sets, and moderate-to-high training volume might be more effective, while numerous movement velocities and exercises could be chosen. As for CODs, moderate-to-high loads, flywheel more than constant-load resistance, and a moderate-to-high total number of repetitions are recommended, while several movement velocities and exercises could be selected, though ROM needs investigation. The effectiveness of concentric-only vs. eccentric-only training on jumps, sprints, and CODs has not been investigated, while an external focus and inter-set rest > 2 min are theoretically preferable, albeit not proven. Importantly, high movement velocity is not a prerogative of effectiveness, and limited ROM is not associated with sport-specific patterns such as jumps. Practitioners in soccer may manipulate resistance exercise variables depending on the purpose.
... Therefore, it is not surprising that the squat exercise and its ballistic variant (jump squat) have been extensively used in scientific research to develop the performance of high-velocity soccer-related tasks in soccer players (e.g., jumping, sprinting, changing of direction, or kicking) (Coratella, et al., 2018;González-Badillo, et al., 2015;Styles, Matthews, & Comfort, 2016). Several studies have revealed that squat-based RT programs performed against light-moderate loads (50-60%1RM) are effective to enhance sport-specific tasks (e.g., jumping and sprinting) in soccer players (Galiano, Pareja-Blanco, de Mora, & Villarreal, 2022;Pareja-Blanco, Sánchez-Medina, Suárez-Arrones, & González-Badillo, 2017;Rodríguez-Rosell, et al., 2021). An important characteristic of the aforementioned studies is that the lifting phase of the repetitions was always executed at maximal intended velocity. ...
... High fatigue is expected to induce a deterioration in the ability to perform soccer-specific technical and tactical actions and also to increase the likelihood of contracting injuries during specific soccer practice (Small, McNaughton, Greig, & Lovell, 2010;Smith, et al., 2018). Therefore, to mitigate the stress and fatigue induced by RT, soccer players rarely lift heavy loads (> 75%1RM) and also restrict the level of effort by not performing sets to failure (Franco-Márquez, et al., 2015;González-Badillo, et al., 2015;Pareja-Blanco, et al., 2017;Styles, et al., 2016). Of note is that the scientific literature related to soccer and RT has been predominantly focused on outfield players (García-Ramos, et al., 2018;González-Badillo, et al., 2015;Harries, Lubans, & Callister 2012). ...
This study aimed to elucidate whether the performance of high-velocity soccer-related tasks is compromised immediately after completing squat-based resistance training sessions differing in the level of effort. Eleven young male soccer goalkeepers (age: 17.1±1.7 years) completed four testing sessions. The parallel back-squat one-repetition maximum (1RM) was determined in the first session. The remaining sessions were applied in a counterbalanced order and they consisted of the assessment of four high-velocity soccer-related tasks (countermovement jump [CMJ], horizontal jump, soccer kicking, and soccer throwing) at rest (control protocol) and immediately after completing four sets of the squat exercise against the 60%1RM until reaching a velocity loss of 15% (low-effort protocol) and 30% (moderate-effort protocol). The mean velocity of the fastest repetition did not differ between the protocols (≈ 0.80 m·s-1 ; p=.447), whereas the number of repetitions was greater for the moderate-effort (18.2±5.3 repetitions) compared to the low-effort (10.1±4.5 repetitions) protocol (p<.001). The protocols were ranked according to the magnitude of the dependent variables as follows: CMJ height (control > low-effort = moderate-effort), horizontal jump distance (control > low-effort > moderate-effort), kicking ball distance (low-effort = control = moderate-effort), and throwing ball distance (control = low-effort = moderate-effort). These results indicate that squat-based RT sessions compromise the performance of some high-velocity tasks (vertical and horizontal jumps) but not others (kicking and throwing), whereas a greater level of effort (i.e., velocity loss) only induced larger reductions in the performance of the horizontal jump distance.
... Some researchers have attempted to investigate the regulation of strength training loads using movement velocity as a point of departure. Their findings indicate that the load intensity at the time of completing the movement was significantly correlated with the movement velocity in a variety of types of strength training (Pereira and Gomes, 2003;Weakley et al., 2021), and significantly correlated with the percentage of velocity loss (VL) (González-Badillo et al., 2006;Pareja-Blanco et al., 2017b). The amount of load in strength training should not only be a fixed number of repetitions corresponding to the relative load intensity. ...
... The present study demonstrated that the PAP induced by 20VL was beneficial in increasing the punching speed of the dominant side of the subjects. Compared with the CON and the 10VL, the 20VL exhibited the most favourable outcomes, likely due to the load effectively improving the neuromuscular coordination of the subjects' organisms and facilitating greater fast musCIe fibre recruitment (Pareja-Blanco et al., 2017b;Sañudo et al., 2020). The dynamics of the kinetic chain necessitate that a straight punch requires the lower extremity to generate force from the stirrups, which is then transferred from the core to the arm to complete the end release of the force. ...
This study was conducted in accordance with the principles of velocity-based training theory, with the objective of investigating the effects of post-activation potentiation (PAP) induced by different velocity loss (VL) thresholds (10% vs. 20%) on the punching ability of boxers. In addition, the aim was to determine the velocity loss thresholds and time nodes that produced the optimal activation effect. Twenty-four male elite boxers were randomly assigned to three groups: CON, 10 VL, and 20 VL. All subjects in the three groups underwent an activation intervention involving an 85% of the one-repetition maximum (1RM) squat, with 6-8 repetitions performed in the CON. The number of repetitions in the 20%VL and 10 VL was determined based on the velocity loss monitored by the GymAware PowerTool system. Four time points were selected for observation: the 4th, 8th, 12th and 16th minutes. These were chosen to test the subjects’ punching ability. The results demonstrated that activation training at different VL induced a post-activation potentiation in boxers, improving punching ability bilaterally and to a greater extent than in the CON. The dominant side demonstrated the greatest efficacy at the 12th minute under the 20% velocity loss threshold, while the non-dominant side exhibited the greatest efficacy at the 8th minute under the 10% velocity loss threshold.
... Despite the current importance of resistance training prescription, only a few studies using the velocity loss approach in soccer players have been published. In a 6-week (2 sesions per week) study with professional players, Pareja-Blanco et al. [21] found that group training with a volume load of 15% (15% VL) resulted in significantly greater improvements in strength (estimated one-rep maximum) and power (vertical jump) compared to group training with 30% VL. However, no between-group differences were detected in terms of sprinting and endurance gains. ...
... Interestingly, only a few studies have compared the effects of VBT with different %VL and/or traditional resistance training on performance within a population of soccer players [21][22][23]. being practically identical to the present study's findings, Rojas-Jamarillo's study reported significant and large sprint time pre vs. post improvements (11.3%, ES: 1.85). This difference could likely be attributed to both the younger age of this study's participants compared to both ours and Pareja-Blanco's study, as well as the resistance training history (resistance training naïve cohort). ...
The objectives of this study were to compare the effects of two in-season velocity loss training methods (VBT) on performance outcomes and to evaluate the effects of velocity-based training compared to traditional resistance training (TRT) on performance outcomes in young elite soccer players. VBT utilized the same relative load but varied in the extent of velocity loss during the set: 15% (VL15%) and 30% (VL30%). Thirty-four players were recruited and randomly distributed into three groups: the VL15% group (n = 12; age = 18.50 ± 0.67 years; stature = 183.41 ± 4.25 cm; body mass = 75.08 ± 5.57 kg), the VL30% group (n = 11; age = 17.91 ± 0.60 years; stature = 181.21 ± 6.56 cm, body mass = 73.58 ± 6.22 kg), and the traditional strength training group TRT (n = 11; age = 18.14 ± 0.74 years; stature = 182.17 ± 5.52 cm; body mass = 74.86 ± 6.68 kg). Alongside regular soccer sessions and matches, the groups underwent a four-week (2 sesions per week) resistance training intervention with back squats involved. Changes in leg strength (SQ1RM), 20 m sprint time (SPR 20 m), countermovement jump height (CMJ), reactive strength index (RSI), and change of direction (COD) from before and after were evaluated using a 3 × 2 ANOVA. While no significant interaction was found for SQ1RM and SPR20, all of the groups showed significant pre to post improvements. Significant interactions were observed for CMJ (F = 38.24, p = 0.000), RSI (F = 8.33; p = 0.001), and change of direction agility test (COD) (F = 3.64; p = 0.038), with a post hoc analysis showing differences between the VL15 (6.0%) and TRT (1.7%) groups (p = 0.034); VL15 (12.2%) and VL30 (3.2%) groups (p = 0.004); VL15 and TRT (0.4%) (p = 0.018); VL15 (2.4%) and VL30 (1.5%) (p = 0.049); and between the VL15 and TRT (0.4%) groups (p = 0.015). Four weeks of VL15% training during the season induced similar strength increases to VL30% and TRT, superior improvements in RSI and COD compared to VL30%, and superior improvements in CMJ, RSI, and COD tests compared to TRT. Thus, incorporating the VL15% training method may be recommended to improve power-related performance metrics in elite young soccer players.
... 8,9 Longitudinal RT studies have already been conducted to examine the effect of RT with different VL thresholds. [10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18] Previous research focusing on the upper limb indicates that due to the higher metabolic and mechanical stress, higher VL thresholds (25%-50%) maximize muscle hypertrophy. 12 Conversely, as a consequence of increased motor unit frequency, increased discharge doublets, and changes in fiber types, lower VL thresholds (<25%) result in positive neuromuscular-related adaptations. ...
... 28,29 Indeed, a previous study focusing on the squat exercise revealed that a higher VL threshold (ie, VL40) resulted in a reduction of myosin heavy chain IIX percentage, whereas it was preserved in the group that trained with a moderate VL threshold (ie, VL20). 15 Therefore, these physiological adaptations may underlie the differences favoring the VL15 intervention in high-velocity actions after an 8-week velocity-based RT program within the established light intensities range (40%-55% 1RM). ...
Purpose: This study explored the effects of 4 bench-press (BP) training programs with different velocity-loss (VL) thresholds (0%, 15%, 25%, and 50%) on strength gains and neuromuscular adaptations. Methods: Forty-six resistance-trained men (22.8 [4.4] y) were randomly assigned into 4 groups that differed in the VL allowed within the set: 0% (VL0), 15% (VL15), 25% (VL25), and 50% (VL50). Training loads (40%–55% 1-repetition maximum), frequency (2 sessions/wk), number of sets (3), and interset recovery (4 min) were identical for all groups. Participants completed the following tests before and after an 8-week (16-session) BP training program: (1) maximal isometric test, (2) progressive loading test, and (3) fatigue test in the BP exercise. During all tests, triceps brachii muscle electromyography was assessed. Results: After completing the resistance-training program, no significant group × time interactions were noticed for isometric and dynamic BP strength variables. The dose–response relationship exhibited an inverted U-shaped relationship pattern, with VL25 showing the greatest effect sizes for almost all strength variables analyzed. The total number of repetitions performed during the training program increased as the VL magnitude increased. Conclusions: The group that trained with high VL threshold (50%), which performed a total of 876 repetitions, did not experience additional strength gains compared with those experienced by the 0%, 15%, and 25% of VL groups, which performed significantly fewer repetitions (48, 357, and 547, respectively). These findings suggest that when light loads (40%–55% 1-repetition maximum) are used, low and moderate VL thresholds (0%–25%) provide a higher training efficiency.
... Research analyzing the load-velocity relationship in exercises such as push-ups, pull-ups, half squats, full squats, and leg presses has also revealed a strong correlation between load magnitude and bar speed (equation predictive capacity R² = 0.96-0.98), which is independent of training background and athletes' strength levels [11]. Therefore, in addressing the issue of objectively quantifying and monitoring athletes' actual training loads, it is suggested to monitor the load based on the magnitude of VL achieved in each set of strength training, rather than being limited to fixed repetitions prescribed by relative loads (%1RM). ...
... (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 13 May 2024 doi:10.20944/preprints202405.0790.v111 ...
Proper Post-Activation Performance Enhancement helps to improve athletic performance. This study aimed to investigate the effects of two different velocity loss (VL), 10%VL and 20%VL, on post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) in 20m sprint performance among sprint athletes. Twenty-four male sprint athletes (100m sprint time: 10.96±0.15 s) were recruited. A randomized crossover experimental design was used for traditional group (TG), 10%VL, and 20%VL interventions. Sprint tests were conducted at the 4th, 8th, 12th, and 16th minutes after the intervention. Two-way repeated measures ANOVA revealed an interaction effect between group and time on 20m sprint performance (F=2.817, p=0.037, partial η²=0.585). Simple effect analyses showed significant differences compared to baseline at the 4th minute for the 20%VL group (P<0.05). Cohen's d values indicated improvement in 10m sprint times at the 8th minute of the rest interval for all three intervention groups (TG: ES=-0.270, 10%VL: ES=-0.038, 20%VL: ES=-0.279). Improvement in 20m sprint times was observed at the 4th minute for the 20%VL group (ES=-0.296) and at the 16th minute for the 10%VL group (ES=-0.276). Compared to traditional PAPE schemes based on 1RM, PAPE schemes based on velocity loss (20%VL) can better induce PAPE effects in sprint athletes.
... 4,5,[13][14][15] Since the actual 1RM value may change within a few sessions, the actual %1RM being used may mismatch with the theoretical %1RM that was originally scheduled. 16,17 To overcome the abovementioned limitations, velocity-based training is an objective, valid, and accurate method to monitor and prescribe relative loads in real time. 16 It has been demonstrated that the movement velocity attained in the concentric phase can be used to determine the relative load due to the close relationship observed between %1RM and lifting velocity. ...
... minute rest interval was used between warm-up sets. Aiming to compare the actual training program conducted by each programming model, the following variables were calculated:17,20,21 Fastest MPV: average of the fastest repetition measured in each session, which corresponds with the intensity (%1RM) scheduled; Average MPV: average MPV attained during the entire training program (excluding warm-up); VL: velocity loss induced in the set; Total Reps: total number of repetitions performed during the training program (excluding warm-up); MRI-MPV: MRI undertaken calculated as the weighted average of the number of repetitions performed with each %1RM; NTF: number of times to failure; Rep per set with a given %1RM: average number of repetitions performed in each set with each of the loads used (50%-85% 1RM); and VL per set with a given %1RM. Furthermore, the evolution of the 1RM across training sessions was estimated from the load-velocity relationship, 18 using the fastest repetition at 60% 1RM during the warm-up. ...
