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The Generality of Deviance
... In this particular case, the main concern of the cyclists could be to avoid social criticism. As Hirschi and Gottfredson (1994) argued, in some cases, the sanctions of society (i.e., social criticism) are grater deterrents for normative people than are formal sanctions, especially for categories such as cyclists, which are not so strictly targeted by law enforcers. Furthermore, cyclists that are alone when approaching the intersection during the red-light phase, are less concerned with social criticism and, therefore, more likely to show risky behavior. ...
Accident analysis and studies on traffic revealed that cyclists’ violation of red-light regulation is one typical infringement committed by cyclists. Furthermore, an association between cyclists’ crash involvement and red-light violations has been found across different countries. The literature on cyclists’ psychosocial determinants of red-light violation is still scarce. The present study, based on the classification of cyclists’ red-light behavior in risk-taking (ignoring the red-light and traveling through the junction without stopping), opportunistic (waiting at red-lights but being too impatient to wait for green signal and subsequently crossing the junction), and law-obeying (stopping to obey the red-light), adopted an eye-observational methodology to investigate differences in cyclists’ crossing behavior at intersections, in relation to traffic light violations and the presence of other cyclists. Based on the social influence explanatory framework, which states that people tend to behave differently in a given situation taking into consideration similar people’s behaviors, and that the effect of social influence is related to the group size, we hypothesized that the number of cyclists at the intersection will have an influence on the cyclists’ behavior. Furthermore, cyclists will be more likely to violate in an opportunistic way when other cyclists are already committing a violation. Two researchers at a time registered unobtrusively at four different intersections during morning and late afternoon peak hour traffic, 1381 cyclists approaching the traffic light during the red phase. The 62.9% violated the traffic control. Results showed that a higher number of cyclists waiting at the intersection is associated with fewer risk-taking violations. Nevertheless, the percentage of opportunistic violation remained high. For the condition of no cyclist present, risk-taking behaviors were significantly higher, whereas, they were significantly lower for conditions of two to four and five or more cyclists present. The percentage of cyclists committing a red-light violation without following any other was higher for those committing a risk-taking violation, whereas those following tended to commit opportunistic violations more often.
... Second, exposure to prenatal testosterone is assumed to be predictive of the full spectrum of cognitive and behavioral outcomes ranging from autism to criminal and antisocial behavior to intelligence and success in business ventures . This stance places the theory squarely in line with the widely observed empirical pattern of the "generality of deviance" (Hirschi and Gottfredson, 1994), that is, the tendency for those who engage in crime also to engage in other kinds of behaviors (e.g., aggressive and risky/impulsive behaviors) that look a lot like crime (see also Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1990;Osgood et al., 1988). What this means is that ENA theory was not developed as a crime-specific theory-one that concerns itself only with criminal behavior. ...
As criminology has become more interdisciplinary in recent years, biosocial criminology has earned a place at the table. Although this perspective comes in many forms, one important proposition has gained increasing attention: that the 2D:4D finger digit ratio—a purported physical biomarker for exposure to fetal testosterone—is related to criminal, aggressive, and risky/impulsive behavior. Strong claims in the literature have been made for this link even though the findings seem to be inconsistent. To establish the empirical status of this relationship, we subjected this body of work to a meta-analysis. Our multilevel analyses of 660 effect size estimates drawn from 47 studies (14,244 individual cases) indicate a small overall effect size (mean r = .047). Moderator analyses indicate that this effect is rather " general " across methodological specifications—findings that are at odds with theoretical propositions that specify the importance of exposure to fetal testosterone in predicting criminal and analogous behavior later in life. We conclude with a call for exercising caution over embracing the findings from one or two studies and instead highlight the importance of systematically organizing the full body of literature on a topic before making decisions about what does, and what does not, predict criminal and analogous behavior.
... In this particular case, the main concern of the cyclists could be to avoid social criticism. As Hirschi and Gottfredson (1994) argued, in some cases, the sanctions of society (i.e., social criticism) are grater deterrents for normative people than are formal sanctions, especially for categories such as cyclists, which are not so strictly targeted by law enforcers. Furthermore, cyclists that are alone when approaching the intersection during the red-light phase, are less concerned with social criticism and, therefore, more likely to show risky behavior. ...
