A Phenomenon Discovered While Imaging Dolphin Echolocation Sounds

Abstract

Our overall goal is to analyze dolphin sounds to determine if dolphins utilize language or perhaps pictorial information in their complex whistles and clicks. We have recently discovered a novel phenomenon in images derived from digital recordings of the sounds of dolphins echolocating on submerged objects. Hydrophone recordings of dolphin echolocation sounds were input to a CymaScope, an analog instrument in which a water-filled, fusedquartz cell is acoustically excited in the vertical axis by a voice coil motor directly coupled to the cell. The resulting wave patterns were recorded with a digital video camera. We observed the formation of transient wave patterns in some of the digital video frames that clearly matched the shapes of the objects on which the dolphin echolocated, including a closed cell foam cube, a PVC cross, a plastic flowerpot, and a human subject. As further confirmation of this phenomenon the images were then converted into 3-dimensional computer models. The computer models were made such that the thickness at any given point was proportional to the brightness of a contrast-enhanced image with brighter areas thicker and darker areas thinner. These 3-dimensional virtual models were then printed in photopolymers utilizing a high definition 3D printer.

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Research Article Open Access
Open Access
Research Article
Journal of
Marine Science: Research & Development
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ISSN: 2155-9910
Kassewitz et al., J Marine Sci Res Dev 2016, 6:4
http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2155-9910.1000202
Volume 6 • Issue 4 • 1000202
J Marine Sci Res Dev
ISSN: 2155-9910 JMSRD, an open access journal
A Phenomenon Discovered While Imaging Dolphin Echolocation Sounds
Jack Kassewitz1*, Michael T Hyson2, John S Reid3 and Regina L Barrera4
1SpeakDolphin.com Miami, Florida USA
2Sirius Institute, Puna, Hawaii
3Sonic Age Ltd, UK
4Puerto Aventuras, Mexico
Abstract
Our overall goal is to analyze dolphin sounds to determine if dolphins utilize language or perhaps pictorial
information in their complex whistles and clicks. We have recently discovered a novel phenomenon in images
derived from digital recordings of the sounds of dolphins echolocating on submerged objects. Hydrophone recordings
of dolphin echolocation sounds were input to a CymaScope, an analog instrument in which a water-lled, fused-
quartz cell is acoustically excited in the vertical axis by a voice coil motor directly coupled to the cell. The resulting
wave patterns were recorded with a digital video camera. We observed the formation of transient wave patterns in
some of the digital video frames that clearly matched the shapes of the objects on which the dolphin echolocated,
including a closed cell foam cube, a PVC cross, a plastic owerpot, and a human subject. As further conrmation
of this phenomenon the images were then converted into 3-dimensional computer models. The computer models
were made such that the thickness at any given point was proportional to the brightness of a contrast-enhanced
image with brighter areas thicker and darker areas thinner. These 3-dimensional virtual models were then printed in
photopolymers utilizing a high denition 3D printer.
*Corresponding author: Jack Kassewitz, Speak Dolphin, 7980 SW 157 Street, Palmetto
Bay, FL 33157, USA, Tel: 1 (305) 807-5812; E-mail: research@speakdolphin.com
Received June 06, 2016; Accepted July 04, 2016; Published July 15, 2016
Citation: Kassewitz J, Hyson MT, Reid JS, Barrera RL (2016) A Phenomenon
Discovered While Imaging Dolphin Echolocation Sounds. J Marine Sci Res Dev 6:
202. doi:10.4172/2155-9910.1000202
Copyright: © 2016 Kassewitz J, et al. This is an open-access article distributed
under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
original author and source are credited.
Keywords: Dolphins; Dolphin echolocation; Hydrophone
recordings; CymaScope; Faraday waves; standing waves; 3D printing
Introduction
We demonstrate that dolphin echolocation sound elds, when
reected from objects, contain embedded shape information that can
be recovered and imaged by a CymaScope instrument. e recovered
images of objects can be displayed both as 2-D images and 3-D printed
objects.
Bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus, use directional, high-
frequency broadband clicks, either individually or in “click train”
bursts, to echolocate. Each click has a duration of between 50 to 128
microseconds. e highest frequencies our team has documented
were approximately 300 kHz while other researchers have recorded
frequencies up to 500 kHz emitted by Amazon river dolphins [1].
e clicks allow dolphins to navigate, locate and characterize objects
by processing the returning echoes. Echolocation ability or bio-sonar
(Sound Navigation and Ranging) is also utilized by other Cetacea, most
bats and some humans. Dolphins echolocate on objects, humans, and
other life forms both above and below water [2].
e exact biological mechanisms of how dolphins “see” with sound
still remains an open question, yet, that they possess such an ability
is well established [3]. For example Pack and Herman found that “a
bottle nosed dolphin… was … capable of immediately recognizing a
variety of complexly shaped objects both within the senses of vision
or echolocation and, also, across these two senses. e immediacy of
recognition indicated that shape information registers directly in the
dolphin’s perception of objects through either vision or echolocation,
and that these percepts are readily shared or integrated across the senses.
Accuracy of intersensory recognition was nearly errorless regardless
of whether the sample objects were presented to the echolocation
sense … the visual sense (E-V matching) or the reverse… Overall, the
results suggested that what a dolphin “sees” through echolocation is
functionally similar to what it sees through vision” [4].