Purpose : To examine the effects of 4 programming models (linear [LP], undulating [UP], reverse [RP], and constant [CP]) on physical performance. Methods : Forty-eight moderately strength-trained men were randomly assigned to LP, UP, RP, and CP groups according to their 1-repetition maximum (1RM) in the full-squat exercise (SQ) and followed an 8-week training intervention using the SQ and monitoring movement velocity for every repetition. All groups trained with similar mean relative intensity (65% 1RM), number of repetitions (240), sets (3), and interset recovery (4 min) throughout the training program. Pretraining and posttraining measurements included, in the SQ, 1RM load, the average velocity attained for all absolute loads common to pretests and posttests (AV), and the average velocity for loads that were moved faster (AV > 1) and slower (AV < 1) than 1 m·s ⁻¹ at pretraining tests. Moreover, countermovement jump height and 20-m running sprint time were measured. Results : A significant time effect was found for all variables analyzed ( P < .05), except for 20-m running sprint time. Significant group × time interactions were observed for 1RM, AV > 1, and AV ( P < .05). After training, all groups attained significant strength gains on 1RM, AV, AV > 1, and AV < 1 ( P < .001–.01). LP and RP groups improved their countermovement jump height ( P < .01), but no significant changes were observed for UP and CP. No significant improvements were achieved in 20-m running sprint time for any groups. Conclusions : These different programming models are all suitable for improving physical performance. LP and RP induce similar or greater gains in physical performance than UP and CP.
... Due to the advantages mentioned above, VBT has been implemented in various athletic training programs [12][13][14]. Theoretically, manipulating training variables is essential and critical for maximizing training gains [15]. To guarantee effective manipulations, many studies have tested how different training variables of VBT, such as velocity loss [14,16] and training intensity [17], can influence athletic performance. ...
... Theoretically, manipulating training variables is essential and critical for maximizing training gains [15]. To guarantee effective manipulations, many studies have tested how different training variables of VBT, such as velocity loss [14,16] and training intensity [17], can influence athletic performance. However, owing to the limited experimental settings, these studies only examined a few special velocity loss thresholds or intensity ranges, leaving the relationship over their full range unclear. ...
Velocity-based training is an advanced auto-regulation method that uses objective indices to dynamically regulate training loads. However, how to maximize muscle strength with appropriate velocity-based training settings is yet unclear. To fill this gap, we conducted a series of dose-response and subgroup meta-analyses to check the effects of training variables/parameters (including intensity, velocity loss, set, inter-set rest intervals, frequency, period, and program) on muscle strength in velocity-based training. A systematic literature search was performed to identify studies via PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, EBSCO, and Cochrane. One repetition maximum was selected as the outcome to indicate muscle strength. Eventually, twenty-seven studies with 693 trained individuals were included in the analysis. We found that the velocity loss of 15 to 30%, the intensity of 70 to 80%1RM, the set of 3 to 5 per session, the inter-set rest interval of 2 to 4 min, and the period of 7 to 12 weeks could be appropriate settings for developing muscle strength. Three periodical programming models in velocity-based training, including linear programming, undulating programming, and constant programming, were effective for developing muscle strength. Besides, changing periodical programming models around every 9 weeks may help to avoid a training plateau in strength adaption.
... Traditionally, adaptations to strength training have been monitored using a combination of different performance parameters, such as load intensity, exercise type and order, number of sets and repetitions (volume), rest between sets (density), and spatiotemporal control of movements (technique) [1]. Recent research showed that monitoring repetition velocity during strength training is also an objective and practical way to assess acute metabolic stress, hormonal response, and training-induced mechanical fatigue [1][2][3]. Research has focused more on the velocity of the concentric phase in an exercise, suggesting it as a valid approach for measuring and adjusting performance parameters [4]. This may be the fundamental reason why recent research has presented different devices that contribute to strength training control: accelerometers that measure acceleration [5,6], linear position transducers (LPTs) [6][7][8], and optical measurement systems (Trio-OptiTrack) [6]. ...
Citation: Montoro-Bombú, R.; Costa, A.; Sousa, P.M.; Pinheiro, V.; Forte, P.; Monteiro, L.; Ribeiro, A.S.; Rama, L. Reliability and Accuracy of Linear Position Transducers During the Bench Press and Back Squat: Implications for Velocity-Based Training. Abstract: Background: Selecting the right linear position transducer (LPT) for velocity-based training monitoring sometimes presents uncertainties for coaches. Objectives: This study rigorously examined the test-retest reliability of three LPT-Cs using a simultaneous triangulation method of the same device during bench press (BP) and back squat (SQ) exercises performed on a Smith machine. Methods: Forty university students-13 females (23 ± 2 years) and 27 males (31.5 ± 6 years)-voluntarily participated in a randomized repeated-measures study. LPTs were randomly assigned numbers and placed at 5 cm apart to measure and collect bar displacement (∆S), mean propulsive velocity (MPV), peak velocity (PV), and time to peak velocity (T-PV). Each volunteer performed three BP and SQ attempts with pre-standardized loads (males: BP ≥ 40 kg and SQ ≥ 60 kg; females: BP ≥ 25 kg and SQ ≥ 40 kg). Results: The main findings of this study support a high degree of reliability for LPTs. For all variables, the absolute reliability presented significant values (p ≤ 0.05), with an intraclass correlation coefficient ≥ 0.995, a 95% confidence interval between 0.992-0.999, a coefficient of variation ≤ 10%, and a standard error of the mean ≤ 0.031. Conclusions: Scientists and coaches can use the LPT device as a reliable tool for monitoring velocity-based training by providing rigorous measurements of ∆S, MPV, PV, and T-PV during BP and SQ exercises. In addition, the smallest real difference reported may be useful in identifying minimal changes in ∆S within a single set (BP = 0.10 cm; SQ = 0.13 cm).
... Velocity-based training (VBT) has gained attention in the field of strength training due to its potential benefits in improving explosive strength and performance. In fact, some studies have suggested the role of VBT in enhancing athletic performance, including power, countermovement jumping (CMJ) and sprinting ability (Banyard et al., 2020;Pareja et al., 2017a;Ramírez et al., 2015). However, some researchers have reported results related to VBT, including non-significant changes in CMJ, sprint and power test sense (Pareja et al., 2017b;Rodríguez et al., 2021;Orange et al., 2019). ...
The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of velocity-based (VBT) and traditional strength training (TST) methods on vertical jump, dynamic balance, agility, 10 m acceleration and 20 m sprint performances. Twelve volunteer men randomly divided into two groups participated in the study. After 1 Repetition Maximum (1RM) was determined, the TST group performed 3 sets of 10 repetitions with 40-60% of their maximum weight, while the VBT group performed 3 sets of strength training at a velocity range of 0.75-1.0 m/s for 6 weeks, 2 days a week. In the VBT group, a significant difference was found between 55.16±6.17 cm in the pre-test and 59.16±4.99 cm in the post-test of vertical jump and 4.05±0.27 in the pre-test and 1.72±0.27 in the post-test of balance (p<0.05). There was a significant difference between 48.33±3.98 cm in the pre-test and 53.66±4.03 cm in the post-test; between 4.29±0.29 in the pre-test and 3.65±0.48 in the post-test. Optimising the speed while lifting load in VBT enables athletes to react faster to sudden position changes by improving dynamic balance. Although 6 weeks of VBT training increased vertical jump, the difference was not statistically significant, which may be due to sample size, training duration or individual differences. As a result, the increase in vertical jump and balance in both strength training exercises can be explained by the fact that squat exercise activates the quadriceps muscles by activating the knee joint and increases leg strength, endurance and knee stabilisation.
... Several studies with youth [63][64][65] and adult [11,15,18,[66][67][68] football players have shown the effectiveness of different strength training methods and protocols on vertical jump performance. Our results are very similar to those of Rodriguez-Rosell et al. [69], who after a similar duration of intervention (6 weeks), achieved an improvement in CMJ of between 5.7 and 12.7% following a combination of strength and plyometric training. ...
The aim of this study was to analyze the effects of a 7-week combined strength and power training program on body composition, aerobic capacity, strength, sprint, and agility in elite youth soccer players. Twenty-one players, divided into age groups (U14 and U16), participated in this study. In addition to four training sessions per week (plus matches), the two groups completed a strength training session on Match Day 4 (MD-4) and a power training session on Match Day 2 (MD-2). Before and after the intervention, various tests were conducted, including skinfold measurements, submaximal intermittent shuttle run, eccentric hamstring strength (EHS), countermovement jump (CMJ), single-leg jump (SLJ), sprint test with split times at 10 and 30 m, agility t-test, push-ups, and pull-ups. Our results indicate that a seven-week program of combined strength training led to significant improvements in body composition, EHS, jump performance, and pull-up tests for both groups of players (p < 0.05). Moreover, the U14 group also demonstrated an improvement in the agility test (p < 0.01). The U14 group experienced more substantial gains than the U16 group in agility and push-up performance (p < 0.05). The sprint performance remained unchanged for both groups (p > 0.05), suggesting that specific training is required to improve this quality.
... Proximity-to-failure has been observed to acutely influence several physiological responses during resistance training, such as muscular damage and neuromuscular fatigue (Pareja-Blanco et al., 2017). Such physiological responses following resistance training may reduce the muscle's capability to contract in subsequent training sessions (Refalo et al., 2022), thereby potentially limiting mechanical tension and the resulting muscle hypertrophy. ...
Muscle hypertrophy is often a desired goal of resistance training, and strategies that extend training beyond momentary failure may enhance muscular adaptations. Thus, the objective of this study was to assess whether performing additional past-failure partial repetitions beyond momentary failure increased muscle hypertrophy. A total of 23 untrained men completed a 10-week within-participant intervention study. This study comprised two weekly resistance training sessions of four sets of standing Smith machine calf raises. One limb was randomly allocated to the control condition performing sets to momentary failure (PLANTARMF), and the other limb was allocated to the test intervention that included additional past-failure partial repetitions in the lengthened position (DORSIvf). Muscle thickness of the medial gastrocnemius muscle was measured both pre- and post-intervention via ultrasound. Data were analysed within a Bayesian framework using a mixed-effect model with random effects to account for the within-participant design. The average treatment effect (ATE) was measured to assess any difference in condition and inferences made based on the ATE posterior distribution and associated Bayes Factor (BF). The main findings were that the PLANTARMF and DORSIVF legs increased medial gastrocnemius hypertrophy by 6.7 and +9.6%, respectively. The results identified an ATE favouring the inclusion of additional partial repetitions (0.62 [95%CrI: 0.21–1.0 mm; p(>0) = 0.998]) with ‘strong’ evidence (BF = 13.3) supporting a priori hypothesis. Therefore, when the goal is to train for maximum gastrocnemius hypertrophy over a relatively short time period, we suggest performing sets beyond momentary failure as a likely superior option.
... Afterward, three sets of squats with a 15% velocity loss were performed, as a low degree of fatigue has been shown effective to induce improvements in neuromuscular performance previously. Two continuous repetitions above the 15% velocity threshold were needed to stop the set [23]. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study in which volume and intensity are internally controlled through measures of velocity or jump height rather than by fixed repetition sets, which do not provide the same relative volume for all participants. ...
Background: This study aimed to examine the effects of two complex training sequences on acute post-activation potentiation enhancement in countermovement jump (CMJ) performance. Methods: Twenty-two recreationally active males performed CMJ before and 1, 4, and 8 min after two sequences of complex training conducted in reverse order, consisting of a heavy load comprising three sets of squats with a 15% velocity-loss and three sets of maximal CMJ with a 10% height-loss for the low load. Results: No significant differences (p > 0.05) were observed in the interaction time × condition in CMJ variables. At the individual level, 23, 9, and 32% of participants improved CMJ performance in the high loads–low loads sequence at 1, 4, and 8 min compared to the baseline, respectively. In comparison, 14%, 23%, and 27% of participants improved CMJ performance in the light loads–high loads sequence. Eight participants in each sequence did not improve CMJ performance at any time, although these participants were not the same in both sequences. Conclusions: Stronger athletes (1.65 ± 0.28 relative force) seemed to benefit more from the high loads-low loads sequence. In conclusion, there were no non-responders, as all the participants improved at some time point. The strength levels may be one of the moderating variables.
... Biweekly strength training improves various aspects of athletic performance in junior soccer players, including sprint times, agility, vertical jump, leg peak power, and repeated changes of direction (Hammami et al, 2018). Resistance-based training positively impacts sprinting performance (Bolger et al, 2015), with velocity loss reduction during training contributing to enhanced athletic performance (Pareja-Blanco et al, 2017). Understanding the relationship between body composition and athletic performance can guide athletes and coaches in developing effective training programs to optimize physical fitness and performance. ...
Effective management of a soccer team requires informed decision-making that profoundly influences team success, particularly in the dynamic and uncertain environment of the sport. To navigate the complexities, coaches have increasingly adopted data-driven techniques, resulting in an abundance of analyses that can lead to information overload. Therefore, acquiring a comprehensive understanding of existing soccer performance analysis and leveraging relevant insights become crucial. This study encompasses 3263 papers from Scopus published between 1978 and 2022. Our research employs a two-layer bibliometric analysis approach, involving the construction of a broader keyword co-occurrence network and subsequent nested keyword co-occurrence networks to identify and analyze the main research themes and their sub-themes within the field. Through this nested bibliometric approach, we develop a two-layer hierarchical taxonomy comprising seven overarching research themes and 40 corresponding sub-themes, thereby unveiling the intellectual structure of the literature in soccer performance analysis. Furthermore, our methodology allows us to delve deeper into the data collection process, enabling us to measure the proportion of articles effectively included in the keyword co-occurrence network. By employing this nested bibliometric approach, we evaluate the prevalence of multi-thematic papers in the field, revealing a paucity of truly multi-thematic studies. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of the intellectual structure of soccer performance analysis, providing valuable insights for both practitioners and researchers to advance knowledge in the field and foster a more comprehensive comprehension of soccer performance analysis.
... Nevertheless, both strategies can be considered as advances to the traditional methodology of prescribing loads relative to the "fixed" 1RM, especially when considering the strength performance variations that may occur after several training sessions. 3,4,24 Given the importance of VL as a variable for prescribing RT level of effort, as well as its influence on training adaptations, and the considerations discussed above regarding the adjustment of RT intensity using generalized or individualized equations, the purpose of the present study was to analyze the influence of 2 VBT methods of prescribing RT loads on (1) the goodness of the VL-%Rep relationship, (2) the %Rep completed after reaching a given VL threshold, and (3) the equivalence between methods in the %Rep for a given VL in the BP exercise performed on a Smith machine. Based on their background in RT for the BP exercise, participants meeting the RT guidelines are classified as "Intermediated." ...