The main aim of the present study was to investigate the bi-directional relationship between social well-being and energy conservation behavior as a form of pro-environmental behavior. Participants were 298 undergraduate/master students at an Italian public university. We applied structural equation modeling with two waves of survey data from a cross-lagged panel design to investigate reciprocal relationships between latent variables representing social well-being and pro-environmental behavior. Results showed that pro-environmental behavior at baseline predicted later social well-being controlling for the effects of baseline social well-being. Conversely, social well-being at baseline predicted subsequent levels of pro-environmental behavior controlling for previous levels of pro-environmental behavior. Results were compared using multi-group invariance testing of paths across gender. These relationships did not differ between men and women. Together, these findings suggest that a bi-directional relationship between social well-being and pro-environmental behavior is supported.
... Of course, I would be remiss if I did not point out the possibility that Matza may have inadvertently "overnormalized" delinquency by glossing over what we now refer to as the "generality of deviance" (Hirschi and Gottfredson, 1994). Youths who engage in delinquency for example, are much more likely than other kids to throw a fit when they do not get their way (de Ridder et al., 2012), to be profane and socially inappropriate in public settings (Reisig and Pratt, 2011), and to enjoy excessively partaking in illicit substances (Turanovic and Pratt, 2013). ...
... It can be exciting, fun, and easily accomplished, and those who are prone to engage in criminal behaviors are also likely to participate in other risky and deviant behaviors (e.g., smoking, excessive drinking, driving too fast, risky sexual behavior), which Gottfredson and Hirschi argued are "analogous" to crime, because they also provide easy access to immediate gratification. Criminal and deviant behavior, therefore, according to Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) is "general" (see also Hirschi and Gottfredson, 1994). ...
... 2. Defined as the " tendency to avoid acts whose long-term costs exceed their momentary advantages " (Hirschi & Gottfredson, 1994 , p. 3), self-control as originally conceived is argued to be tautological in nature (Akers, 1991). The initial conceptualization of self-control points to a behavioral tendency to avoid acts in which the long-term consequences outweigh their immediate benefits (Marcus, 2004). ...
The merger of Hirschi’s social bonding and Gottfredson and Hirschi’s self-control theories has resulted in a recent redefinition of self-control as the “tendency to consider the full range of potential costs of a particular act.” The present study clarifies the implications of Hirschi’s redefinition, advances a new measure of redefined self-control, and provides an empirical test of key hypotheses using data from a Midwestern sample of adolescents. Results indicate that the alternative measure of redefined self-control has predictive validity. Although redefined self-control and social bonds are not the same thing, they are moderately correlated. Net of controls, redefined self-control has a significant direct effect on marijuana use and partially mediates the effect of social bonds.
... Moreover, Agnew (2006:104-5, 116) posits that angerinducing stressors are more likely to manifest in violent and aggressive crime relative to instrumental and property crime. Thus, and mindful that some criminologists reject any notion of specialization (Hirschi and Gottfredson 1994;see Sullivan et al. 2006 for counterargument), strain theory suggests a specific focus on expressive types of crime. To this end, if the effect of paternal incarceration on expressive crimes is stronger, we can more confidently implicate strain as a probable mechanism. ...
Objectives: This research examines the association between paternal incarceration and children’s delinquency. Prior research suggests an association, although omitted variable bias is an enduring issue.
Methods: To help address issues related to unobserved heterogeneity, we employ a method uncommonly used in criminological research. Rather than comparing the children of incarcerated fathers to respondents who have never had a father incarcerated, we exploit the longitudinal nature of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to generate a strategic comparison group: respondents who will have a father incarcerated in the future. We also examine two types of delinquency, expressive and instrumental, to infer plausible mechanisms linking paternal incarceration and delinquency.
Results: When using “futures” as comparison cases, results differ from much prior work and suggest a spurious association between paternal incarceration and instrumental delinquency (e.g., theft). Paternal incarceration retains a significant effect on expressive delinquency, which is partly mediated by reduced attachment to fathers.
Conclusions: The association between paternal incarceration and expressive (but not instrumental) crime supports Agnew’s strain theory and elements of control theory. Our comparison group also offers important advantages in terms of addressing unobserved heterogeneity, and we think this approach would prove useful for other topics in criminology.