In addition, Herman and Pack showed that “…cross modal
recognition of … complexly shaped objects using the senses of
echolocation and vision…was errorless or nearly so for 24 of the 25
pairings under both visual to echoic matching (V-E) and echoic to
visual matching (E-V). First trial recognition occurred for 20 pairings
under V-E and for 24 under E=V… e results support a capacity
for direct echoic perception of object shape… and demonstrate that
prior object exposure is not required for spontaneous cross-modal
recognition” [4].
Winthrop Kellog was the rst to study dolphin echolocation in
depth and found their sonic abilities remarkable [5]. He discovered
that dolphins are able to track objects as small as a single “BB” pellet
(approximately 0.177 inch) at a range of 80 feet and negotiate a maze
of vertical metal rods in total darkness. A recent study showed that a
bottlenose dolphin can echolocate a 3-inch water -lled ball at a range
of 584 feet, analogous to detecting a tennis ball almost two football
elds away [6].
Click trains and whistles cover a spectrum of frequencies in the
range 0.2 to 300 kHz and appear to originate from at least two pairs
of phonators or phonic lips near the blowhole (Figure 1 le) [7]. e
phonic lips are excited by pumping air between air sacs located above
and below the phonators (Figure 2 right). e phonators’ positions can
be rapidly adjusted by attached muscles [8].
We suggest that these sounds reect from a compound parabola
[9-11] shape formed by the palatine bones. A compound parabola
would ensure equal beam intensity across the output aperture. e now
collimated sound is emitted from the dolphin’s melon, which is made

Citation: Kassewitz J, Hyson MT, Reid JS, Barrera RL (2016) A Phenomenon Discovered While Imaging Dolphin Echolocation Sounds. J Marine Sci
Res Dev 6: 202. doi:10.4172/2155-9910.1000202
Page 2 of 12
Volume 6 • Issue 4 • 1000202
J Marine Sci Res Dev
ISSN: 2155-9910 JMSRD, an open access journal
up of several types of adipose tissue [12]. e melon is thought to be an
acoustic lens with a variable refractive index. us, higher frequency
sounds will be deected to higher azimuths so that the dolphin may
interpret the frequency of the returning echoes as an azimuth angle.
e resulting sonic output reects from objects in the environment
forming echoes that are received and processed by the dolphin. e
commonly held view is that the returning echo sounds are received
via the lower jaw, passing rst through the skin and fat that overlays
the pan bones. Two internal fat bodies that are in contact with the
pan bones act as wave guides [13,14] conducting the sounds to the
tympanic bullae (Figure 2, Le) causing a thin part of each bulla to ex
like a hinge (Figure 3, Le). is transmits sound by way of the ossicles
(Figure 3, Right) to the cochleae.
As with stereoscopic visual perception in humans, due to the
separation of the eyes on the head, the separation of the le and right
fat bodies and tympanic bullae may allow dolphins to process sonic
inputs binaurally. Dierent times of arrival (or phase) from the le and
right may allow the dolphin to determine the direction of incoming
sounds [15-21].
Conjecture has surrounded the issue of whether the tympanic
membrane and the malleus, incus, and stapes are functional in
dolphins. A prevalent view is that the tympanic membrane lacks
function and that the middle ear ossicles are “calcied” in dolphins and
therefore lack function [22]. However, according to Gerald Fleischer
(Figure 3), while the dolphin ossicle chain may appear calcied, this
stiness actually matches the impedance of the tympanic bullae and
ossicles with the density of water. A thin part of each tympanic bulla,
with density approximating granite, responds to sounds by exing. is
exion is tightly coupled to the ossicles that have evolved their shapes,
lever arm moments and stiness to respond to acoustic signals in
water (about 800 times denser than air) with a minimal loss of acoustic
energy. e exion can occur even if the tympanic membrane lacks
function. Signicant rigidity is required in this system; for example,
the stapes in the dolphin has compliance comparable to a Boeing 747
landing gear [23].
Fleischer also suggests that the le/right asymmetry of the
skull (Figure 1, Right) and the “break” in the zygomatic arches of
echolocating Cetacea is necessary to prevent coupling of resonances
from both sides of the skull that would reduce the acoustic isolation of
blowhole
monkey lips
posterior bursa
anterior bursa
melon
brain
skull
(phonic lips) airsacs
Figure 1: Left: Dolphin head showing phonic lips or phonators [16,17], Right: Top view of dolphin skull, showing asymmetries [18].
Figure 2: Left: dolphin mandible showing pan bone area [19], Right: Schematic of dolphin air sacs producing sounds [20].

Citation: Kassewitz J, Hyson MT, Reid JS, Barrera RL (2016) A Phenomenon Discovered While Imaging Dolphin Echolocation Sounds. J Marine Sci
Res Dev 6: 202. doi:10.4172/2155-9910.1000202
Page 3 of 12
Volume 6 • Issue 4 • 1000202
J Marine Sci Res Dev
ISSN: 2155-9910 JMSRD, an open access journal
the bullae. In fact, one can determine from fossils if an extinct species
echolocated by examining the zygomatic arch (Figure 4).
Given that the fat bodies in the mandible contact the tympanic
bullae, there is a path by which returning echoes ex the tympanic bullae
and provide input to the ossicle chain. us the apparent contradictions
of the work of Fleischer, Norris and Ketten can be resolved since both
the fat bodies of the mandible as well as other external sounds ex the
tympanic bullae relative to the periotic bone. Sounds from either the fat
bodies or the tympanic bullae couple to the ossicle chain and conduct
sounds to the dolphin’s cochleae.
e sensory hair cells along the cochleae’s Organ of Corti are
stimulated at dierent positions that depend on a sound’s frequency,
thus translating frequency to position according to the Von Bekesy
traveling wave theory [24]. Interesting work by Bell suggests a model in
which each hair cell is a complex harmonic oscillator [25-28].