Purpose : This study analyzed the influence of 2 velocity-based training-load prescription strategies (general vs individual load–velocity equations) on the relationship between the magnitude of velocity loss (VL) and the percentage of repetitions completed in the bench-press exercise. Methods : Thirty-five subjects completed 6 sessions consisting of performing the maximum number of repetitions to failure against their 40%, 60%, and 80% of 1-repetition maximum (1RM) in the Smith machine bench-press exercise using generalized and individualized equations to adjust the training load. Results : A close relationship and acceptable error were observed between percentage of repetitions completed and the percentage of VL reached for the 3 loading magnitudes and the 2 load-prescription strategies studied ( R 2 from .83 to .94; standard error of the estimate from 7% to 10%). A simple main effect was observed for load and VL thresholds but not for load-prescription strategies. No significant interaction effects were revealed. The 40% and 60% 1RM showed equivalence on data sets and the most regular variation, whereas the 80% 1-repetition maximum load showed no equivalence and more irregular variation. Conclusion : These results suggest that VL is a useful variable to predict percentage of repetitions completed in the bench-press exercise, regardless of the strategy selected to adjust the relative load. However, caution should be taken when using heavy loads.
... However, previous studies, which examined the impact of strength level on adaptations to a 10-week ballistic and power training, have observed significant gains in power output during unloaded jump squat after 5 weeks even in stronger group [36,51]. In addition, some studies have observed significant gains in sprint and jump performance and the measured power variables in athletes as results of resistance training programs for six weeks [52][53][54][55]. These suggest that the intervention period set in this study would not be a decisive reason for the lack of significant effect of time in the parameters related to force-velocity relation. ...
Strength-trained athletes has less trainability in muscle size and function, because of their adaptation to long-term advanced training. This study examined whether resistance training (RT) leading to repetition failure can be effective modality to overcome this subject. Twenty-three male judo athletes completed a 6-week unilateral dumbbell curl training with two sessions per week, being added to in-season training of judo. The participants were assigned to one of three different training programs: ballistic light-load (30% of one repetition maximum (1RM)) RT to repetition failure (RFLB) (n = 6), traditional heavy-load (80% of 1RM) RT to repetition failure (RFHT) (n = 7), and ballistic light-load (30% of 1RM) RT to non-repetition failure (NRFLB) (n = 10). Before and after the intervention period, the muscle thickness (MT) and the maximal voluntary isometric force (MVC) and rate of force development (RFDmax) of elbow flexors were determined. In addition, theoretical maximum force (F0), velocity (V0), power (Pmax), and slope were calculated from force-velocity relation during explosive elbow flexion against six different loads. For statistical analysis, p < 0.05 was considered significant. The MT and MVC had significant effect of time with greater magnitude of the gains in RFHT and NRFLB compared to RFLB. On the other hand, all parameters derived from force-velocity relation and RFDmax did not show significant effects of time. The present study indicates that ballistic light-load and traditional heavy-load resistance training programs, leading to non-repetition failure and repetition failure, respectively, can be modalities for improving muscle size and isometric strength in judo athletes, but these do not improve power generation capacity.
... The second category of studies reported velocity data that allowed for RIR estimations [27][28][29][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67]. Utilizing the most representative citations available [68][69][70][71], equations were utilized or created to predict the maximum possible number of repetitions at a given load on the basis of the repetitions performed and the intra-set VL. ...
Background
The proximity to failure in which sets are terminated has gained attention in the scientific literature as a potentially key resistance training variable. Multiple meta-analyses have directly (i.e., failure versus not to failure) or indirectly (e.g., velocity loss, alternative set structures) evaluated the effect of proximity to failure on strength and muscle hypertrophy outcomes categorically; however, the dose–response effects of proximity to failure have not been analyzed collectively in a continuous manner.
Objective
To meta-analyze the aforementioned areas of relevant research, proximity to failure was quantified as the number of repetitions in reserve (RIR). Importantly, the RIR associated with each effect in the analysis was estimated on the basis of the available descriptions of the training interventions in each study. Data were extracted and a series of exploratory multilevel meta-regressions were performed for outcomes related to both strength and muscle hypertrophy. A range of sensitivity analyses were also performed. All models were adjusted for the effects of load, method of volume equating, duration of intervention, and training status.
Results
The best fit models for both strength and muscle hypertrophy outcomes demonstrated modest quality of overall fit. In all of the best-fit models for strength, the confidence intervals of the marginal slopes for estimated RIR contained a null point estimate, indicating a negligible relationship with strength gains. However, in all of the best-fit models for muscle hypertrophy, the marginal slopes for estimated RIR were negative and their confidence intervals did not contain a null point estimate, indicating that changes in muscle size increased as sets were terminated closer to failure.
Conclusions
The dose–response relationship between proximity to failure and strength gain appears to differ from the relationship with muscle hypertrophy, with only the latter being meaningfully influenced by RIR. Strength gains were similar across a wide range of RIR, while muscle hypertrophy improves as sets are terminated closer to failure. Considering the RIR estimation procedures used, however, the exact relationship between RIR and muscle hypertrophy and strength remains unclear. Researchers and practitioners should be aware that optimal proximity to failure may differ between strength and muscle hypertrophy outcomes, but caution is warranted when interpreting the present analysis due to its exploratory nature. Future studies deliberately designed to explore the continuous nature of the dose–response effects of proximity to failure in large samples should be considered.
... Because of this, the 1-RM must be obtained frequently, which takes time and is often impractical. 15,19,23,35 More recently, movement velocity (MV) has been proposed as an objective method to monitor training load in RT. 3,18,26,34,37 MV can be assessed using devices (some with more excellent reliability and validity than others), such as optical motion detection systems, linear position or velocity transducers, camera-based optoelectronic systems, and smartphone video-based systems. 11,36,38,50 In this way, analyzing and providing feedback to the user regarding lifting velocity and estimating the applied force and power (ie, from MV and displaced load) is possible. ...
Context
Movement velocity (MV) may be a valid tool to evaluate and control the load in resistance training (RT). The rating of perceived exertion (RPE) also enables practical load management. The relationship between RPE and MV may be used to monitor RT intensity.
Objective
To evaluate the validity and practicality of RPE scales related to MV and training intensity in resistance exercise. We hypothesize a positive correlation among RPE, MV, and load intensity in RT. Therefore, RPE may serve as a supplementary indicator in monitoring RT load.
Data Sources
Boolean algorithms were used to search several databases (SPORTDiscus, EBSCO, PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar).
Study Selection
Studies published from 2009 to 2023 included clinical trials (randomized or not) in healthy female and male subjects that analyzed the relationship between different RPE scales and MV in basic RT exercises.
Study Design
Systematic review.
Level of Evidence
Level 3.
Results
A total of 18 studies were selected using different RPE scales with reported MV training loads. Participants included RT and untrained male and female subjects (15-31 years old). Two RPE scales (OMNI-RES and repetitions in reserve) were used. The selected studies showed moderate positive correlations among these RPE scales, MV, and training load (eg, percentage of 1-repetition maximum [%1-RM]). In addition, equations have been developed to estimate %1-RM and MV loss based on the OMNI-RES scale.
Conclusion
Studies show that RPE scales and MV constitute a valid, economic, and practical tool for assessing RT load progression and complementing other training monitoring variables. Exercise professionals should consider familiarizing participants with RPE scales and factors that might influence the perception of exertion (eg, level of training, motivation, and environmental conditions).
... Currently, CMV is commonly measured with linear position transducers during resistance exercise training sessions [1][2][3][4][5] . Linear position transducers are devices that rest on the floor and connect to the barbell via a retractable cable which measures displacement with respect to time, and can be used to determine CMV 6 . ...
Introduction: Linear position transducers (LPT) are commonly used to assess movement velocity during full concentric movements, but fail to account for fluctuations in velocity throughout the movement. This investigation aimed to determine inter-set and inter-day reliability of the HUMAC360 LPT during three equal segments of the barbell back squat. Methods: Seventeen participants with resistance exercise experience completed an informed consent and a one-repetition maximum (1RM) on their initial visit, with two additional visits consisting of two sets of three repetitions at 30-, 50-, 60- and 70% of 1RM with ≥ 48H between visits. The LPT was attached to the medial aspect of the barbell sleeve to assess velocity. Repetitions were segmented into thirds based on distance as the top, middle and bottom portion of the movement. Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICC), standard error of the measurement and paired samples t-tests were used to assess mean velocity (MV), peak velocity (PV) and duration reliability. Results: When using the average of the three repetitions, good-to-excellent (ICC2,1=0.708-0.993) inter-set and inter-day MV and PV ICCs were noted across all intensities and segments. The top and middle portion exhibited stronger reliability measures compared to the bottom. Movement velocity was not significantly different (p>0.05) at any exercise intensity, with the exception of MV at 60% during the top portion of the movement (p=0.045). Conclusions: The HUMAC360 provides reliable measures of mean velocity and peak velocity during each segment of the barbel back squat.
... Research analyzing the load-velocity relationship in exercises such as push-ups, pull-ups, half squats, full squats, and leg presses has also revealed a strong correlation between load magnitude and bar speed (predictive capacity equation R 2 = 0.96-0.98), which is independent of training background and athletes' strength levels [13]. Therefore, in addressing the issue of objectively quantifying and monitoring athletes' actual training loads, it is suggested to monitor the load based on the magnitude of VL achieved in each set of strength training, rather than being limited to fixed repetitions prescribed by relative loads (%1RM). ...
Post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) can significantly improve athletic performance. This study investigated the effects of two different velocity loss (10% VL and 20% VL) protocols on PAPE in 20 m sprint performance among sprint athletes. Twenty-four male sprint athletes (100 m sprint time: 10.96 ± 0.15 s) participated in the study. A randomized crossover experimental design was used to compare the traditional group (TG) and 10% VL and 20% VL interventions. Sprint tests were conducted at 4, 8, 12, and 16 min post-intervention. A two-way repeated measures ANOVA revealed a significant interaction effect between group and time on 20 m sprint performance (F = 2.817, p = 0.037, partial η² = 0.585). Simple main effects analysis revealed significant improvements at 4 min for the 20% VL group (p < 0.05). Cohen’s d values indicated improvements in 10 m sprint times at 8 min for all groups (TG: effect size (ES) = −0.270, 10% VL: ES = −0.038, 20% VL: ES = −0.279). Improvements in 20 m sprint times were observed at 4 min for the 20% VL group (ES = −0.296) and at 16 min for the 10% VL group (ES = −0.276). In conclusion, the velocity loss-based PAPE protocol (20% VL) demonstrated a superior induction of PAPE effects in sprint athletes at 4 min compared to traditional 1RM-based PAPE protocols. However, no significant differences were observed between the two protocols at 8, 12, and 16 min.
... Proximity-to-failure has been observed to acutely influence several physiological responses during resistance training, such as muscular damage and neuromuscular fatigue (Pareja-Blanco et al., 2017). Such physiological responses following resistance training may reduce the muscle's capability to contract in subsequent training sessions (Refalo et al., 2022), potentially limiting mechanical tension and the resulting muscle hypertrophy. ...
The purpose of this study was to assess whether performing additional partial repetitions beyond momentary failure increased muscle hypertrophy. A total of 23 untrained men completed a 10-week within-participant intervention study comprising two weekly resistance training sessions of 3-4 sets of standing smith machine calf raises. One limb was randomly allocated to the control condition performing sets to momentary failure and the other limb allocated to the test intervention that included additional partial repetitions in the lengthened position. Muscle thickness of the medial gastrocnemius muscle was measured pre- and post-intervention via ultrasound and an a priori hypothesis of greater hypertrophy with additional partial repetitions made. Data were analysed within a Bayesian framework using a mixed effect model with random effects to account for the within participant design. The average treatment effect (ATE) was measured to assess any difference in condition and inferences made based on the ATE posterior distribution and associated Bayes Factor (BF). The results identified an ATE favouring the inclusion of additional partial repetitions (0.62 [95%CrI: 0.21 to 1.0 mm; p(>0)=0.998]) with ‘strong’ evidence (BF = 13.3) supporting the a priori hypothesis. Thus, when the goal is to train for maximum gastrocnemius hypertrophy over a relatively short time period, we suggest performing sets beyond momentary failure as a likely superior option.
... This offers an improved means to monitor participants' well-being. It is imperative to recognize that once the velocity loss rate reaches a specific threshold, persisting with training can lead to diminishing training effects (Baker and Newton, 2007;Pareja-Blanco et al., 2017). As a result, comprehending the reality of the velocity loss rate across different load intensities becomes paramount. ...
Velocity-based resistance training is a fundamental component of sports science, offering a systematic approach to investigating the load variables of resistance exercises. This research focused on assessing the load across various resistance exercises by examining the barbell velocity during the concentric phase. The study involved 11 male athletes representing the China badminton team, who underwent 1RM testing for bench press, hip thrust, back squat, and single leg press exercises and the maximum repetition testing at load intensities of 60%, 70%, 80%, and 90% of 1RM. Simultaneously, measurements were taken of the barbell’s concentric phase velocity during each exercise. The findings revealed a robust negative correlation between barbell velocity and load intensity. Furthermore, exercises engaging greater muscle strength displayed smoother fitting curves. Analysis of velocity loss rates indicated that the hip thrust exhibited a higher completion percentage compared to the back squat and the bench press. Similarly, the non-dominant leg press showed a higher completion percentage than the dominant leg press. The study emphasizes the significance of delineating barbell velocity distributions in resistance training involving large muscle groups, as well as the accurate determination of load intensity. Precise load determination can be facilitated by employing fitting curves derived from distinct movement patterns and varying load intensities. The utilization of velocity data offers a quantifiable approach to achieving targeted training outcomes.
... However, the optimal velocity loss threshold for improving performance remains unclear. Previous research has investigated the effects of different velocity loss thresholds on physical performance and body composition in various studies (Alcazar et al. 2021;Andersen et al. 2021;Galiano et al. 2022;Pareja-Blanco et al. 2017Perez-Castilla et al. 2018;Rodiles-Guerrero et al. 2022), in which they essentially trained various groups using the same program but varying the velocity loss threshold. For instance, one study evaluated the effects of an 8-week intervention training with 20% vs. 40% of velocity loss during each session of a back squat resistance training program on the countermovement jump, the back squat 1RM and the thickness of the quadriceps muscle (Pareja-Blanco et al. 2020). ...
Resistance training constitutes a crucial element in the athletic training regimen for augmenting performance abilities or preventing injuries. Conventionally, resistance training programs are designed by prescribing relative intensities as a percentage of the individual’s one-repetition maximum for a predetermined number of sets and repetitions. However, this traditional approach fails to account for daily fluctuations in the athlete’s strength capabilities, which can impede optimal adaptations. The velocity-based resistance training methodology is considered a promising approach, as it considers these fluctuations within and between sessions. This approach is grounded on the principle that a direct linear correlation exists between the weight lifted and the maximum velocity achieved during the exercise. In the past decade or so, technological advancements have led to the development of several portable devices that measure the velocity of the lifted weight, such as barbells, during each repetition of the set and offer immediate feedback to the athlete. The primary objective of this chapter is twofold: (i) to elucidate the theoretical framework that underpins velocity-based training and (ii) to demonstrate its applicability in resistance training regimens. Additionally, the chapter will critically evaluate the existing literature regarding the effectiveness of this specialized form of resistance training. Given the emergence of several velocity-based training devices that employ varying technologies to measure lifting velocity over the past decade, this chapter will conclude by providing an overview of these technologies and assessing their practical utility through an examination of the current research on their reliability and validity.