... A persistent finding in the criminological literature concerns what has been termed "the generality of deviance"-that is, the tendency for a host of criminal, deviant, and reckless behaviors to be correlated with one another (Hirschi and Gottfredson, 1994). The problem facing many criminological theories is that while they may be able to offer insight into one set of behaviors (e.g., crime), they may fail to meaningfully shed light on the others (and vice versa; see the discussion by Tittle, 1995). ...
A consequential development in victimization theory and research was the idea that individuals with low self‐control self‐select into the various risky behaviors that may ultimately result in their victimization. To establish the empirical status of the self‐control–victimization link, we subjected this body of work to a meta‐analysis. Our multilevel analyses of 311 effect size estimates drawn from 66 studies (42 independent data sets) indicate that self‐control is a modest yet consistent predictor of victimization. The results also show that the effect of self‐control is significantly stronger when predicting noncontact forms of victimization (e.g., online victimization) and is significantly reduced in studies that control directly for the risky behaviors that are assumed to mediate the self‐control–victimization link. We also note that the studies assessing self‐control and victimization are not representative of victimization research as a whole, with intimate partner violence (IPV), violence against women, and child abuse being severely underrepresented. We conclude that future research should continue to examine the causal processes linking self‐control to victimization, how self‐control shapes victims’ coping responses to their experience, and whether self‐control matters in contexts where individuals may have limited autonomy over the behavioral routines that put them at risk for victimization.
... and is coded so that higher scores represent higher self-control. Hirschi and Gottfredson (1993, 1994, 2000 also Hirschi, 2004) have expressed disapproval for attitudinal measures of self-control. Instead, they suggest that behavioral measures are more desirable. ...
PurposeSocial learning theory and self-control theory differ considerably in their interpretation of what qualifies as a “valid” measure of peer deviance. While the two theories are epistemological opposites in regards to how to operationalize the peer deviance construct, their differences are reconcilable. The current study seeks to identify a set of perceptual items that accurately measure a peer's self-reported deviance. This measure would satisfy the preferences of both learning and control theories because the measure is perceptual but also accurate.Methods
Using data from 2,154 individuals in friendship pairs where each respondent perceived 26 peer behaviors and self-reported the same behaviors, regression, item-response, and mean difference tests are used to perform item deletion.ResultsFive perceptual peer deviance items are identified which are not significantly different from the peer's self-reported deviance. When scaled together and inserted into multivariate regressions, however, the perceptual peer deviance items are still related to the respondent's deviance more strongly than the peer's self-reported deviance.Conclusions
We are unable to identify a set of perceptual items that is interchangeable with a peer's self-reported deviance. Accordingly, the theoretical debate between Akers and Gottfredson and Hirschi regarding the measurement of differential association may not be empirically resolvable.
... Existing longitudinal data sets do not contain sufficient information to tap all of the theoretically specified elements of child rearing supposedly leading to strong self-control (i.e., love, monitoring, recognition of misbehavior, and discipline); however, researchers have tried to use such data to 1 It should be noted that Hirschi (1994) has suggested slight modifications to these parenting constructs. He recommends: (1) that caring does not necessarily involve parental love, but rather the presence of ''an adult with sufficient stake in the socialization of the child''; (2) that recognition of misbehavior should be replaced with ''recognizing evidence of low self-control''; and (3) that punishment of misbehavior should be substituted with ''correcting '' misbehavior (1994:54). ...
Survey data collected simultaneously in Dhaka, Bangladesh; Lviv, Ukraine; and a rural area of the Lviv region in Ukraine are used to examine hypothesized sources of self-control found in Gottfredson and Hirschi's self-control theory (G/H) and in coercion/social support theory (CSS). Analyses provide limited support for the G/H model and almost no support for the challenge posed by arguments concerning social support and self-control. Exploratory analyses indicate that the various parenting dimensions specified in the G/H model and sources of social support implied by CSS theory may have countervailing influences on self-control, thereby producing less than desirable outcomes. Implications of these findings are discussed.
This research aims to investigate the effect of workplace ostracism on counterproductive work behavior (CWB) and the moderating role of acculturation in this respect. The relationships between variables are analyzed through structural equation modeling. The data are collected from Syrian migrant workers in the restaurant industry in Istanbul, Turkey (n = 392), and the results indicate that workplace ostracism has a positive effect on CWB. Besides, acculturation plays a moderator role in the effect of workplace ostracism on CWB. In this regard, acculturation differentiates the relationship between the two variables. The present study contributes to the related theory by revealing that workplace ostracism drives less CWB among Syrians adopting the host culture and more of it among those maintaining the origin culture.