Neural signals from the hair cells are transferred to the brain via
the acoustic nerve, which is 3 times larger in dolphins than in humans.
e acoustic nerves ultimately project to the brain’s acoustic cortex
with a tonotopic mapping wherein specic frequencies excite specic
locations. e auditory cortex of the dolphin brain is highly developed
and allows hearing across a bandwidth approximately 10 times wider
than that of a human. e dolphin brain then interprets these data.
Dolphins can also control the direction of their echolocation
sounds. Lilly showed how dolphins use phase to steer their sound
beams [29]. Microphones were placed on either side of the blowhole
of a dolphin. At times only one microphone picked up sound while the
other showed zero signal, suggesting that the dolphin was making at
least two sounds; sounds to the le were cancelled out, while sounds to
the right were reinforced, and the same result was found when the sides
were reversed. erefore, a dolphin can aim its echolocation beam
while its head is stationary.
To place this work in a larger context, we note that dolphins
recognize themselves in mirrors [30-33], which show they are self-
aware. Wayne Batteau taught dolphins to recognize 40 spoken Hawaiian
words [34,35] and John C Lilly taught dolphins to imitate English [36].
Louis Herman found that dolphins can recognize approximately 300
hand signs in 2000 combinations [37]. Dolphins perform better at
language tasks than any other creature with the exception of humans.
Research by Markov and Ostrovskaya [38] found the 4 dolphin
phonators are under exquisite and separate control [39]. A dolphin
can make at least 4 simultaneous sounds that are all unique. From
examining around 300,000 vocalizations, they conclude that dolphins
have their own language with up to a trillion (1012) possible “words”
whereas English has only 106 words.
ey also found that dolphin communication sounds follow
Zipf’s laws [40] by which the number of short utterances exceeds long
utterances in the ratio 1/f. Markov and Ostrovskaya consider this
proof that dolphin sounds carry linguistic information since all other
languages and computer codes so far tested also show a 1/f relationship
with symbol length [41].
Equipment and Methods
To investigate the bio-sonar and communication system of
the bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus, we trained dolphins to
echolocate on various objects at a range of 2 to 6 feet. e sounds of
dolphins were recorded while they echolocated on submerged objects,
including a closed cell foam cube, a PVC cross, a plastic owerpot, and
a human subject. Searching for ways to visualize the information in
the recordings, we used a recently developed CymaScope, which has
three imaging modules covering dierent parts of the audio spectrum.
e highest frequency imaging module operates by sonically exciting
medical-grade water [42] in an 11 mm diameter fused quartz visualizing
cell by means of a voice coil motor. e dolphin recordings were input
into the CymaScope’s voice coil motor and the water in the visualizing
cell transposed the echolocation sounds to 2-D images.
Hydrophones
We utilized a calibrated matched pair of Model 8178-7
hydrophones with a frequency response from 20 Hz to 200 kHz. eir
spatial response is omnidirectional in orthogonal planes with minor
nulling along an axis looking up the cable. e hydrophone calibration
curves show a at frequency response down to 20 Hz at -168.5 dB re 1
v/uPa. e response from 2 kHz to 10 kHz is -168.5 dB, aer which the
response rolls o gradually. From 80 kHz to 140 kHz, the sensitivity
falls to -174 dB, aer which the sensitivity climbs again to -170 dB at
180 kHz. Above 200 kHz, the response rolls o gradually out to 250
kHz, which then drops rather sharply at approximately -12 dB per
octave. e pair of hydrophones utilized 45-foot underwater cables
with four conductors inside a metalized shield and powered by two 9
volt batteries.
Hydrophone signal processing
e signal from the hydrophones was passed to a Grace Lunatec V3
microphone preamp, a wideband FET preamplier with an ultra-low
distortion 24-bit A/D converter. e preamplier oers the following
sample rates: 44.1, 48, 88.2, 96, 176.4 and 192 kHz. A band pass lter
attenuated signals at and below 15 Hz to reduce noise. In addition, we
utilized a power supply lter, and power input protective circuits. e
pre-amplied and ltered signal was sent to an amplier enclosed in
a metal EMI enclosure and encapsulated in a PVC plastic assembly.
axis
Ty
Pe
sp
he
pc
ba
ac
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Figure 3: Left: The Cetacean Periotic-Tympanic Bulla “hinge” ection [21],
Right: Dolphin ear ossicles (malleus-red, incus-green, stapes-blue) [22].
Figure 4: 30+ Million-Year-Old Dolphin Skull [25].

Citation: Kassewitz J, Hyson MT, Reid JS, Barrera RL (2016) A Phenomenon Discovered While Imaging Dolphin Echolocation Sounds. J Marine Sci
Res Dev 6: 202. doi:10.4172/2155-9910.1000202
Page 4 of 12
Volume 6 • Issue 4 • 1000202
J Marine Sci Res Dev
ISSN: 2155-9910 JMSRD, an open access journal
For our recordings, sampling rates were set at 192 kHz. A solid copper
grounding rod was laid in seawater. We measured 25 ohms or less with
the ground rod installed, thus minimizing noise.