... However, performing repetitions to volitional fatigue during resistance exercise may be desirable if the aim is to induce hypertrophy or increase muscle strength (Lasevicius et al., 2022;Singal et al., 2018), through high metabolic (Goto et al., 2005) or muscular loads (Schoenfeld, 2010) and neural adaptations (Gabriel et al., 2001;Walker et al., 2012). Fatigue may be quantified by measuring the total number of repetitions (Pekünlü and Atalaǧ, 2013), the total work done (Pareja-Blanco et al., 2017), the percentage drop in performance Tsoukos and Bogdanis, 2023b) or the slope of performance decrement (Tsoukos and Bogdanis, 2023a). ...
This study compared the acute effects of different ranges of motion (ROM) on fatigue and metabolic responses during repeated sets of bench press exercise. Ten resistance trained men performed three sets to momentary failure with two-min rest intervals at three different ROM: full ROM (FULL), and partial ROM in which the barbell was moved either at the bottom half (BOTTOM) or the top half (TOP) of the full barbell vertical displacement. In TOP, a higher load was lifted, and a higher total number of repetitions was performed compared to FULL and BOTTOM (130 ± 17.6 vs. 102.5 ± 15.9 vs. 98.8 ± 17.5 kg; 55.2 ± 9.8, 32.2 ± 6.5 vs. 49.1 ± 16.5 kg, respectively p < 0.01). Work per repetition was higher in FULL than TOP and BOTTOM (283 ± 43 vs. 205 ± 32 vs. 164 ± 31 J/repetition, p < 0.01). Mean barbell velocity at the start of set 1 was 21.7% and 12.8% higher in FULL compared to TOP and BOTTOM, respectively. The rate of decline in mean barbell velocity was doubled from set 1 to set 3 (p < 0.01) and was higher in FULL than both TOP and BOTTOM (p < 0.001). Also, the rate of mean barbell velocity decline was higher in BOTTOM compared to TOP (p = 0.045). Blood lactate concentration was similarly increased in all ROM (p < 0.001). Training at TOP ROM allowed not only to lift a higher load, but also to perform more repetitions with a lower rate of decline in mean barbell velocity. Despite the lower absolute load and work per repetition, fatigue was higher in BOTTOM than TOP and this may be attributed to differences in muscle length.
... It has been shown that different magnitudes of VL lead to different training effects (13,18). In summary, lower VLs (10-15%) are indicated to maximize strength adaptations and improve jumping and sprinting performance with a lower degree of neuromuscular fatigue (14,19,20). Higher VL thresholds (around 40-50%) promote greater muscle hypertrophy but result in an accumulation of muscle fatigue, reduce the expression of fast-twitch muscle fibers, and require prolonged recovery time (8,12,13). ...
Romagnoli, R and Piacentini, MF. Does fatigue affect the perception of velocity accuracy during resistance training? J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2024-The purpose of this study was to investigate whether perception of barbell velocity (PV) is affected by fatigue induced by 2 different training protocols. Twenty-two subjects were randomly divided into 2 groups: 10% velocity loss group (VL10) and repetitions to failure group (EX). Both protocols included 5 sets at 75% 1 repetition maximum but differed in the number of repetitions performed (Reps). Perception of barbell velocity was assessed in the back squat exercise during a test with 3 blinded loads (heavy, medium, light) 1 day rested (REST) and 1 day immediately following 1 of the 2 designated training protocols (POST). The accuracy of the PV was analyzed by calculating the delta score (ds), that is, the difference between perceived velocity (Vp) and real velocity of the barbell (Vr). During training, each group performed significantly different Reps per set (VL10: 3.9 6 1.4; EX: 13.8 6 6.3, p , 0.001) and consequently reported different levels of perceived exertion and repetitions in reserve (p , 0.001). Real velocity and ds did not change between REST and POST-VL10 conditions at all loads. Although a significant decrease in Vr was found at light and medium loads (p , 0.05) between REST and POST in the EX-Group, no significant differences were detected in the ds. These results demonstrate that Vp is a stable parameter on which practitioners can base their training despite different levels of fatigue.
... Studies that compared the chronic effects of interventions with different VL thresholds within the moderate VL zone (VL15% vs VL30%) showed similar gains in maximal strength, rate of force development, velocity against absolute loads, sprint, and hypertrophy. 16,17 Therefore, it is suggested that a moderate VL zone (15-30%) may be used as an optimal dose to improve specific neuromuscular adaptations (i.e. time efficient and less fatiguing). ...
Background
The perception of bar velocity loss (PVL) can be used as an alternative method for autoregulating intraset repetitions during velocity-based training. This study analyzed the accuracy and reliability of the PVL as a method to autoregulate the intraset repetitions using a moderate velocity loss (VL) threshold (15–30%).
Methods
A total of 22 resistance-trained men were familiarized with the PVL in a single session. Test–retest was performed in two sessions 1 week apart, in which participants completed three sets of bench press and back squat at 40, 60, and 80% 1 repetition maximum (1RM). Participants stopped the sets when they reached a moderate VL zone using their PVL. Accuracy was assessed by analyzing whether the mean VL (actual) and the lower and upper limits of the confidence interval (CI) (95%) of each set were within the established VL range and quantifying the relative frequency of correctly interrupted sets. Test–retest reliability was examined by the intraclass correlation coefficient and coefficient of variation.
Results
PVL showed acceptable accuracy in both exercises at 60 and 80% 1RM (50–65% success rate) and retest for all loads (53–76% success rate). Similar PVL percentages were observed between most of the sets for the test and retest (p > 0.05). Accuracy improved during the retest, especially for bench press (40% 1RM) and back squat (40 and 80% 1RM). PVL was not reliable in the test–retest comparison.
Conclusion
PVL can be a strategy with acceptable accuracy to autoregulate the intraset repetitions in a moderate zone (VL15–30%), but its reliability does not appear satisfactory after one familiarization session.
... The use of RT and/or PT interventions is well-documented in elite sports [10][11][12]. However, their effectiveness and safety considerations in youth sports have recently attracted scientific attention [13,14]. ...
Purpose
The relationship between strength, power, and sports performance may have long-term effects on the development pathways of youth athletes. This study systematically reviewed the current evidence of strength and conditioning interventions among youngsters in competitive sports.
Methods
The research was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 guidelines.
Results
A total of 415 articles were identified, and 20 remained for analysis. All studies reported resistance training (RT) and/or plyometric training (PT) interventions as beneficial to improving youngsters’ overall physical fitness. The lower-body explosive strength, speed, and agility improvements were more evident in training plans that combined heavy RT and PT programs. The training frequency of twice a week was sufficient to induce strength gains. The results indicate that strength and conditioning programs positively influence sport-specific skills performance.
Conclusions
PT and RT should not be implemented as single exercise interventions but as complementary programs to optimise physical and game performance. This study contributes to creating awareness among sports agents and coaches for integrating planned strength and conditioning programs with qualified instruction at least two times per week to improve young athletes’ physical development.
... The second category of studies reported velocity data that allowed for RIR estimations [23][24][25][54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66]. Utilizing the most representative citations available [67][68][69][70], equations were utilized or created to predict the maximum possible number of repetitions at a given load based on the repetitions performed and the intra-set VL. ...
Background
Soccer requires players to cover distances around 10–12 km, with numerous consecutive sprints throughout the 90-min game. As such, aerobic fitness and repeated sprint ability (RSA) are crucial physical qualities for the modern soccer player to cope with the demands of the game. However, a comprehensive and systematic search of aerobic fitness and RSA assessment procedures in elite soccer has yet to be conducted.
Objectives
The aims of this systematic review were to (1) identify the tests and outcome variables used to assess aerobic fitness and RSA of elite male soccer players, (2) provide normative values for the most common tests of aerobic fitness and RSA across different playing levels, and (3) report the reliability values of these aerobic fitness and RSA tests.
Methods
A systematic review of the academic databases MEDLINE, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, and OVID for studies published until August 2023 was conducted, following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Studies were eligible for inclusion if (1) they were original research studies, published in a peer-reviewed journal, and written in English language; (2) they had the primary aim of assessing aerobic fitness and/or RSA; (3) players were male and older than 17 years of age (i.e. mean age of the group); and (4) their playing level was defined as ‘professional’, ‘international’, or ‘elite’.
Results
For aerobic fitness testing, 124 studies and 35 different tests were identified. Of those, 26 tests (74%) were field-based, whereas only nine (26%) were laboratory-based tests. The incremental treadmill test to exhaustion was the most commonly used aerobic fitness assessment method (56 studies, 45%), with maximal oxygen consumption (O2max) (mL/kg/min) being the most prevalent outcome variable (49 studies, 87%). The YYIR1 and YYIR2 were also commonly used tests, identified in 22 (18%) and ten studies (8%), respectively. The most frequently reported outcome variable in both tests was distance in metres, reported in 20 studies (91%) for YYIR1 and in all ten studies (100%) for YYIR2. For RSA testing, 27 studies and 18 different tests were identified. Substantial variability in the identified RSA testing protocols was observed in terms of direction (linear vs. multidirectional), sprint repetitions (6–15), sprint distance (20–40 m), type of recovery (active vs. passive), and recovery duration (10–30 s). The 6 × 40-m shuttle sprint protocol with a 180° change of direction and 20 s passive recovery was the most common RSA test, employed in eight studies (29%).
Conclusions
This systematic review provides a comprehensive overview of the testing methods used to assess aerobic fitness and RSA in elite male soccer players. A total of 35 different aerobic fitness tests and 18 RSA tests were identified, highlighting the diversity in methodologies used. The most prevalent aerobic test was the incremental treadmill testing to exhaustion, with a median O2max value of 58 mL/kg/min. Field-based tests were preferred due to their practicality, cost-efficiency, and ability to assess multiple athletes simultaneously. A substantial variability in RSA testing protocols was identified in terms of sprint directions, distances, repetitions, and recovery types. Future research should focus on establishing the diagnostic accuracy of the most commonly used aerobic fitness tests to inform their utility in practice and bridge the gap between current testing practices and optimal fitness evaluation.
Purpose:
The present study analyzed the effects of a maximal-power-endurance (MPE) versus a repeated-power-ability (RPA) training program on different strength, power, and repeated-power measurements in a short- and long-term training period and the relationships between changes in all variables.
Methods:
Twenty-two young highly trained male basketball players were randomly allocated to 1 of the 2 groups (MPE, n = 11; RPA, n = 11) and evaluated by 1-repetition maximum and incremental load, RPA, and MPE tests in the bench-press exercise before and after a period of 4 and 8 weeks. The MPE group performed 2 to 4 sets of a postdetermined number of repetitions (ie, set stopped when maximum power output decreased >10%) using the load that maximized power output. The RPA group carried out 1 to 3 blocks of 5 sets of 5 repetitions with a load that maximized power output.
Results:
Both groups significantly (P < .001; effect size = 0.58; 1.56) improved 1-repetition maximum, maximum power output, and 20%, 40%, 60%, and 80% of 1-repetition maximum from pretest to posttest in the incremental load test. Significant improvements (P < .001) were found for the RPA and MPE groups in the best, mean, and last set in the RPA test at all times. Furthermore, a significant (P < .001) time × group interaction was found in the MPE test, showing significant improvements in both groups at posttest. In addition, at posttest, intraset power fluctuation in the mean was significantly (P < .05; effect size = 0.45) better in MPE group compared with RPA group.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, both training programs represent appropriate methods to improve neuromuscular measurements, although MPE training seems to be a more volume-efficient strategy (∼50% fewer repetitions) to enhance several fatigue-resistance indexes (intraset power fluctuation in the mean).
This study aimed to explore the differences in the load-
velocity profile between deadlift and squat exercises in men
and women. The load-velocity profiles (from 30% to 100%
of the one-repetition maximum [1RM] in 5% increments) of
42 soccer players (25 men and 17 women) were tested
during deadlift and squat. Relationship between mean
propulsive velocity and %1RM were analyzed. ANOVA
test was applied to compare each dependent variable (i.e.,
mean velocity values attained at each %1RM and mean test
velocity), with sex (men and women). Close relationships
between bar velocity and relative load were observed for
both sexes for squat (R2 = 0.76-0.95) and deadlift (R2 = 0.86-
0.88). Moreover, men showed statistically higher mean
propulsive velocity than women (p < 0.001–0.05) in squat
and deadlift. These results confirm that men present higher velocities at moderate to high relative loads (i.e., %1RM) compared to woman during lower-body exercises
Linear sprinting and turning actions are frequently performed in a soccer game, linked with crucial game moments. A comprehensive and systematic search in linear speed and change of direction (COD) ability assessment procedures in elite soccer is needed. The aims of the systematic review are (1) to identify the tests and outcome variables used to assess linear speed and COD ability of elite male soccer players, (2) to provide normative values for the most common tests of linear speed and COD ability, and (3) to report the reliability values of the identified linear speed and COD tests. For linear speed testing, sprint distances ranged from 5-50 m, with 10 m (72 studies), 20 m (54 studies), 5 m (46 studies), and 30 m (46 studies) being the most frequently assessed. For COD testing, the zig-zag test (14 studies), the agility T-test (11 studies), and the 505 COD test (8 studies) represented the most frequently performed tests. Distances shorter than 30 m prevailed in linear speed testing. COD tests employed a wide range of distances, modes of travel, angles, and number of turns, with no gold-standard protocol being evident. Standardized methods are imperative for accurate benchmarking and transferability of the results.