The generality of failure theory links arrest – a “failure” at crime – to other failures later on in life such as getting a sexually transmitted disease or losing a job. Yet, this theoretical orientation also suggests the opposite may be true. Early life failures such as failing a class in school and becoming an underage parent may be a marker of an individual likely to fail at crime later in life. We test this theory using eleven waves of data from the Pathways to Desistance survey. Findings demonstrate that both personal failures (e.g., becoming an underage parent, failing a class) and public failures (e.g., being fired from a job, suspended from school) early in life are significantly associated with failing at crime later in life. Results persist even after accounting for a wide range of potential confounding factors such as criminal offending, illicit substance use, IQ, and self-control. Findings highlight the utility of the generality of failure theory in understanding deviant behavior.
The world observed a well-developed Russian strategy and military model have had destabilizing consequences and wide-ranging implications for international security, in particular for Europe, and global stability since the Ukraine crisis. Needless to say, most European countries and notably NATO conclude that Russian policy, military strategy, and military practice in the Ukraine crisis challenge the European security and carry significant implications for NATO, therefore the Ukraine crisis force the EU and NATO to concentrate on measures against Russian strategy.[1] In reality, Russia has already given the signals of its intentions via the Military Doctrine 2010 and Defense Strategy 2013 that list destabilization of the near abroad, in other words buffer zone, and NATO or the EU expansion, including deployment of military forces, as most relevant military threats. Both documents highlight that “Russia faced the very real threat of being side-lined in international affairs.” [2] Furthermore MacKinnon suggests that in line with its new regime change strategy, the United States forced the former Soviet Union’s member states to establish their political institutions, provided funds for the opposition, and supported revolutions in Georgia, Ukraine, and Kyrgyzstan. Thus, the revolutions added to the Kremlin’s perception that “Washington’s chief objective might have been to change the regime in Russia as well.”[3] Likewise, Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov said “NATO’s expansion by pulling more Russia’s neighboring countries into the alliance is unacceptable”.[4] Therefore it could be concluded from Russian point of view that everything should be done to prevent NATO and the EU expansion which can be characterized as the greatest threat to Russian security, and that’s why Russia must restore its status as a great power inside its own sphere of influence. It is the aim of this analytic paper to search why the EU and NATO have failed to manage the crisis emanating from Russian aggression and expansion in Ukraine, and to address the current strategic environment as well. I shall try to analyze the drivers and the reasons of NATO and the EU’s poor reaction against Russia, and finally I will emphasize why and how the roles of NATO and the European Security Strategy should be reconsidered in the light of energy security policy of the EU, and why NATO and the EU needs to improve their responsiveness rather than readiness.
If we can determine what drives people to commit such heinous crimes, it is suggested, perhaps we can change their behaviour. While it has been nearly two decades since the beginning of the global war on terrorism, the experiences gained in successive processes have revealed the fact that destroying terrorists in the battlefield is not a sufficient measure to neutralize the global threat of violent extremism. Even if a terrorist organization is deactivated in the battlefield—as is the case with Al-Qaida and ISIS examples—similar extremist ideas can proliferate in a different domain with a different organization. In this respect, along with the physical efforts exhibited in the combat zone, a successful war on violent extremism should also strategically focus on why individuals adopt and internalize the extremist visions and, in turn, engage in terrorist acts. To put it another way, as Borum emphasized, we should “seek to understand not only what people think, but how they come to think what they think, and, ultimately, how they progress—or not—from thinking to action.” This perspective provides an important hint regarding how to prevent the emergence of a new terrorist organization and to avert individuals’ acceptance of radical views after the ISIS falls. If we can clearly lay bare how individuals come to adopt radical views and participate in ISIS—in particular, and terrorist organizations—in general, we can take effective precautions to overcome this crucial issue. In line with this viewpoint, this policy report seeks an answer to the question of how we can stem the tide of a reemergence of violent extremist views after the fall of ISIS. Extant academic research and policy reports have exerted a notable effort in explaining the triggers of participation in terrorist organizations. Some studies—especially studies from political science—have generally concentrated on the role of the ideology and religion. Yet, the ideological transformation almost always takes place after joining a radical group and the ideology functions merely as a vehicle to be a violent extremist. The main question should be why these individuals feel a need to belong to a radical group and to which processes they are exposed until deciding to join radical groups. The “ideology” approach is therefore not sufficient to explain involvement in violent extremism. Explanations of religion as a trigger of violent extremism are also problematic. Recently, several academic studies demonstrated that religion was seldom, if ever, the root cause of violent extremism. Along with these researches, some other studies examined the issue from a sociological perspective and prioritized illiteracy as the main cause of violent extremism. While this approach could be utilized for extremists who reside in Western countries, however, the unique case of ISIS clearly showed us that the average educational attainment of its members was higher than that of the public in source countries. Aforementioned studies have generally failed to present a comprehensive model that explains the social processes and accounts for the variability of individual and social-structural factors—facilitating the engagement in violent extremist actions—for different extremists residing in different countries. Thus, the current study intends to fill this gap through providing a comprehensive sociological model which would be suitable for explaining the process of radicalization both for individuals who reside in source countries (Middle East) and for those who reside in Western countries. To sum up, the purpose of this policy report is two-fold: (1) to elucidate the nature of the sociological process by which an individual adopts radical views, joins an extremist organization, and engage in violence; and (2) to extend policy recommendations towards the effective sociological measures that should be taken to undermine the process that might culminate in violent extremism.