Recording
e echolocation sounds for the plastic cube, cross, and owerpot
were recorded with one channel of a Sound Device 722 high-denition
two-channel digital audio recorder. e Sound Device recorder writes
and reads uncompressed PCM audio at 16 or 24 bits with sample rates
in the range 32 kHz to 192 kHz. e 722 implements a non-compressed
audio format that includes Sound Devices’ microphone preampliers
designed for high bandwidth and high bit rate digital recording with
linear frequency response, low distortion, and low noise. For recording
the echoes from the plastic objects the sample rate was set to 192 kHz.
e echolocation sounds for the human subject were recorded with
a SM3BAT, which can sample in the range 1 kHz to 384 kHz on a single
channel and up to 256 kHz with two channels. e sampling rate was
set to 96 kHz to better match the narrow frequency response range
of the CymaScope. Audio data was stored on an internal hard drive,
Compact Flash cards, or external FireWire Drives.
Recording dolphin object echolocation sounds
Dolphins were trained to echolocate on various objects on cue. We
recorded a dolphin’s echolocation sounds and the echoes reected from
a PVC plastic cross, a closed cell foam cube, a plastic owerpot, and
an adult male human subject under water. e signals from the cross,
cube and owerpot were recorded as single monaural tracks from one
hydrophone approximately 3 feet in front of the object and about 3
feet to the side, while the dolphin was 1-2 feet from the target. e
recording for the submerged, breath-holding human subject utilized
two tracks from two hydrophones on the le and right of the subject
about 3 feet in front of the human and about 6 feet apart (Figure 5).
We chose these objects because they were novel shapes to the
dolphin and had relatively simple geometries. Once we determined
that images of these shapes appeared in CymaGlyphs, we wanted to
see if the imaging eect would occur with the more complex shape of a
human body (Figure 6).
e average distance from dolphin to submerged object was between
1 and 2 feet and approximately a 6-foot range when echolocating the
human male (Figure 7).
Environmental conditions
During the experiments the water was clear and calm and about
ten feet in depth. We might expect that there would be multipath
echoes from the surface of the water and the bottom. We have yet to
see evidence of this in our recordings. Perhaps the fact that the dolphin
was at a range of 1-2 feet from the objects being echolocated eliminated
such eects. For the echolocation on the submerged human subject at
a range of about 6 feet we also failed to see evidence of any multipath
eects.
Visualizing dolphin echolocation sounds
We utilized various conventional methods to represent the dolphin
echolocation sounds including oscillographs and FFT sonograms,
which display data graphically. We also utilized a CymaScope
instrument to provide a pictorial mode of display. e CymaScope’s
highest frequency imaging module transposes sonic input signals to
water wavelet patterns by exciting a circular cell 11 mm in diameter
which contains 310 micro liters of water, by means of a voice coil
motor direct-coupled to the cell (Figure 8). Images recorded from the
CymaScope are called “CymaGlyphs.” e resulting wave patterns in
the visualizing cell were captured from the objects’ echo.wav les as still
photographs and as video recordings for the male human test subject’s
echo.wav le.
Utilizing recordings of dolphin sounds as inputs to the CymaScope
we discovered 2-D images that clearly resembled the objects being
echolocated. To further investigate the images, we converted them to
3-D models using 3D print technology. As far as we know, this is the
rst time that such methods have been employed to investigate dolphin
echolocation signals.
Digital dolphin sound les were supplied to Reid for experimentation
in the UK via email attachments. e audio signal was rst equalized
utilizing a Klark Teknik 30-band graphic equalizer with the 5 kHz band
boosted to +12 dB. All bands above 5 kHz were minimized to -12 dB,
creating a 24 dB dierential between the 5 kHz band and signals above
that frequency. Bands below 5 kHz, down to 800 Hz, were also boosted
to +12 dB. Bands below 800 Hz were minimized.
e equalized signal was then sent to an Inter-M model QD4240
amplier with a frequency response of 20 Hz - 20 kHz, THD: <0.1%,
over 20 Hz - 20 kHz; 60 watts RMS per channel; a single channel was
used creating a sound pressure level of 100 dB at the voice coil motor.
Figure 9 shows a block diagram of the signal processing equipment.
Figure 5: Echolocated objects: Cross 1 ft. across, Cube 3×3×3 inches,
Flowerpot about 1 ft. high, and a human male.
Figure 6: Echolocation: Left: Cross, Right: Cube.
Outgoing Echolocation Beamform
Returning Echolocation Beamform
Hydrophone
Hydrophone
Figure 7: Left: Schematic of hydrophones recording dolphin echolocating on
a human subject underwater Right: Submerged human male.

Citation: Kassewitz J, Hyson MT, Reid JS, Barrera RL (2016) A Phenomenon Discovered While Imaging Dolphin Echolocation Sounds. J Marine Sci
Res Dev 6: 202. doi:10.4172/2155-9910.1000202
Page 5 of 12
Volume 6 • Issue 4 • 1000202
J Marine Sci Res Dev
ISSN: 2155-9910 JMSRD, an open access journal
e optimum (center) frequency response of the CymaScope
is 1840 Hz while the instrument’s upper limit is 5 kHz. us, at its
current stage of development the CymaScope responds to a small band
of frequencies in the dolphin recordings, however, future development
of the instrument is expected to broaden its frequency response.
e resulting wave patterns on the water’s surface were
photographed and/or captured on video with a Canon E0S 7D cameras
with a Canon 100 mm macro lens set at f 5.6 and 5500 K white balance.
e raw resolution for stills and video is 1920 × 1080 pixels, at a frame
rate of 24 fps with a shutter speed 1/30th second. An L.E.D. light
ring mounted horizontally above and coaxial with the visualizing cell
provided illumination (Figure 10).