Hız temelli kuvvet antrenmanları, kuvvet kondisyonerleri tarafından sporcuların kuvvet yüklerini anlık olarak değerlendirmek amacıyla kullanılmaktadır. Geleneksel kuvvet antrenmanlarında karşılaşılan başlıca problemler, sporcuların günlük 1 TM (bir tekrar maksimum) kuvvetlerinin değişkenlik göstermesi ve teknolojinin gelişmesiyle birlikte klasik antrenman yöntemlerinin geçerliliğinin azalmasıdır. Bu durum, araştırmacıları farklı yeni metotlar geliştirmeye yöneltmiştir. Geleneksel kuvvet antrenmanlarında uygulanan yüklerin, sporcuların günlük 1 TM kuvvetindeki dalgalanmalar nedeniyle, alternatif bir yöntem olarak hız temelli kuvvet antrenmanı (HTKA) geliştirilmiştir. HTKA, direnç antrenmanlarında veri olarak kullanılmasına olanak tanımaktadır. Bu derleme, hız temelli yaklaşımların nöromüsküler ve fizyolojik yanıtlarını incelemek; avantajlı ve dezavantajlı yönlerini ele alarak hız temelli antrenman sistemlerini kılavuz niteliğinde sunmayı amaçlamıştır. Hareket hızının izlenmesi için kullanılan sistemler, günümüzde yük takibi yerine hız temelli yaklaşımı ön plana çıkarmaktadır. Kullanılan sistemlerin özellikleri, avantajları ve dezavantajları detaylı bir şekilde ele alınmıştır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Kuvvet antrenmanı, hız temelli antrenman, hız temelli performans analizi, antrenman optimizasyonu Abstract Velocity-based strength training (VBT) is used by strength conditioners to assess athletes' strength loads instantaneously. The main problems encountered in traditional strength training are the variability of athletes' daily 1 TM (one repetition maximum) strength and the decreasing validity of classical training methods with the development of technology. This situation has led researchers to develop different new methods. Due to the fluctuations in the daily 1 TM strength of athletes caused by the loads applied in traditional strength training, VBT has been developed as an alternative method. VBT allows it to be used as data in resistance training. This review aimed to examine the neuromuscular and, physiological responses of speed-based approaches and, to present velocity-based training systems as a guideline by addressing their advantages and disadvantages. The systems used to monitor movement speed nowadays emphasize the velocity-based approach instead of load monitoring. The features, advantages, and, disadvantages of the systems used are discussed in detail.
The main purpose of this study was to assess the changes in energy expenditure (EE), oxygen volume (VO 2 ), heart rate (HR), and velocity (V) measurements obtained during three sets of each of two squat training protocols in a group of healthy young adults. Twenty-nine students of Sports Sciences volunteered to participate in this study. They attended the laboratory on four different days and performed four sessions: two of 3 sets of 12 repetitions at 75% 1 repetition maximum (RM) and two of 3 sets of 30 repetitions at 50% 1RM while EE, VO 2 , HR and V was evaluated. The major outcomes of this study indicated that EE, VO2, HR, and V tended to decrease in both protocols as the sets were performed. Despite this, the creation of fresh insights regarding the assessment of different strengths and metabolic variables can help illuminate the underlying causes of these distinctions. Furthermore, these findings have important implications for the design of effective and personalized strength training programs.
Calaway, C, Walls, K, Levitt, H, Caplan, J, Mann, B, Martinez, K, Gastaldo, R, Haq, I, and Signorile, JF. Frequency of velocity-based-training frequency impacts changes in muscle morphology, neuromuscular performance and functional capability in persons with Parkinson's disease. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000–000, 2024—Velocity-based training (VBT) positively impacts muscle morphology and performance in persons with Parkinson's disease (PD); however, optimal training frequencies for VBT in patients with PD remain undetermined. Changes in ultrasound-determined muscle thickness (MT) and echo intensity (EI)–derived muscle quality of the rectus femoris (RF) and vastus lateralis (VL), neuromuscular performance, and functional capacity were examined following 2 VBT frequencies (2–3 d·wk ⁻¹ ) using 30% velocity loss thresholds for 12 weeks. Neuromuscular performance was assessed using computerized pneumatic resistance machines. For each variable, 2 (time) × 2 (group) repeated-measures analyses of variance (ANOVA) were used to determine significant main effects and interactions. Significant time effects were seen for MT and EI of all muscles ( p < 0.05). Muscle thickness improvements included right VL (RVL) (0.171 ± 0.065 cm; p = 0.019), left VL (LVL) (0.214 ± 0.101 cm; p = 0.049), right RF (RRF) (0.194 ± 0.077 cm; p = 0.023), and left RF (LRF) (0.318 ± 0.109 cm; p = 0.010). For EI, improvements occurred in RVL (−18.688 ± 3.600; p = <0.001), LVL (−10.959 ± 4.894; p = 0.040), RRF (−9.516 ± 3.537; p = 0.016), and LRF (−9.018 ± 3.444; p = 0.019). Time effects were seen for leg-press 1-repetition maximum and peak power ( p < 0.01) and habitual walking speed ( p = 0.022), with a group by time interaction for maximal gait speed favoring the 3 d·wk ⁻¹ condition (∆0.15 m·s ⁻¹ , p = 0.002). The results indicate that VBT at 2 or 3 d·wk ⁻¹ can significantly improve muscle morphology, neuromuscular performance, and functional capability in patients with PD; however, improvements in maximal gait speed require 3 d·wk ⁻¹ . These findings provide flexibility when developing exercise prescriptions for patients with PD.
Optimal load training is a method of training that aims to maximize power output. This is achieved by arranging optimal loads (optimal ratios of load intensity and load volume) during strength training. The fixed load intensity and number of repetitions employed in traditional strength training. The present study will investigate the applicability of these two load arrangements to female elite boxers. Twenty-four elite female boxers were divided into three groups [optimal load (OL = 8), traditional load (TL = 8) and control group (CG = 8)]. The six-week intervention consisted of strength training with different loading arrangements. The punching ability and strength were tested before and after the intervention. We found that optimal load training enhances a boxer’s punching ability and economy, which aligns with the demands of boxing and is suitable for high-level athletes, whose strength training loads require a more individualised and targeted approach.
Calaway, CC, Martinez, KJ, Calzada Bichili, AR, Caplan, JH, Milgrim, WP, Mann, JB, Haq, I, and Signorile, JF. Velocity-based training affects function, strength, and power in persons with Parkinson’s disease. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000–000, 2024—Velocity-based training (VBT) is commonly associated with high-level athletes. No study has examined the effects of VBT on performance in persons with Parkinson's disease (PD). The objective of the study was to compare the effects of 10 and 30% velocity-loss threshold protocols on changes in functional performance, strength, and power in persons with PD after 12 weeks of supervised VBT, 3 days per week. Twenty-one subjects with PD (72.9 ± 5.9 y) were randomly assigned to the 10% or 30% velocity-loss threshold group and performed the 6-m walk test at habitual and maximal gait speed (6MWT Max ), the 5 time sit-to-stand test (5 × STS), 1 repetition maximum (1RM), and peak power (PP) testing for the chest press (CP) and leg press (LP) exercise. A mixed ANOVA with significance was set a priori at 0.05 revealed that significant time effects were seen for the 6MWT at maximal speed (MDiff ± SD = 0.22 ± 0.04 m·s ⁻¹ , p < 0.001), 5-time sit-to-stand time (−1.48 ± 0.45 seconds, p = 0.005) and power (75.5 ± 22.7 W, p = 0.005), 1RM for CP (5.1 ± 1.1 kg, p < 0.001) and LP (12.6 ± 3.7 kg, p = 0.005), and LP-PP (43.6 ± 13.2 W, p = 0.006). Secondary analyses revealed time effects for the load at which PP was achieved for the CP exercise. A Wilcoxon signed-rank test revealed no significant differences in the percentage of 1RM at which PP was achieved for either condition. Results indicate that VBT is an effective training modality for improving functional capacity, strength, and power in persons with PD; however, shifts in force-velocity relationships were not evidenced.
Background
Strength and power represent two crucial physical qualities for the attainment of a high level of performance considering the frequency and the importance of explosive actions occurring during elite soccer match-play. Evaluation of strength and power is a multifaceted concept involving a vast array of tests and outcome variables. Nevertheless, a comprehensive and systematic search of strength and power assessment procedures in elite soccer has yet to be undertaken.
Objectives
The aims of this systematic review were to: (1) identify the tests and outcome variables used to assess strength and power of elite male soccer players; (2) provide normative values for the most common tests of strength and power across different playing levels; and (3) report the reliability values of these strength and power tests.
Methods
A systematic review of the academic databases MEDLINE, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science and OVID for studies published until August 2023 was conducted, following the Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they: (1) were original research studies, published in a peer-reviewed journal, and written in English language; (2) had the primary aim to assess strength and/or power; (3) players were male and older than 17 years of age (i.e., mean age of the group); and (4) their playing level was defined as “professional”, “international” or “elite”.
Results
Regarding strength testing, 115 studies and 29 different tests were identified. The three most frequent strength tests were the knee extensor isokinetic strength test (58 studies), the knee flexor isokinetic strength test (55 studies) and the Nordic hamstring strength test (13 studies). In terms of power testing, 127 studies with 31 different tests were included. The three most frequent power tests were the countermovement jump with hands fixed on hips (99 studies), the squat jump (48 studies) and the vertical jump with arm swing (29 studies).
Conclusions
The wide range of different tests and outcome variables identified in this systematic review highlights the large diversity in the employed testing procedures. The establishment of a hybrid testing approach, combining standardised and widely accepted tests for establishing normative standards and enabling comparisons across different contexts, with flexible context-specific testing batteries, has the potential to maximise the impact of testing information for practitioners. In addition, the limited reporting of reliability data across studies highlights the need for practitioners to establish their own reliability measure within their specific contexts, informing the selection of certain tests and outcome variables.
Geschwindigkeitsbasiertes Training (VBT) ist eine Methode des Krafttrainings,
die über die Verwendung der Geschwindigkeit des konzentrischen Teils einer
Bewegung eine genaue und objektive Vorgabe der Intensität und des Umfangs
des Widerstandstrainings ermöglicht. Nachdem im zweiten Teil der Artikelreihe
der theoretische Unterbau geschwindigkeitsbasierten Trainings und Vorteile der
Methode gegenüber etablierten Trainingsformen vorgestellt wurden, bietet
dieser Artikel eine Übersicht über die Anwendung von VBT in der Praxis. Wir
erläutern, wie im Kraft-Geschwindigkeits-Profile im allgemeinen und
spezifischen Krafttraining erstellt und interpretiert werden können und wie auf
Basis dieser Profile das Krafttraining geplant, gesteuert und dokumentiert
werden kann.
Calaway, C, Mishra, S, Parrino, R, Martinez, KJ, Mann, JB, and Signorile, JF. Velocity-based training affects the load-velocity relationship in leg press and chest press for older persons. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000–000, 2024—This study examined the impact of 3 months of velocity-based training (VBT) on chest press (CP) and leg press (LP) maximal strength (1 repetition maximum [1RM]), peak power (PP), and percentage load where PP was achieved (%1RMPP) in older adults. Twenty-nine subjects were assigned to either a velocity-deficit (VD) group or a force-deficit (FD) group for each exercise depending on their load-velocity (LV) curves. Changes in load were determined by the ability to maintain either 90% (VD) or 70% (FD) of their PP during training. Subjects' powers were tested before and after the training intervention at loads between 40 and 80%1RM. Separate 2 (group) × 2 (time) ANOVA was used to examine changes in each variable by group for each exercise. Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were used to determine whether significant changes in %1RMPP for each exercise and group. For chest press 1 repetition maximum, there were no significant main effects or interaction. Significant main effects for time were observed for leg press 1 repetition maximum ( p < 0 .001, η ² = 0.547) and chest press peak power ( p = 0.009, η ² = 0.243). For LPPP, there were no significant main effects or interactions. For %1RMPP, CP median scores revealed no significant changes for either group. Significant declines in %1RMPP were observed for leg press velocity-deficit and leg press force-deficit ( p < 0.03) groups. Velocity-based training was effective at improving 1RM, PP, and shifting %1RMPP in the LP groups. These results have implications for targeting power improvements at specific areas of the LV curve. Health care providers and trainers should consider these findings when constructing exercise programs to counter age-related declines in older adults.
In the final part of this three-article collection on the training strategies of Brazilian Olympic sprint and jump coaches, we provide a detailed description of the resistance training methods and exercises most commonly employed by these speed experts. Always with the objective of maximizing the sprint and jump capabilities of their athletes, these experienced coaches primarily utilize variable, eccentric, concentric, machine-based, isometric, complex, and isoinertial resistance training methods in their daily practices. Squats (in their different forms), Olympic weightlifting, ballistics, hip thrusts, lunges, calf raises, core exercises, leg curls, stiff-leg deadlifts, and leg extension are the most commonly prescribed exercises in their training programs, during both the preparatory and competitive periods. Therefore, the current manuscript comprehensively describes and examines these methods, with the additional aim of extrapolating their application to other sports, especially those where sprint speed is a key performance factor.
Training process in elite padel players is influenced by travels and competitions density. The irregularity in the workloads, as well as demands of the season, could affect the musculoskeletal structures. Strength training has a protective role against the injury incidence, but the competitive context does not always allow adequate periodization of training and thus achieve adaptations. The aim of this study is to analyze, using technological tools, if improvements in player’s fitness are accompanied by improvements in sport performance through a case study. An elite padel player was analyzed during the 2021 season. Physical fitness was evaluated using different technological tools. Athlete monitoring was carried out using self-reported forms and sport performance was assessed through the results obtained in the World Padel Tour ranking at the end of the season. During the training process, multidimensional training was carried out in order to achieve the maximum availability of specific loads through coadjuvant training. Results of the assessment show slight improvements in all fitness tests. Assessment of sport performance reports an increased number of victories and a better position in the professional ranking. Musculoskeletal improvements helped the athlete’s workload tolerance, allowing overall improvement in padel performance. The training approach from this study has shown to be effective in maintaining or even improving force-producing capacity in lower and upper limbs, force-velocity relationship, agility and sport performance, despite the high competitive density. This work provides coaches with a practical approach to assess, monitor and design a competitive season for an elite padel player.
Determining the load during training and competition
is of key importance in the work of the fitness coach.
The isoinertial dynamometer is an instrument that
finds wide application in biomechanical diagnostics as
well as in training. The instrument has the required
validity and reliability and is easy to use. The metrics
it calculates are of key importance in speed-based
training. Research shows that this method of training
very often has greater positive effects than the
traditional one.
Determining the load/velocity profile, predicting one
repetition maximum, assessing daily readiness,
autoregulation and fatigue management are the
primary goals of speed-based training.
The large number of indicators calculated by this
device represent an excellent basis for objective
planning, programming and implementation of the
training process.
Geschwindigkeitsbasiertes Krafttraining verbessert die Sprung-, Spring- und Kraftleistung. Die Autoren haben verschiedene Studien miteinander verglichen, um herauszufinden, ob die Trainingseffekte hierbei besser sind als bei traditionellem Krafttraining.
Background
It remains unclear whether repetitions leading to failure (failure training) or not leading to failure (non-failure training) lead to superior muscular strength gains during resistance exercise. Failure training may provide the stimulus needed to enhance muscular strength development. However, it is argued that non-failure training leads to similar increases in muscular strength without the need for high levels of discomfort and physical effort, which are associated with failure training.
Objective
We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to examine the effect of failure versus non-failure training on muscular strength.