Delay discounting—preference for immediate, smaller rewards over distal, larger rewards—has been argued to be part of the “generality of deviance”, which describes the co-occurrence of various forms of impulsive and risky behaviors among individuals. Some studies have linked laboratory-measured delay discounting to behaviors, traits, attitudes, and outcomes associated with risk, but these associations have been inconsistent. Furthermore, many of these studies have been conducted with exclusively undergraduate samples, or in samples offering low statistical power. In a large community sample (n = 328) diverse in age and socioeconomic status, we examined associations between two measures of behavioral delay discounting (single-shot and canonical k-parameter estimation) and behavioral risk-taking, personality traits associated with risk, domain-specific risk attitudes, gambling and problem gambling, antisocial behavior, and criminal outcomes. In addition, we explored whether a novel response time latency measure of delay discounting explained variance in these risk-related outcomes. Results indicated that behavioral delay discounting was consistently associated with all variables related to impulse control: high trait impulsivity, low trait self-control, risk-averse attitudes toward financial investment, risk-prone attitudes toward gambling and health/safety risks, gambling and problem gambling, antisocial conduct, and criminal outcomes. Latency-measured delay discounting was inconsistently associated with behavioral delay discounting and risk-related measures. Together, results suggest that delay discounting is associated with poor impulse control consistent with a generality of deviance account. Copyright
Traffic signal violation is an important factor in causing accidents involving vehicles and pedestrians. Thus, studying factors influencing traffic signal violations in China seem extremely urgent and important. Using data collected from Guangdong Province in China, this study applies the Logistic model to analyze risk factors influencing traffic signal violations for three different groups, car drivers, cyclists, and pedestrians. Results indicate that road types and lighting conditions have different effects on traffic signal violations for the three groups. In addition, different ages have different effects on traffic signal violations for car drivers and pedestrians. Finally, occupations have different effects on cyclists and pedestrians. Therefore, China might establish policies and promulgate regulations based on the different risk factors for the three groups.
Both future orientation and impulsivity are intrinsic parts of an adolescent’s self-control, and empirical evidence clearly establishes them as crucial features on the origin of juvenile deviant behavior. However, we do not yet fully understand how these variables relate in explaining deviant conduct. In the present study, we tested a mediation model between these variables among 126 Portuguese adolescents. Findings support the mediation model in analysis, namely that impulsivity fully mediates the effect of future orientation on deviant behavior. In conclusion, our results suggest that lesser future orientated youth develop impulsive behavior which, in turn, explains their higher deviant conduct.
Theoretical propositions and empirical tests of Gottfredson and Hirschi's general theory continue to permeate the criminological literature. Nevertheless, the vast majority of studies have been conducted in North America and some European countries. Only a handful of empirical works have been conducted in East Asia. To further test the generality assertion of Gottfredson and Hirschi, the current study examines low self-control's efficacy in predicting the involvement of South Korean adolescents in typical delinquency, drinking, smoking, Internet addiction, and smartphone addiction. The presented findings largely support the generality hypothesis, although the theorists' assertion seems to be somewhat overstated.
© The Author(s) 2015.