Camera
Light Ring
Peltier chilling ring
Fused quartz
Visualizing Cell
Direct coupled to damper
Magnet
Vertical
Motion
assembly
Cotton damper
Section through CymaScope
Voice Coil Motor
Figure 8: Cross section through the CymaScope’s Voice Coil Motor and arrangement of Light Ring and Camera.
Computer 1
Computer 2
Class A
30 band
3 band
Graphic EqualiserCompressor-LimiterSignal Generator
Mixer
Audio Amplifier
50 walts RMS max
Running Audacity
Running camera
software
Digital
Camera
PSU
Peltier PSU
CymaScope
Light Ring
Signal source for
dolphin sound files
Figure 9: Block diagram of signal processing route from signal source to CymaScope.

Citation: Kassewitz J, Hyson MT, Reid JS, Barrera RL (2016) A Phenomenon Discovered While Imaging Dolphin Echolocation Sounds. J Marine Sci
Res Dev 6: 202. doi:10.4172/2155-9910.1000202
Page 6 of 12
Volume 6 • Issue 4 • 1000202
J Marine Sci Res Dev
ISSN: 2155-9910 JMSRD, an open access journal
e wav sound les sent to Reid were only labeled with letters and
numbers and he had no prior knowledge of what each le contained or
which les contained echolocations, if any. erefore, Reid performed
the analyses on the CymaScope “blindly” and in all cases, only the
sound les containing object echolocations showed images.
e sound le containing the “male human subject” was input to
the CymaScope and the resulting transient wave impressions on the
water were captured at 24 frames per second and compressed to a
QuickTime video le. Our initial investigations indicate that the image
occurs at or aer 19.6 seconds in the sound le and before 20 seconds.
e Canon 7D camera can have a variable audio sync slippage of 0 to 3
video frames, thus we can only localize the image within the video to a
6 frame region. In addition, the water in the cell has a hysteresis eect
in that it takes a nite amount of time for the water molecules to be
imprinted by the input signal; we have yet to measure this time delay,
which is likely to vary with frequency. We hypothesize that there is a
potential image frame for each dolphin click. One interesting aspect
is that the orientations of the images occurred at various angles and
were then adjusted to an upright orientation post shooting; however,
the “human” image is presented in its original orientation.
Results
We discovered transient wave patterns in the water cell that were
strikingly similar in shape to the objects being echolocated. To further
investigate the shapes in these Cyma Glyphs we converted the images
to 3-D models. As far as we know, this the rst time such a method has
been implemented.
Transient wave images were found for the cube, cross, owerpot
and a human by examining single still frames, or single frames acquired
in bursts, usually where there was high power and dense click trains
in the recording. e parameters involved in capturing echolocation
images with the CymaScope include careful control of the acoustic
energy entering the visualizing cell. Water requires a narrow acceptable
“power window” of acoustic energy; too little energy results in no image
formation and too much energy results in water being launched from
the cell. As a result, many hours of work were involved in capturing
the still images of the echolocated objects. e imagery for the human
subject was captured in video mode and has been approximately located
in time code. e image formed between 19.6 to 20 seconds into the
recording and may derive from a set of dense clicks at approximately 20
seconds. e video was shot at 24 frames/second with a possible audio
synchronization error of plus or minus 3 frames.
Further, to maximize the coupling of the input sound to the
water in the cell, the original recording was slowed by 10%, as well as
being heavily equalized in order to boost the high frequency acoustic
energy entering the visualizing cell. is signal processing may have
introduced phase changes. In addition, there is some hysteresis, yet to
be measured, because of the mass and latency and compliance of the
voice coil motor, as well as the mass and latency of the water in the
visualizing cell. We have yet to measure these time delays, which are
likely to vary with frequency.
We note that the waveform of the equalized and slowed signal
appears substantially dierent than the original recording, further
complicating the matching of the sounds to the image. erefore,
the time of occurrence and the signals forming the images are only
approximately known at this time. We are replicating our results and
will have more accurate data in the future.
Object echolocation results
e Figures that follow show our main results. We display results
for echolocations on a cross (Figure 11), a cube (Figure 12), and a
owerpot (Figure 13). Each gure shows a schematic of the dolphin,
object, and hydrophone positions, followed by the CymaGlyph image
recorded for each object as well as a 3-D print of the image.
• Figure14showsahumansubjectunderwater.
• Figure15showsanFFTofsoundsrecordedfortwoclicksnear
where the human image formed.
• Figure16showsleandrighttracksrecordednearthetimeof
image formation. Note that the tracks are quite dierent and
indicates that sound cancellation with multiple sound sources
may be involved.
• Figure17isaportionofthesignaldrivingtheCymaScopenear
the time of image formation.
• Figure 18’s Le frame shows the CymaScope recording just
before the formation of an image of the human subject; while
the Center frame shows the human subject’s raw image, and
the Right frame shows the image with selected areas’ contrast
Figure 10: CymaScope.
Returning Echolocation Beamform
Outgoing Echolocation Beamform
Figure 11: Cross: Left: CymaGlyph (Contrast enhanced), Right: 3-D Print of
CymaGlyph.

Citation: Kassewitz J, Hyson MT, Reid JS, Barrera RL (2016) A Phenomenon Discovered While Imaging Dolphin Echolocation Sounds. J Marine Sci
Res Dev 6: 202. doi:10.4172/2155-9910.1000202
Page 7 of 12
Volume 6 • Issue 4 • 1000202
J Marine Sci Res Dev
ISSN: 2155-9910 JMSRD, an open access journal
Returning Echolocation Beamform
Outgoing Echolocation Beamform
Hydrophone
Hydrophone
Figure 12: Cube: Left: CymaGlyph (Contrast enhanced), Right: 3-D Print of
CymaGlyph.