Methods
Five electronic databases were searched using terms related to failure and non-failure training. Studies were deemed eligible for inclusion if they met the following criteria: (1) randomised and non-randomised studies; (2) resistance training intervention where repetitions were performed to failure; (3) a non-failure comparison group; (4) resistance training interventions with a total of ≥3 exercise sessions; and (5) muscular strength assessment pre- and post-training. Random-effects meta-analyses were performed to pool the results of the included studies and generate a weighted mean effect size (ES).
Results
Eight studies were included in the meta-analysis (combined studies). Training volume was controlled in four studies (volume controlled), while the remaining four studies did not control for training volume (volume uncontrolled). Non-failure training resulted in a 0.6–1.3 % greater strength increase than failure training. A small pooled effect favouring non-failure training was found (ES = 0.34; p = 0.02). Significant small pooled effects on muscular strength were also found for non-failure versus failure training with compound exercises (ES = 0.37–0.38; p = 0.03) and trained participants (ES = 0.37; p = 0.049). A slightly larger pooled effect favouring non-failure training was observed when volume-uncontrolled studies were included (ES = 0.41; p = 0.047). No significant effect was found for the volume-controlled studies, although there was a trend favouring non-failure training. The methodological quality of the included studies in the review was found to be moderate. Exercise compliance was high for the studies where this was reported (n = 5), although limited information on adverse events was provided.
Conclusion
Overall, the results suggest that despite statistically significant effects on muscular strength being found for non-failure compared with failure training, the small percentage of improvement shown for non-failure training is unlikely to be meaningful. Therefore, it appears that similar increases in muscular strength can be achieved with failure and non-failure training. Furthermore, it seems unnecessary to perform failure training to maximise muscular strength; however, if incorporated into a programme, training to failure should be performed sparingly to limit the risks of injuries and overtraining.
Purpose:
The aim of this study was to determine whether athletes from different sports disciplines present similar mean propulsive velocity (MPV) in the half-squat (HS) during submaximal and maximal tests, enabling prediction of 1 repetition maximum (1-RM) from MPV at any given submaximal load.
Methods:
Sixty-four male athletes, comprising American football, rugby and soccer players, sprinters and jumpers, and combat sports strikers, attended two testing sessions separated by 2-4 weeks. On the first visit, a standardized 1-RM test was performed. On the second visit, athletes performed HS on the Smith-machine equipment, using relative percentages of 1-RM in order to determine the respective MPV of submaximal and maximal loads. Linear regression established the relationship between MPV and percentage of 1-RM.
Results:
A very strong linear relationship (R2 ≈ 0.96) was observed between the MPV and the percentages of HS 1-RM, resulting in the following equation: % of HS 1-RM = -105.05 · MPV + 131.75. The MPV at HS 1-RM was ≈ 0.3 m·s-1.
Conclusion:
This equation can be used to predict the HS 1-RM on the Smith-machine equipment with a high degree of accuracy.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between movement velocity and relative load in three lower limbs exercises commonly used to develop strength: leg press, full squat and half squat. The percentage of one repetition maximum (%1RM) has typically been used as the main parameter to control resistance training; however, more recent research has proposed movement velocity as an alternative. Fifteen participants performed a load progression with a range of loads until they reached their 1RM. Maximum instantaneous velocity (Vmax) and mean propulsive velocity (MPV) of the knee extension phase of each exercise were assessed. For all exercises, a strong relationship between Vmax and the %1RM was found: leg press (r(2)adj = 0.96; 95% CI for slope is [-0.0244, -0.0258], P < 0.0001), full squat (r(2)adj = 0.94; 95% CI for slope is [-0.0144, -0.0139], P < 0.0001) and half squat (r(2)adj = 0.97; 95% CI for slope is [-0.0135, -0.00143], P < 0.0001); for MPV, leg press (r(2)adj = 0.96; 95% CI for slope is [-0.0169, -0.0175], P < 0.0001, full squat (r(2)adj = 0.95; 95% CI for slope is [-0.0136, -0.0128], P < 0.0001) and half squat (r(2)adj = 0.96; 95% CI for slope is [-0.0116, 0.0124], P < 0.0001). The 1RM was attained with a MPV and Vmax of 0.21 ± 0.06 m s(-1) and 0.63 ± 0.15 m s(-1), 0.29 ± 0.05 m s(-1) and 0.89 ± 0.17 m s(-1), 0.33 ± 0.05 m s(-1) and 0.95 ± 0.13 m s(-1) for leg press, full squat and half squat, respectively. Results indicate that it is possible to determine an exercise-specific %1RM by measuring movement velocity for that exercise.
The aim of this study was to develop a rapid indirect method to determine an individual's maximal strength or 1RM (one repetition maximum) in untrained subjects during half squat exercise. 105 physically active young subjects (87 men, 18 women) performed a submaximal and a maximal load test during half squat exercises on a Smith machine. In the submaximal test, subjects completed three repetitions with a load equivalent to body weight. The velocity and power of barbell displacement were recorded during the upward movement from 90° of knee flexion. All repetitions were performed at maximum velocity. In a subsequent 1-2 RM test, the 1RM for the exercise was calculated. The variables load and mean velocity (Vmean) were used to construct an adjusted 1RM prediction model, which was capable of estimating the 1RM with an accuracy of 58% (Fexp=72.82; 2; 102 df; p<0.001). Our results indicate a good correlation between the mean displacement velocity of a load equivalent to body weight and 1RM. This relationship enables a safe and fast estimation of 1RM values in half squat exercise [1RM= -61.93 + (121.92·Vmean) + (1.74·load)] and provides valuable information to untrained subjects who are starting resistance-training programs.
Abstract The purpose of this study was to determine the recovery rate of football skill performance following resistance exercise of moderate or high intensity. Ten elite football players participated in three different trials: control, low-intensity resistance exercise (4 sets, 8-10 repetitions/set, 65-70% 1 repetition maximum [1RM]) and high-intensity resistance exercise (4 sets, 4-6 repetitions/set, 85-90% 1RM) in a counterbalanced manner. In each experimental condition, participants were evaluated pre, post, and at 24, 48, 72 h post exercise time points. Football skill performance was assessed through the Loughborough Soccer Passing Test, long passing, dribbling, shooting and heading. Delayed onset muscle soreness, knee joint range of motion, and muscle strength (1RM) in squat were considered as muscle damage markers. Blood samples analysed for creatine kinase activity, C-reactive protein, and leukocyte count. Passing and shooting performance declined (P < 0.05) post-exercise following resistance exercise. Strength declined post-exercise following high-intensity resistance exercise. Both trials induced only a mild muscle damage and inflammatory response in an intensity-dependent manner. These results indicate that football skill performance is minimally affected by acute resistance exercise independent of intensity suggesting that elite players may be able to participate in a football practice or match after only 24 h following a strength training session.
The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of the training executed by 2 under-19 teams from the first Spanish division on aerobic power, strength, and acceleration capacity. Two under-19 soccer teams that competed in the same league were evaluated on 2 occasions. The first evaluation (E₁) was done at the beginning of the competitive period, and the second evaluation (E₂) was done 16 weeks later, coinciding with the end of the first half of the regular season. The following were evaluated: lower-body strength through jump height with countermovement with and without load (CMJ/CMJ₂₀), speed of the Smith machine bar movement in a progressive load test of full squats (FSL), acceleration capacity in 10, 20, and 30 m (T₁₀, T₂₀, T₃₀, T₁₀₋₂₀, T₁₀₋₃₀, T₂₀₋₃₀), and maximal aerobic speed (MAS). Team A executed complementary strength training, and training loads were determined with regard to the speed with which each player moved the bar in FSL. Between the evaluations, the training sessions of each team were recorded to assess their influence on the changes in E2. Team A significantly improved its MAS (p < 0.01) and its application of strength in the CMJ₂₀ (p < 0.05) and FS₂₀₋₃₀₋₄₀ (p < 0.01), while significantly worsening their acceleration capacity in all the splits (p < 0.01). Team B slightly worsened its MAS and significantly improved its application of strength in the CMJ₂₀ (p < 0.01) and FS₅₀₋₆₀ (p < 0.05). Its acceleration capacity improved insignificantly except for in the 20- to 30-m interval/T₂₀₋₃₀ (p < 0.05). The present study demonstrates that the use of loads as a function of the speed of movement, without the need to determine maximum repetitions is a methodology that is adequate for the improvement of the application of strength in under-19 soccer players.
A study of a sample provides only an estimate of the true (population) value of an outcome statistic. A report of the study therefore usually includes an inference about the true value. Traditionally, a researcher makes an inference by declaring the value of the statistic statistically significant or nonsignificant on the basis of a P value derived from a null-hypothesis test. This approach is confusing and can be misleading, depending on the magnitude of the statistic, error of measurement, and sample size. The authors use a more intuitive and practical approach based directly on uncertainty in the true value of the statistic. First they express the uncertainty as confidence limits, which define the likely range of the true value. They then deal with the real-world relevance of this uncertainty by taking into account values of the statistic that are substantial in some positive and negative sense, such as beneficial or harmful. If the likely range overlaps substantially positive and negative values, they infer that the outcome is unclear; otherwise, they infer that the true value has the magnitude of the observed value: substantially positive, trivial, or substantially negative. They refine this crude inference by stating qualitatively the likelihood that the true value will have the observed magnitude (eg, very likely beneficial). Quantitative or qualitative probabilities that the true value has the other 2 magnitudes or more finely graded magnitudes (such as trivial, small, moderate, and large) can also be estimated to guide a decision about the utility of the outcome.
High resistance training enhances muscular strength, and recent work has suggested an important role for metabolite accumulation in this process.
To investigate the role of fatigue and metabolite accumulation in strength gains by comparing highly fatiguing and non-fatiguing isotonic training protocols.
Twenty three healthy adults (18-29 years of age; eight women) were assigned to either a high fatigue protocol (HF: four sets of 10 repetitions with 30 seconds rest between sets) to maximise metabolic stress or a low fatigue protocol (LF: 40 repetitions with 30 seconds between each repetition) to minimise changes. Subjects lifted on average 73% of their 1 repetition maximum through the full range of knee extension with both legs, three times a week. Quadriceps isometric strength of each leg was measured at a knee joint angle of 1.57 rad (90 degrees ), and a Cybex 340 isokinetic dynamometer was used to measure the angle-torque and torque-velocity relations of the non-dominant leg.
At the mid-point of the training, the HF group had 50% greater gains in isometric strength, although this was not significant (4.5 weeks: HF, 13.3 (4.4)%; LF, 8.9 (3.6)%). This rate of increase was not sustained by the HF group, and after nine weeks of training all the strength measurements showed similar improvements for both groups (isometric strength: HF, 18.2 (3.9)%; LF, 14.5 (4.0)%). The strength gains were limited to the longer muscle lengths despite training over the full range of movement.
Fatigue and metabolite accumulation do not appear to be critical stimuli for strength gain, and resistance training can be effective without the severe discomfort and acute physical effort associated with fatiguing contractions.
Thirty-two untrained men [mean (SD) age 22.5 (5.8) years, height 178.3 (7.2) cm, body mass 77.8 (11.9) kg] participated in an 8-week progressive resistance-training program to investigate the "strength-endurance continuum". Subjects were divided into four groups: a low repetition group (Low Rep, n = 9) performing 3-5 repetitions maximum (RM) for four sets of each exercise with 3 min rest between sets and exercises, an intermediate repetition group (Int Rep, n = 11) performing 9-11 RM for three sets with 2 min rest, a high repetition group (High Rep, n = 7) performing 20-28 RM for two sets with 1 min rest, and a non-exercising control group (Con, n = 5). Three exercises (leg press, squat, and knee extension) were performed 2 days/week for the first 4 weeks and 3 days/week for the final 4 weeks. Maximal strength [one repetition maximum, 1RM), local muscular endurance (maximal number of repetitions performed with 60% of 1RM), and various cardiorespiratory parameters (e.g., maximum oxygen consumption, pulmonary ventilation, maximal aerobic power, time to exhaustion) were assessed at the beginning and end of the study. In addition, pre- and post-training muscle biopsy samples were analyzed for fiber-type composition, cross-sectional area, myosin heavy chain (MHC) content, and capillarization. Maximal strength improved significantly more for the Low Rep group compared to the other training groups, and the maximal number of repetitions at 60% 1RM improved the most for the High Rep group. In addition, maximal aerobic power and time to exhaustion significantly increased at the end of the study for only the High Rep group. All three major fiber types (types I, IIA, and IIB) hypertrophied for the Low Rep and Int Rep groups, whereas no significant increases were demonstrated for either the High Rep or Con groups. However, the percentage of type IIB fibers decreased, with a concomitant increase in IIAB fibers for all three resistance-trained groups. These fiber-type conversions were supported by a significant decrease in MHCIIb accompanied by a significant increase in MHCIIa. No significant changes in fiber-type composition were found in the control samples. Although all three training regimens resulted in similar fiber-type transformations (IIB to IIA), the low to intermediate repetition resistance-training programs induced a greater hypertrophic effect compared to the high repetition regimen. The High Rep group, however, appeared better adapted for submaximal, prolonged contractions, with significant increases after training in aerobic power and time to exhaustion. Thus, low and intermediate RM training appears to induce similar muscular adaptations, at least after short-term training in previously untrained subjects. Overall, however, these data demonstrate that both physical performance and the associated physiological adaptations are linked to the intensity and number of repetitions performed, and thus lend support to the "strength-endurance continuum".
Acute hormonal and neuromuscular responses and recovery three days after the exercises were examined during the maximum repetitions (MR) and forced repetitions (FR) resistance exercise protocols in 16 male athletes. MR included 4 sets of leg presses, 2 sets of squats and 2 sets of knee extensions (with 12 RM) with a 2-min recovery between the sets and 4 min between the exercises. In FR the initial load was chosen to be higher than in MR so that the subject could not lift 12 repetitions per set by himself. After each set to failure the subject was assisted to perform the remaining repetitions to complete the 12 repetitions per set. Thus the exercise intensity was greater in FR than in MR. Both loading protocols led to the great acute increases (p < 0.05 - 0.001) in serum testosterone, free testosterone, cortisol and GH concentrations. However, the responses in cortisol (p < 0.05) and GH (p < 0.01) were larger in FR than in MR. The decrease of 56.5 % (p < 0.001) in maximal isometric force in FR was greater (p < 0.001) than that of 38.3 % in MR (p < 0.001) and force remained lower (p < 0.01) during the recovery in FR compared to MR. The larger decrease in isometric strength in FR than in MR was also associated with the decreased maximal voluntary EMG of the loaded muscles. The data indicate that the forced repetition exercise system induced greater acute hormonal and neuromuscular responses than a traditional maximum repetition exercise system and therefore it may be used to manipulate acute resistance exercise variables in athletes.