This study estimates peer effects on alcohol use, drawing from a database of about 2000 randomly-assigned roommates on a college campus. The estimation of peer influences also takes into consideration ego's history of alcohol use and friendship with the peer. College students averaged an additional two-fifths of a binge drinking episode per month and an additional one-half of a drinking episode per month when randomly assigned a roommate who drank in high school than when assigned a roommate who did not drink in high school. An individual's prior history of alcohol use proves important. Peer effects on binge drinking as well as drinking for those who already drank in high school were about twice as large as average peer effects. When one did not have a history of alcohol use, negative peer influences were absent. Also important is the friendship between peers. When a peer is considered a best friend, the step-up effect (or positive interaction effect) increased by 1.25-1.61 drinking episodes per month. However, even when a peer is not considered a best friend, a drinking peer still increased ego's drinking episodes by 0.75-1.00 per month.
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Although there have been nearly 20 years of research on self-control theory, the measurement problems of the theory’s core construct linger and call into question the efficacy of self-control as a predictor of crime and delinquency. This study assessed the validity of a recently introduced behavioral measure of self-control, the Retrospective Behavioral Self-Control (RBS) measure, which is argued to remedy the conceptual and empirical problems afflicting prior self-control measures. Using a sample of students at a large southern university, this study finds that although a unidimensional and content-valid 18-item RBS measure is not as strong a predictor of crime and delinquency as the original RBS, it has substantially more predictive power than the most commonly used attitudinal measure of self-control, the Grasmick et al. scale. The implications of these findings for empirical tests of self-control theory as well as future directions for the measurement of self-control are discussed.
Numerous studies have attempted to test Gottfredson and Hirschi’s General Theory of Crime. The present article outlines the view that virtually every empirical test of the theory is based on serious misinterpretations of its core construct, self-control. A reinterpretation of self-control is proposed and seven requirements for its construct-valid measurement are specified. A review of self-control measures used in previous research shows that these requirements are more often violated than met. As a consequence, the empirical status of self-control theory is held to be still largely unknown, despite all apparent evidence.
The present study examines the road behaviour of individual pedestrians at an intersection with a traffic signal compared to groups of pedestrians at the same intersection.In total, 1392 pedestrians were unobtrusively observed in an urban setting at a pedestrian street crossing of undivided streets; 842 were female (60.5%) and 550 were male (39.5%). The observations took place between 7:30 and 8:30 in the morning. Chi-square test revealed the males crossed on red more frequently than females. Logistic regression predicting red-light crossing for pedestrians arriving during a red-light phase indicated that, apart from gender, the tendency to cross on red was greater when there were fewer people waiting at the curb, either when a pedestrian arrived, or joining after arrival. The discussion refers to the theoretical explanations concerning the theory of ‘social control’ and to some practical implications of the results, such as using the positive value of social control in media campaigns and adjusting the red light duration in order to encourage people to obey the traffic light.
In a paper previously published in Criminology (Paternoster and Brame, 1998), we used data from the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development to investigate the association between criminal activity and a set of so-called “analogous behaviors” (i.e., excessive drinking, smoking, gambling, involvement in accidents, etc.). Our reading of Gottfredson and Hirschi's (1990) self-control theory led us to hypothesize that both of these outcomes should depend on self-control. It seemed to us that the implication of this position is that self-control should explain any association that exists between involvement in criminal activity and involvement in analogous behaviors. Our analysis suggested that the association between criminal activity and analogous behaviors persisted even after conditioning on our measure of self-control. We drew the qualified conclusion that this result constitutes negative evidence for Gottfredson and Hirschi's self-control theory. In this paper, we reexamine the analytic framework on which we relied in our earlier work.
Using data gathered from a sample of two hundred jail inmates housed in a large California city, this research extends the still nascent literature on the self-control/gang membership association. The article begins by first articulating more comprehensively than earlier research Gottfredson and Hirschi's theoretical justification for expecting a self-control/gang membership link. Next, an examination is undertaken of the relative independent influences on gang membership of self-control and a series of measures, derived from differential association theory, that mainly tap familial gang involvement. On the whole, logistic regression models suggested that self-control exerted an effect on gang membership that was almost entirely independent of, but also modest in comparison to, familial gang involvement effects, although the results also indicated the insignificance of self-control upon controlling for a series of differential association measures. Finally, theoretical implications of the findings and suggestions for future research are offered.
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