Returning Echolocation Beamform
Outgoing Echolocation Beamform
Hydrophone
Hydrophone
Figure 13: Flowerpot; Left: CymaGlyph, Center: CymaGlyph; image with
dotted lines added, Right: 3-D Print of CymaGlyph.
Figure 14: Human subject Echolocation; Left: Human subject approx. 6 ft. from dolphin, Right: Close up
Figure 15: Echolocation of a Human subject, from 0.1 to 0.15 seconds, Frequencies 200 to 5000 Hz, 512 point FFT.
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
Figure 16: Right (top) and Left (bottom) tracks of human subject echolocation: Time 19.5 to 20.60 seconds. Note the extreme differences of the left and right tracks,
implying signal cancellation using multiple sound sources.

Citation: Kassewitz J, Hyson MT, Reid JS, Barrera RL (2016) A Phenomenon Discovered While Imaging Dolphin Echolocation Sounds. J Marine Sci
Res Dev 6: 202. doi:10.4172/2155-9910.1000202
Page 8 of 12
Volume 6 • Issue 4 • 1000202
J Marine Sci Res Dev
ISSN: 2155-9910 JMSRD, an open access journal
enhanced to emphasize the human body shape. Overall contrast
was rst increased; then further contrast increases were made
by selecting areas and increasing their contrast.
• Figure19showsananalysisofthefeaturesofthehumanbody
image.
• Figure20isa3Dprintofthishumanimage.
Cross: A cross-shaped object made of PVC pipe was echolocated
by a dolphin at a range of 1-2 feet and recorded with a matched pair
of hydrophones with a sample rate of 192 kHz with 16-bit precision.
Cube: A cube-shaped object made from blue plastic closed-cell
foam, was echolocated by a dolphin at a range of 1-2 feet and recorded
with a matched pair of hydrophones with a sample rate of 192 kHz with
16-bit precision.
Flowerpot: A owerpot-shaped object made of plastic was
echolocated by a dolphin at a range of 1-2 feet and recorded with a
matched pair of hydrophones with a sample rate of 192 kHz with 16-
bit precision.
Finding echoes
Adult human physical body part dimensions (Table 1) range from
10-180 cm, with corresponding scattering frequencies, in seawater,
from 833 Hz to 15 kHz. Note that the ner features are above 5000 Hz,
so for the CymaScope to see such detail, we assume that a mechanism
exists in which these details are coded in time. e following table
indicates the frequencies of echoes expected for dierent body parts as
calculated by John Kroeker.
Discussion
We report the discovery that by utilizing dolphin echolocation
sounds to vibrate a cell containing water, in a CymaScope instrument,
we found that the shapes of submerged objects being echolocated by a
dolphin appeared transiently as wave patterns in the water-containing
cell. We found clear images of a PVC cross, a foam cube, a plastic
owerpot and a submerged male test subject.
We converted some of the images into 3-D printed objects where
thickness was proportional to brightness of the image at each point.
is both conrmed the initial results and oered new perspectives and
ways to hapticly explore these shapes.
Understanding the mechanism by which the transient images
occur will be the subject of future research. Detailed mathematical
understanding and modeling of these waves is complex and
mathematical techniques have yet to be developed that can model
Faraday Wave events beyond simple geometries. As far as we can
determine, this is the rst time such a phenomenon has been observed,
namely, that dolphin echolocation sounds, imaged by a CymaScope,
result in transient wave patterns that are substantially the same as the
objects being echolocated.
e ripple patterns that had been previously observed with the
CymaScope had typically been highly symmetrical and reminiscent of
mandalas, varying with the frequency as well as harmonic structures
and amplitude of the input signal, whereas the images of objects formed
by echolocation are atypical.
Michael Faraday studied patterns that he termed “crispations” on
the surface of liquids, including alcohol, oil of turpentine, white of egg,
1.0
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
-0.6
-0.7
-0.8
-1.0
Figure 17: Echolocation track from 0 to 0.6 seconds – Right track, equalized. From “What the Dolphin Saw” Audio.
Figure 18: CymaScope recording of human subject. Left: 1/24 second frame before human image appears, Center: Raw image, Right: Enhanced image.

Citation: Kassewitz J, Hyson MT, Reid JS, Barrera RL (2016) A Phenomenon Discovered While Imaging Dolphin Echolocation Sounds. J Marine Sci
Res Dev 6: 202. doi:10.4172/2155-9910.1000202
Page 9 of 12
Volume 6 • Issue 4 • 1000202
J Marine Sci Res Dev
ISSN: 2155-9910 JMSRD, an open access journal
ink and water. ese patterns included various geometric forms and
historically have become known as Faraday waves.
“Parametrically driven surface waves (also known as Faraday
waves) appear on the free surface of a uid layer which is periodically
vibrated in the direction normal to the surface at rest. Above a certain
critical value of the driving amplitude, the planar surface becomes
unstable to a pattern of standing waves. If the viscosity of the uid is
large, the bifurcating wave pattern consists of parallel stripes. At lower
viscosity, patterns of square symmetry are observed in the capillary
regime (large frequencies). At lower frequencies (the mixed gravity-
capillary regime), hexagonal, eight-fold, and ten-fold patterns have
been observed. ese patterns have been simulated with the application
of complex hydrodynamic equations. ese equations are highly non-
linear and to achieve a match with observed patterns one needs high
order damping factors and ne adjustment of various variables in the
models” [43].