We compared the effects of two resistance training (RT) programs only differing in the repetition velocity loss allowed in each set: 20% (VL20) vs 40% (VL40) on muscle structural and functional adaptations. Twenty-two young males were randomly assigned to a VL20 (n = 12) or VL40 (n = 10) group. Subjects followed an 8-week velocity-based RT program using the squat exercise while monitoring repetition velocity. Pre- and post-training assessments included: magnetic resonance imaging, vastus lateralis biopsies for muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) and fiber type analyses, one-repetition maximum strength and full load-velocity squat profile, countermovement jump (CMJ), and 20-m sprint running. VL20 resulted in similar squat strength gains than VL40 and greater improvements in CMJ (9.5% vs 3.5%, P < 0.05), despite VL20 performing 40% fewer repetitions. Although both groups increased mean fiber CSA and whole quadriceps muscle volume, VL40 training elicited a greater hypertrophy of vastus lateralis and intermedius than VL20. Training resulted in a reduction of myosin heavy chain IIX percentage in VL40, whereas it was preserved in VL20. In conclusion, the progressive accumulation of muscle fatigue as indicated by a more pronounced repetition velocity loss appears as an important variable in the configuration of the resistance exercise stimulus as it influences functional and structural neuromuscular adaptations.
This study compared the time course of recovery following two resistance exercise protocols differing in the number of repetitions per set with regard to the maximum possible (to failure) number. Ten men performed three sets of 6 versus 12 repetitions with their 70% 1RM (3 × 6 [12] versus 3 × 12 [12]) in the bench press (BP) and squat (SQ) exercises. Mechanical [CMJ height, velocity against the 1 m s(-1) load (V1 -load)], biochemical [testosterone, cortisol, growth hormone, prolactin, insulin-like growth factor-1, creatine kinase (CK)] and heart rate variability (HRV) and complexity (HRC) were assessed pre-, postexercise (Post) and at 6, 24 and 48 h-Post. Compared with 3 × 6 [12], the 3 × 12 [12] protocol resulted in significantly: higher repetition velocity loss within each set (BP: 65% versus 26%; SQ: 44% versus 20%); reduced V1 -load until 24 h-Post (BP) and 6 h-Post (SQ); decreased CMJ height up to 48 h-Post; greater increases in cortisol (Post), prolactin (Post, 48 h-Post) and CK (48 h-Post); and reductions in HRV and HRC at Post. This study shows that the mechanical, neuroendocrine and autonomic cardiovascular response is markedly different when manipulating the number of repetitions per set. Halving the number of repetitions in relation to the maximum number that can be completed serves to minimize fatigue and speed up recovery following resistance training.
Drinkwater, E.J., T.W. Lawton, R.P. Lindsell, D.B. Pyne, P.H. Hunt, and M.J. McKenna. Training leading to repetition failure contributes to bench press strength gains in elite junior athletes. J. Strength Cond. Res. 19(2):382-388. 2005. The purpose of this study was to investigate the importance of training leading to repetition failure in the performance of 2 different tests: 6 repetition maximum (6RM) bench press strength and 40-kg bench throw power in elite junior athletes. Subjects were 26 elite junior male basketball players (n 12; age = 18.6 +/- 0.3 years; height = 202.0 +/- 11.6 cm; mass = 97.0 +/- 12.9 kg; mean SD) and soccer players (n = 14; age = 17.4 +/- 0.5 years; height = 179.0 +/- 7.0 cm; mass = 75.0 +/- 7.1 kg) with a history of greater than 6 months' strength training. Subjects were initially tested twice for 6RM bench press mass and 40-kg Smith machine bench throw power output (in watts) to establish retest reliability. Subjects then undertook bench press training with 3 sessions per week for 6 weeks, using equal volume programs (24 repetitions X 80-105% 6RM in 13 minutes 20 seconds). Subjects were assigned to one of two experimental groups designed either to elicit repetition failure with 4 sets of 6 repetitions every 260 seconds (RF4x6) or allow all repetitions to be completed with 8 sets of 3 repetitions every 113 seconds (NF8x3). The RF4X6 treatment elicited substantial increases in strength (7.3 +/- 2.4 kg, + 9.5%, p < 0.001) and power (40.8 +/- 24.1 W, + 10.6%, p < 0.001), while the NF8X3 group elicited 3.6 +/- 3.0 kg (+ 5.0%, p < 0.005) and 25 +/- 19.0 W increases (+ 6.8%, p < 0.001). The improvements in the RF4x6 group were greater than those in the repetition rest group for both strength (p < 0.005) and power (p < 0.05). Bench press training that leads to repetition failure induces greater strength gains than nonfailure training in the bench press exercise for elite junior team sport athletes.
This study analyzed the time course of recovery following 2 resistance exercise protocols differing in level of effort: maximum (to failure) vs. half-maximum number of repetitions per set. 9 males performed 3 sets of 4 vs. 8 repetitions with their 80% 1RM load, 3×4(8) vs. 3×8(8), in the bench press and squat. Several time-points from 24 h pre- to 48 h post-exercise were established to assess the mechanical (countermovement jump height, CMJ; velocity against the 1 m·s(-1) load, V1-load), biochemical (testosterone, cortisol, GH, prolactin, IGF-1, CK) and heart rate variability (HRV) and complexity (HRC) response to exercise. 3×8(8) resulted in greater neuromuscular fatigue (higher reductions in repetition velocity and velocity against V1-load) than 3×4(8). CMJ remained reduced up to 48 h post-exercise following 3×8(8), whereas it was recovered after 6 h for 3×4(8). Significantly greater prolactin and IGF-1 levels were found for 3×8(8) vs. 3×4(8). Significant reductions in HRV and HRC were observed for 3×8(8) vs. 3×4(8) in the immediate recovery. Performing a half-maximum number of repetitions per set resulted in: 1) a stimulus of faster mean repetition velocities; 2) lower impairment of neuromuscular performance and faster recovery; 3) reduced hormonal response and muscle damage; and 4) lower reduction in HRV and HRC following exercise.
© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York.
The purpose of this study was to analyze the effects of a low-load, high-velocity resistance training (RT) combined with plyometrics on physical performance in pre-peak height velocity (PHV) soccer players.
Thirty young soccer players from the same academy were randomly assigned to either a strength training (STG, n = 15) or a control group (CG, n = 15). Strength training consisted of full squat exercise with low-load (45-58% 1RM) and low-volume (4-8 repetitions per set) combined with jumps and sprints twice a week over 6 weeks of preseason. The effect of the training protocol was assessed using sprint performance over 10 and 20 m (T10, T20, T10-20), countermovement jump (CMJ), estimated one-repetition maximum (1RMest) and average velocity attained against all loads common to pre- and post-tests (AV) in full squat.
STG showed significant improvements (P = .004 - .001) and moderate to very large standardized effects (ES = 0.71 - 2.10) in all variables measured, whereas no significant gains were found in CG (ES = -0.29 to 0.06). Moreover, significant test × group interactions (P < .003 - .001) and greater between-groups ES (0.90 - 1.97) were found for all variables in favour of STG compared to CG.
Only 6 weeks of preseason low-volume and low-loads RT combined with plyometrics can lead to relevant improvements in strength, jump and sprint performance. Thus, the combination of field soccer training and lightweight strength training could be used for a greater development of the tasks critical to soccer performance in pre-PHV soccer players.
This study aimed to determine the effects of combined resistance training and plyometrics on physical performance in under-15 soccer players. One team (n=20) followed a 6-week resistance training program combined with plyometrics plus a soccer training program (STG), whereas another team (n=18) followed only the soccer training (CG). Strength training consisted of full squats with low load (45-60% 1RM) and low-volume (2-3 sets and 4-8 repetitions per set) combined with jumps and sprints twice a week. Sprint time in 10 and 20 m (T10, T20, T10-20), CMJ height, estimated one-repetition maximum (1RMest), average velocity attained against all loads common to pre- and post-tests (AV) and velocity developed against different absolute loads (MPV20, 30, 40 and 50) in full squat were selected as testing variables to evaluate the effects of the training program. STG experienced greater gains (P<0.05) in T20, CMJ, 1RMest, AV and MPV20, 30, 40 and 50 than CG. In addition, STG showed likely greater effects in T10 and T10-20 compared to CG. These results indicate that only 6 weeks of resistance training combined with plyometrics in addition to soccer training produce greater gains in physical performance than typical soccer training alone in young soccer players.
© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York.
This study aimed to analyze the effect of velocity based-resistance training (RT) with moderate load and few repetitions per set combined with jumps and sprints on physical performance in young soccer players of different ages. A total of 44 elite youth soccer players belonging to three teams participated in this study: an under-16 team (U16, n = 17) and an under-18 team (U18, n = 16) performed maximal velocity RT program for 26 weeks in addition to typical soccer training, whereas an under-21 team (U21, n = 11) did not perform RT. Before and after the training program all players performed: 20-m running sprint (T20); countermovement jump (CMJ); a progressive isoinertial loading test in squat to determine the load which players elicited ∼1 m·s (V1LOAD); and an incremental field test to determine maximal aerobic speed (MAS). U16 showed significantly (P = .000) greater gains for V1LOAD than U18 and U21 (100/0/0%). Only U16 showed significantly (P = .01) greater gains than U21 (99/1/0%) for CMJ height. U18 obtained a likely better effect on CMJ performance than U21 (89/10/1%). The beneficial effects on T20 between groups were unclear. U16 showed a likely better effect on MAS than U21 (80/17/3%), whereas the rest of comparisons were unclear. The changes in CMJ correlated to the changes in T20 (r = -.49) and V1LOAD (r = .40). In conclusion, velocity-based RT with moderate load and few repetitions per set seems to be an adequate methodology to improve the physical performance in young soccer players.
This study aimed to compare the effect on neuromuscular performance of 2 isoinertial resistance training programs that differed only in actual repetition velocity: maximal intended (MaxV) vs. half-maximal (HalfV) concentric velocity. 21 resistance-trained young men were randomly assigned to a MaxV (n=10) or HalfV (n=11) group and trained for 6 weeks using the full squat exercise. A complementary study (n=8) described the acute metabolic and mechanical response to the protocols used. MaxV training resulted in a likely more beneficial effect than HalfV on squat performance: maximum strength (ES: 0.94 vs. 0.54), velocity developed against all (ES: 1.76 vs. 0.88), light (ES: 1.76 vs. 0.75) and heavy (ES: 2.03 vs. 1.64) loads common to pre- and post-tests, and CMJ height (ES: 0.63 vs. 0.15). The effect on 20-m sprint was unclear, however. Both groups attained the greatest improvements in squat performance at their training velocities. Movement velocity seemed to be of greater importance than time under tension for inducing strength adaptations. Slightly higher metabolic stress (blood lactate and ammonia) and CMJ height loss were found for MaxV vs. HalfV, while metabolite levels were low to moderate for both conditions. MaxV may provide a superior stimulus for inducing adaptations directed towards improving athletic performance.
Abstract The purpose of this study was to compare the effect on strength gains of two isoinertial resistance training (RT) programmes that only differed in actual concentric velocity: maximal (MaxV) vs. half-maximal (HalfV) velocity. Twenty participants were assigned to a MaxV (n = 9) or HalfV (n = 11) group and trained 3 times per week during 6 weeks using the bench press (BP). Repetition velocity was controlled using a linear velocity transducer. A complementary study (n = 10) aimed to analyse whether the acute metabolic (blood lactate and ammonia) and mechanical response (velocity loss) was different between the MaxV and HalfV protocols used. Both groups improved strength performance from pre- to post-training, but MaxV resulted in significantly greater gains than HalfV in all variables analysed: one-repetition maximum (1RM) strength (18.2 vs. 9.7%), velocity developed against all (20.8 vs. 10.0%), light (11.5 vs. 4.5%) and heavy (36.2 vs. 17.3%) loads common to pre- and post-tests. Light and heavy loads were identified with those moved faster or slower than 0.80 m·s(-1) (∼60% 1RM in BP). Lactate tended to be significantly higher for MaxV vs. HalfV, with no differences observed for ammonia which was within resting values. Both groups obtained the greatest improvements at the training velocities (≤0.80 m·s(-1)). Movement velocity can be considered a fundamental component of RT intensity, since, for a given %1RM, the velocity at which loads are lifted largely determines the resulting training effect. BP strength gains can be maximised when repetitions are performed at maximal intended velocity.
This study compared the velocity- and power-load relationships of the antagonistic upper-body exercises of prone bench pull (PBP) and bench press (BP). 75 resistance-trained athletes performed a progressive loading test in each exercise up to the one-repetition maximum (1RM) in random order. Velocity and power output across the 30-100% 1RM were significantly higher for PBP, whereas 1RM strength was greater for BP. A very close relationship was observed between relative load and mean propulsive velocity for both BP (R2=0.97) and PBP (R2=0.94) which enables us to estimate %1RM from velocity using the obtained prediction equations. Important differences in the load that maximizes power output (Pmax) and the power profiles of both exercises were found according to the outcome variable used: mean (MP), peak (PP) or mean propulsive power (MPP). When MP was considered, the Pmax load was higher (56% BP, 70% PBP) than when PP (37% BP, 41% PBP) or MPP (37% BP, 46% PBP) were used. For each variable there was a broad range of loads at which power output was not significantly different. The differing velocity- and power-load relationships between PBP and BP seem attributable to the distinct muscle architecture and moment arm levers involved in these exercises.
This study aimed to analyze the acute mechanical and metabolic response to resistance exercise protocols (REP) differing in the number of repetitions (R) performed in each set (S) with respect to the maximum predicted number (P).
Over 21 exercise sessions separated by 48-72 h, 18 strength-trained males (10 in bench press (BP) and 8 in squat (SQ)) performed 1) a progressive test for one-repetition maximum (1RM) and load-velocity profile determination, 2) tests of maximal number of repetitions to failure (12RM, 10RM, 8RM, 6RM, and 4RM), and 3) 15 REP (S × R[P]: 3 × 6[12], 3 × 8[12], 3 × 10[12], 3 × 12[12], 3 × 6[10], 3 × 8[10], 3 × 10[10], 3 × 4[8], 3 × 6[8], 3 × 8[8], 3 × 3[6], 3 × 4[6], 3 × 6[6], 3 × 2[4], 3 × 4[4]), with 5-min interset rests. Kinematic data were registered by a linear velocity transducer. Blood lactate and ammonia were measured before and after exercise.