It is most surprising that features such as straight lines, for example,
forming the bas-relief image of a cube, or especially, the rough image
of a human body, form when the input signal to the CymaScope is a
recording of dolphin echolocations on these objects. e formation
of patterns as complex as the image of an object, such as we report
here, are well beyond the capabilities of current Faraday wave models.
erefore, we have yet to determine exactly how these images form. In
one sense we consider the CymaScope a type of analog computer that
embodies in its characteristics the complex math required for image
formation.
We are interested in understanding how spatial information
arises from a one-dimensional time series since, in these experiments,
the input to the CymaScope was a series of amplitudes over time,
containing no apparent shape or spatial information. Perhaps complex
interactions of the vibrating water form patterns in response to the later
incoming signals, in which the phase of the signals plays an important
part. Related to the matter of spatial information is the degree of detail
that we obtained in the images, particularly that of the submerged
human test subject in which his weight belt and other small features
are discernible, albeit at low resolution. e frequency response of the
CymaScope is from about 125 Hz to 5 kHz with a peak response at 1840
kHz. erefore, the formation of the ne details in the imagery must
be spread through time in some manner. A natural time base exists in
the visualizing cell in that it takes a nite amount of time for a ripple
to travel from the cell’s central axis to the circular boundary, which is
a function of the frequency of the injected signal. is hysteresis in the
water mass can be thought of as a type of memory, whereby existing
waves in the water interact with later signals. Perhaps the ner details
in the images are the result of complex interactions among these
parameters.
We note that the image of the human body is ipped le to right, as
an apparent mirror image. Why this occurs has yet to be determined.
Also, what determines the orientation of the images in the instrument’s
visualizing cell, which is radially symmetric has yet to be determined.
In the case of the cube and the human subject, the images are “right
side up” which is curious and perhaps coincidental. We will investigate
this further and plan to conduct experiments with synthetic signals
to determine if images form when high frequency sound pulses
are reected from objects in a laboratory setting and input to the
CymaScope.
We have yet to arrive at a hypothesis for the mechanism that
underpins this newly discovered phenomenon. An obvious question
that occurred to us is whether these results are a form of pareidolia, that
is, the tendency for people to see familiar shapes such as faces, even in
random patterns such as clouds. However, based on the circumstances,
this cannot be the case. Each shape was found even when only one
le in several sent to Reid contained the echolocation shape data. In
addition, Reid had no knowledge of what shapes were potentially to be
found in the sound les. is is a strong argument against any form of
pareidolia given that the crude outline of the owerpot even shows a
faint outline of the hand that held it and, in the image of the male test
subject, his weight belt and even some of his ngers were evident.
Figure 19: Interpretation of human body image showing features like the
ngers, elbow, and weight belt. The image areas have been emphasized.
Figure 20: Human subject: 3-D Print of human subject from a CymaGlyph
image.
Human dimensions cm Frequency delta in ms
head 15 10200 0.098
arm width 10 15300 0.065
leg width 18 8500 0.118
torso width 33 4636 0.216
leg spacing at knees 40 3825 0.261
arm length 60 2550 0.392
leg length 80 1913 0.523
torso length 60 2550 0.392
arm spacing 90 1700 0.588
Total Height 180 833 1.176
Table 1: Human body feature sizes and echo delays.

Citation: Kassewitz J, Hyson MT, Reid JS, Barrera RL (2016) A Phenomenon Discovered While Imaging Dolphin Echolocation Sounds. J Marine Sci
Res Dev 6: 202. doi:10.4172/2155-9910.1000202
Page 10 of 12
Volume 6 • Issue 4 • 1000202
J Marine Sci Res Dev
ISSN: 2155-9910 JMSRD, an open access journal
Examining dolphin head movements may provide insights
into how dolphins aim their sounds and scan objects. We intend to
measure head position and movement in future studies as well as
varying the dolphin’s range from the targets. Also, since dolphins can
make up to four and possibly ve dierent sounds simultaneously,
we are considering making multi-hydrophone recordings to better
analyze the sounds. In examining the le and right stereo tracks of
the echolocation on the human test subject, for example, we found
considerable dierences between the le and right tracks, suggesting
that the dolphins are employing sound cancellation techniques. For
example, click trains on the right channel may fail to appear on the le
(Figure 16).
e implications of the present study for dolphin perception
are signicant. It may be that dolphins and other Cetacea process
auditory information to create a perceived world analogous to human
visual perception. Dolphins possess large acoustic nerves that contain
approximately as many bers as human optic nerves. eir auditory
cortex is larger than humans’ and their brain is larger. It is plausible
that dolphins experience an auditory perceptual world that is as rich
as our human visual experience. In the same way we humans enjoy
a totally integrated world as we run across a eld or as a bat is nely
coordinated while catching two fruit ies in half a second diving
through the branches of a tree, so too, the dolphin likely integrates
sound, vision, touch, taste etc. into a complete gestalt.
We suggest that they are integrating sonar and acoustic data with
their visual system so that their sonar inputs are interpreted, in part, as
images. is concept is supported by extant studies. A corollary of this
concept is that dolphins may create sonic shapes with their sounds that
are projected to other dolphins as part of their communication. We
intend further studies to determine if such a communication system
exists.
Recent brain tract maps in the dolphin brain show possible neural
connections between cortical regions A1 and V1. is suggests both
auditory and visual areas of the brain participate in the interpretation
of auditory information [44]. Other studies show similar functioning
in humans and support the concept of similar cross-modality linking
in dolphins.
ere are humans who can detect objects in their environment by
listening for reected echoes. Tapping their canes, stomping their foot,
snapping their ngers, or making clicking noises provide the means to
create echoes. “It is similar in principle to active sonar and to animal
echolocation, which is employed by bats, dolphins and toothed whales
to nd prey” [45]. While humans’ visual cortex lacks known inputs
from other sensory modalities, in blind subjects it is active during
auditory or tactile tasks.
“Braille readers blinded in early life showed activation of primary
and secondary visual cortical areas during tactile tasks, whereas
normal controls showed deactivation, thus in blind subjects, cortical
areas normally reserved for vision may be activated by other sensory
modalities” [46].
Blind subjects perceive complex, detailed, information about the
nature and arrangement of objects [47].
“Some blind people showed activity in brain areas that normally
process visual information in sighted people, primarily primary visual
cortex or V1… when the experiment was carried out with sighted
people who did not echolocate… there was no echo-related activity
anywhere in the brain” [48].
Further evidence of visual areas of the human brain being involved
with audition comes from functional fMRI’s in blind echolocating
humans that showed simultaneous activity in both acoustic and visual
areas of the brain [49,50] (Figure 21).
Pitch perception shows a visual component [51]. Patel reports
on the work of Satori who used fMRI to image human volunteers
attempting to use pitch perception to identify paired short melodies.
Satori observed surprising neural activation outside the auditory
cortex. Relative pitch tasks showed increased activity in the infra-
parietal sulcus, an area of visuospatial processing. In recent research
into spatiality in relative pitch perception in humans, functional fMRI
studies show visual areas of the brain being activated as part of the
perception of simple sound phrases that are rising and declining in
pitch.
From these and other studies, we conclude that since mammal,
human and dolphin brains are similar, and, given that many humans
experience a visual component to their echolocation, it seems more
than speculation that dolphins have developed similar perceptions that
combine the auditory and visual areas of their brain.
Conclusions
Dolphin echolocation sounds recorded while echolocating various
objects and a human subject, were input to a CymaScope instrument.
We discovered that patterns arose that closely matched the shape
of objects and a human subject being echolocated. ese results are
beyond current Faraday wave modeling techniques and will require
further research to determine how such wave patterns occur.
Understanding this phenomenon oers the possibility of
improved sonar and sonar displays and oers the potential for gaining
further insights into the process by which dolphins echolocate and
communicate. We intend to replicate and extend our experiments to
clarify issues arising from this discovery.
Dedication
We dedicate this paper to the Cetacea, dolphins and whales and, to
our colleagues in this work and who continue to inspire us: Dr. John C.
Lilly, M.D., Dr. Henry (Hank) M. Truby, Ph.D., Star Newland, Carol
Ely, Dr. Jesse White, DVM and Lewis Brewer.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge our Science Advisory Board: V. S. Ramachandran M.D.,
Echolocation Expert Control Participant
Figure 21: Human Echolocation showing visual components.

Citation: Kassewitz J, Hyson MT, Reid JS, Barrera RL (2016) A Phenomenon Discovered While Imaging Dolphin Echolocation Sounds. J Marine Sci
Res Dev 6: 202. doi:10.4172/2155-9910.1000202
Page 11 of 12
Volume 6 • Issue 4 • 1000202
J Marine Sci Res Dev
ISSN: 2155-9910 JMSRD, an open access journal
Ph.D., Suzanne Thigpen, M.D., John Kroeker, Ph.D., Mark Owens, Ph.D., Charles
Crawford, D.V.M., Jason Chateld, D.V.M. and Elizabeth A. Rauscher, Ph.D.
We thank William H. Lange for his assistance, 3D Systems for their support of
3D printing our objects and Michael Watchulonis for his work to document this
discovery, and Annaliese Reid for her work in editing this paper. The work of Hans
Jenny is the underpinning of our discovery and rst led me to the idea of making
dolphins sounds visible.
My profound appreciation goes out to Dolphin Discovery, Mexico and all their
staff, managers, and veterinarians who fully supported our research objectives and
always displayed amazing patience. And of course, I must thank the dolphins-Zeus
and Amaya.
All the interns with SpeakDolphin.com were remarkable for their hard work
and strong belief in Donna’s and my dreams of dolphin communication-Elisabeth
Dowell, Regina Lobo, Brandon Cassel, Roger Brown, Donna Carey, Jillian
Rutledge, and Jim McDonough.
We must always remember Robert Lingenfelser, who nudged me along and
encouraged me to continue this Cymatic investigation.
Additionally, a special thank you to Art by God in Miami and Gene Harris for
allowing us to photograph their dolphin fossil used for our asymmetry analysis.
This research was conducted with a grant from Global Heart, Inc. and Speak
Dolphin. Jack Kassewitz.
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Citation: Kassewitz J, Hyson MT, Reid JS, Barrera RL (2016) A Phenomenon Discovered While Imaging Dolphin Echolocation Sounds. J Marine Sci
Res Dev 6: 202. doi:10.4172/2155-9910.1000202
Page 12 of 12
Volume 6 • Issue 4 • 1000202
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ISSN: 2155-9910 JMSRD, an open access journal
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Citation: Kassewitz J, Hyson MT, Reid JS, Barrera RL (2016) A Phenomenon
Discovered While Imaging Dolphin Echolocation Sounds. J Marine Sci Res Dev
6: 202. doi:10.4172/2155-9910.1000202