Mean repetition velocity loss after three sets, loss of velocity pre-post exercise against the 1-m·s load, and countermovement jump height loss (SQ group) were significant for all REP and were highly correlated to each other (r = 0.91-0.97). Velocity loss was significantly greater for BP compared with SQ and strongly correlated to peak postexercise lactate (r = 0.93-0.97) for both SQ and BP. Unlike lactate, ammonia showed a curvilinear response to loss of velocity, only increasing above resting levels when R was at least two repetitions higher than 50% of P.
Velocity loss and metabolic stress clearly differs when manipulating the number of repetitions actually performed in each training set. The high correlations found between mechanical (velocity and countermovement jump height losses) and metabolic (lactate, ammonia) measures of fatigue support the validity of using velocity loss to objectively quantify neuromuscular fatigue during resistance training.
This study analyzed the contribution of the propulsive and braking phases among different percentages of the one-repetition maximum (1RM) in the concentric bench press exercise. One hundred strength-trained men performed a test with increasing loads up to the 1RM for the individual determination of the load-power relationship. The relative load that maximized the mechanical power output (P(max)) was determined using three different parameters: mean concentric power (MP), mean power of the propulsive phase (MPP) and peak power (PP). The load at which the braking phase no longer existed was 76.1+/-7.4% 1RM. P(max) was dependent on the parameter used: MP (54.2%), MPP (36.5%) or PP (37.4%). No significant differences were found for loads between 40-65% 1RM (MP) or 20-55% 1RM (MPP and PP), nor between P(max) (% 1RM) when using MPP or PP. P(max) was independent of relative strength, although certain tendency towards slightly lower loads was detected for the strongest subjects. These results highlight the importance of considering the contribution of the propulsive and braking phases in isoinertial strength and power assessments. Referring the mean mechanical values to the propulsive phase avoids underestimating an individual's true neuromuscular potential when lifting light and medium loads.
This study examined the possibility of using movement velocity as an indicator of relative load in the bench press (BP) exercise. One hundred and twenty strength-trained males performed a test (T1) with increasing loads for the individual determination of the one-repetition maximum (1RM) and full load-velocity profile. Fifty-six subjects performed the test on a second occasion (T2) following 6 weeks of training. A very close relationship between mean propulsive velocity (MPV) and load (%1RM) was observed (R (2)=0.98). Mean velocity attained with 1RM was 0.16+/-0.04 m x s(-1) and was found to influence the MPV attained with each %1RM. Despite a mean increase of 9.3% in 1RM from T1 to T2, MPV for each %1RM remained stable. Stability in the load-velocity relationship was also confirmed regardless of individual relative strength. These results confirm an inextricable relationship between relative load and MPV in the BP that makes it possible to: 1) evaluate maximal strength without the need to perform a 1RM test, or test of maximum number of repetitions to failure (XRM); 2) determine the %1RM that is being used as soon as the first repetition with any given load is performed; 3) prescribe and monitor training load according to velocity, instead of percentages of 1RM or XRM.
Statistical guidelines and expert statements are now available to assist in the analysis and reporting of studies in some biomedical disciplines. We present here a more progressive resource for sample-based studies, meta-analyses, and case studies in sports medicine and exercise science. We offer forthright advice on the following controversial or novel issues: using precision of estimation for inferences about population effects in preference to null-hypothesis testing, which is inadequate for assessing clinical or practical importance; justifying sample size via acceptable precision or confidence for clinical decisions rather than via adequate power for statistical significance; showing SD rather than SEM, to better communicate the magnitude of differences in means and nonuniformity of error; avoiding purely nonparametric analyses, which cannot provide inferences about magnitude and are unnecessary; using regression statistics in validity studies, in preference to the impractical and biased limits of agreement; making greater use of qualitative methods to enrich sample-based quantitative projects; and seeking ethics approval for public access to the depersonalized raw data of a study, to address the need for more scrutiny of research and better meta-analyses. Advice on less contentious issues includes the following: using covariates in linear models to adjust for confounders, to account for individual differences, and to identify potential mechanisms of an effect; using log transformation to deal with nonuniformity of effects and error; identifying and deleting outliers; presenting descriptive, effect, and inferential statistics in appropriate formats; and contending with bias arising from problems with sampling, assignment, blinding, measurement error, and researchers' prejudices. This article should advance the field by stimulating debate, promoting innovative approaches, and serving as a useful checklist for authors, reviewers, and editors.
To examine the physiological response and reproducibility of the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test and its application to elite soccer.
Heart rate was measured, and metabolites were determined in blood and muscle biopsies obtained before, during, and after the Yo-Yo test in 17 males. Physiological measurements were also performed during a Yo-Yo retest and an exhaustive incremental treadmill test (ITT). Additionally, 37 male elite soccer players performed two to four seasonal tests, and the results were related to physical performance in matches.
The test-retest CV for the Yo-Yo test was 4.9%. Peak heart rate was similar in ITT and Yo-Yo test (189 +/- 2 vs 187 +/- 2 bpm), whereas peak blood lactate was higher (P < 0.05) in the Yo-Yo test. During the Yo-Yo test, muscle lactate increased eightfold (P < 0.05) and muscle creatine phosphate (CP) and glycogen decreased (P < 0.05) by 51% and 23%, respectively. No significant differences were observed in muscle CP, lactate, pH, or glycogen between 90 and 100% of exhaustion time. During the precompetition period, elite soccer players improved (P < 0.05) Yo-Yo test performance and maximum oxygen uptake ([OV0312]O(2max)) by 25 +/- 6 and 7 +/- 1%, respectively. High-intensity running covered by the players during games was correlated to Yo-Yo test performance (r = 0.71, P < 0.05) but not to [OV0312]O(2max) and ITT performance.
The test had a high reproducibility and sensitivity, allowing for detailed analysis of the physical capacity of athletes in intermittent sports. Specifically, the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test was a valid measure of fitness performance in soccer. During the test, the aerobic loading approached maximal values, and the anaerobic energy system was highly taxed. Additionally, the study suggests that fatigue during intense intermittent short-term exercise was unrelated to muscle CP, lactate, pH, and glycogen.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the importance of training leading to repetition failure in the performance of 2 different tests: 6 repetition maximum (6RM) bench press strength and 40-kg bench throw power in elite junior athletes. Subjects were 26 elite junior male basketball players (n = 12; age = 18.6 +/- 0.3 years; height = 202.0 +/- 11.6 cm; mass = 97.0 +/- 12.9 kg; mean +/- SD) and soccer players (n = 14; age = 17.4 +/- 0.5 years; height = 179.0 +/- 7.0 cm; mass = 75.0 +/- 7.1 kg) with a history of greater than 6 months' strength training. Subjects were initially tested twice for 6RM bench press mass and 40-kg Smith machine bench throw power output (in watts) to establish retest reliability. Subjects then undertook bench press training with 3 sessions per week for 6 weeks, using equal volume programs (24 repetitions x 80-105% 6RM in 13 minutes 20 seconds). Subjects were assigned to one of two experimental groups designed either to elicit repetition failure with 4 sets of 6 repetitions every 260 seconds (RF(4 x 6)) or allow all repetitions to be completed with 8 sets of 3 repetitions every 113 seconds (NF(8 x 3)). The RF(4 x 6) treatment elicited substantial increases in strength (7.3 +/- 2.4 kg, +9.5%, p < 0.001) and power (40.8 +/- 24.1 W, +10.6%, p < 0.001), while the NF(8 x 3) group elicited 3.6 +/- 3.0 kg (+5.0%, p < 0.005) and 25 +/- 19.0 W increases (+6.8%, p < 0.001). The improvements in the RF(4 x 6) group were greater than those in the repetition rest group for both strength (p < 0.005) and power (p < 0.05). Bench press training that leads to repetition failure induces greater strength gains than nonfailure training in the bench press exercise for elite junior team sport athletes.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of 3 resistance training volumes on maximal strength in the snatch (Sn), clean & jerk (C&J), and squat (Sq) exercises during a 10-week training period. Fifty-one experienced (>3 years), trained junior lifters were randomly assigned to one of 3 groups: a low-volume group (LVG, n = 16), a moderate-volume group (MVG, n = 17), and a high-volume group (HVG, n = 18). All subjects trained 4-5 days a week with a periodized routine using the same exercises and relative intensities but a different total number of sets and repetitions at each relative load: LVG (1,923 repetitions), MVG (2,481 repetitions), and HVG (3,030 repetitions). The training was periodized from moderate intensity (60- 80% of 1 repetition maximum [1RM]) and high number of repetitions per set (2-6) to high intensity (90-100% of 1RM) and low number of repetitions per set (1-3). During the training period, the MVG showed a significant increase for the Sn, C&J, and Sq exercises (6.1, 3.7, and 4.2%, respectively, p < 0.01), whereas in the LVG and HVG, the increase took place only with the C&J exercise (3.7 and 3%, respectively, p < 0.05) and the Sq exercise (4.6%, p < 0.05, and 4.8%, p < 0.01, respectively). The increase in the Sn exercise for the MVG was significantly higher than in the LVG (p = 0.015). Calculation of effect sizes showed higher strength gains in the MVG than in the HVG or LVG. There were no significant differences between the LVG and HVG training volume-induced strength gains. The present results indicate that junior experienced lifters can optimize performance by exercising with only 85% or less of the maximal volume that they can tolerate. These observations may have important practical relevance for the optimal design of strength training programs for resistance-trained athletes, since we have shown that performing at a moderate volume is more effective and efficient than performing at a higher volume.
The purpose of this study was to examine the efficacy of 11 wk of resistance training to failure vs. nonfailure, followed by an identical 5-wk peaking period of maximal strength and power training for both groups as well as to examine the underlying physiological changes in basal circulating anabolic and catabolic hormones. Forty-two physically active men were matched and then randomly assigned to either a training to failure (RF; n = 14), nonfailure (NRF; n = 15), or control groups (C; n = 13). Muscular and power testing and blood draws to determine basal hormonal concentrations were conducted before the initiation of training (T0), after 6 wk of training (T1), after 11 wk of training (T2), and after 16 wk of training (T3). Both RF and NRF resulted in similar gains in 1-repetition maximum bench press (23 and 23%) and parallel squat (22 and 23%), muscle power output of the arm (27 and 28%) and leg extensor muscles (26 and 29%), and maximal number of repetitions performed during parallel squat (66 and 69%). RF group experienced larger gains in the maximal number of repetitions performed during the bench press. The peaking phase (T2 to T3) after NRF resulted in larger gains in muscle power output of the lower extremities, whereas after RF it resulted in larger gains in the maximal number of repetitions performed during the bench press. Strength training leading to RF resulted in reductions in resting concentrations of IGF-1 and elevations in IGFBP-3, whereas NRF resulted in reduced resting cortisol concentrations and an elevation in resting serum total testosterone concentration. This investigation demonstrated a potential beneficial stimulus of NRF for improving strength and power, especially during the subsequent peaking training period, whereas performing sets to failure resulted in greater gains in local muscular endurance. Elevation in IGFBP-3 after resistance training may have been compensatory to accommodate the reduction in IGF-1 to preserve IGF availability.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of 3 volumes of heavy resistance, average relative training intensity (expressed as a percentage of 1 repetition maximum that represented the absolute kilograms lifted divided by the number of repetitions performed) programs on maximal strength (1RM) in Snatch (Sn), Clean & Jerk (C&J), and Squat (Sq). Twenty-nine experienced (>3 years), trained junior weightlifters were randomly assigned into 1 of 3 groups: low-intensity group (LIG; n = 12), moderate-intensity group (MIG; n = 9), and high-intensity group (HIG; n = 8). All subjects trained for 10 weeks, 4-5 days a week, in a periodized routine using the same exercises and training volume (expressed as total number of repetitions performed at intensities equal to or greater than 60% of 1RM), but different programmed total repetitions at intensities of >90-100% of 1RM for the entire 10-week period: LIG (46 repetitions), MIG (93 repetitions), and HIG (184 repetitions). During the training period, MIG and LIG showed a significant increase (p < 0.01-0.05) for C&J (10.5% and 3% for MIG and LIG, respectively) and Sq (9.5% and 5.3% for MIG and LIG, respectively), whereas in HIG the increase took place only in Sq (6.9%, p < 0.05). A calculation of effect sizes revealed greater strength gains in the MIG than in HIG or LIG. There were no significant differences between LIG and HIG training volume-induced strength gains. All the subjects in HIG were unable to fully accomplish the repetitions programmed at relative intensities greater than 90% of 1RM. The present results indicate that short-term resistance training using moderate volumes of high relative intensity tended to produce higher enhancements in weightlifting performance compared with low and high volumes of high relative training intensities of equal total volume in experienced, trained young weightlifters. Therefore, for the present population of weightlifters, it may be beneficial to use the MIG training protocol to improve the weightlifting program at least in a short-term (10 weeks) cycle of training.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of different loads on repetition speed during single sets of repetitions to failure in bench press and parallel squat. Thirty-six physical active men performed 1-repetition maximum in a bench press (1 RM (BP)) and half squat position (1 RM (HS)), and performed maximal power-output continuous repetition sets randomly every 10 days until failure with a submaximal load (60 %, 65 %, 70 %, and 75 % of 1RM, respectively) during bench press and parallel squat. Average velocity of each repetition was recorded by linking a rotary encoder to the end part of the bar. The values of 1 RM (BP) and 1 RM (HS) were 91 +/- 17 and 200 +/- 20 kg, respectively. The number of repetitions performed for a given percentage of 1RM was significantly higher (p < 0.001) in half squat than in bench press performance. Average repetition velocity decreased at a greater rate in bench press than in parallel squat. The significant reductions observed in the average repetition velocity (expressed as a percentage of the average velocity achieved during the initial repetition) were observed at higher percentage of the total number of repetitions performed in parallel squat (48 - 69 %) than in bench press (34 - 40 %) actions. The major finding in this study was that, for a given muscle action (bench press or parallel squat), the pattern of reduction in the relative average velocity achieved during each repetition and the relative number of repetitions performed was the same for all percentages of 1RM tested. However, relative average velocity decreased at a greater rate in bench press than in parallel squat performance. This would indicate that in bench press the significant reductions observed in the average repetition velocity occurred when the number of repetitions was over one third (34 %) of the total number of repetitions performed, whereas in parallel squat it was nearly one half (48 %). Conceptually, this would indicate that for a given exercise (bench press or squat) and percentage of maximal dynamic strength (1RM), the pattern of velocity decrease can be predicted over a set of repetitions, so that a minimum repetition threshold to ensure maximal speed performance is determined.
90% CI) Percent changes of better/trivial/worse effect 1RM-VL15 (kg) 101
- Pre Post
Pre
Post
ES (90% CI)
Percent changes of
better/trivial/worse effect
1RM-VL15 (kg)
101.3 ± 18.8
110.3 ± 14.3**
0.43 (0.14 to 0.71)
91/9/0
Acute and delayed response to resistance exercise leading or not leading to muscle failure
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