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L'amico è realmente un tesoro? Evoluzione del concetto di amicizia dai 3 ai 10 anni
Abstract
Introduzione
L’amicizia è una componente delle competenze sociali, in termini di interazione tra pari e di
formazione di reti amicali; essa investe lo sviluppo cognitivo ed emotivo, favorendo l’acquisizione
del senso d’appartenenza al gruppo e la strutturazione dell’identità. Selman (1980) ne propone un
modello stadiale. L’obiettivo è di confermare la natura multifattoriale e stadiale del concetto di
amicizia in bambini di scuola dell’infanzia e di scuola primaria, verificando eventuali differenze di
genere e l’influenza delle pratiche genitoriali su tale processo.
Metodo
169 bambini (87 femmine) dai 3 ai 10 anni (M = 7.61; DS = 2.16) sono stati intervistati in ambiente
familiare e scolastico con la Friendship Interview (Bornstein, 1998). La codifica è stata effettuata su
5 categorie: 1) Concetto di amicizia; 2) Social Perspective Taking; 3) Comprensione delle
emozioni; 4) Strategie di interazione sociale; 5) Aggressività. Ai bambini è stata somministrata la
WISC-R (N = 35; M IQ TOT = 108.80; DS = 14.56) o le CPM (N = 88; M percentile = 63.33; DS
percentile = 22.15). A entrambi i genitori sono stati somministrati questionari sulle pratiche
parentali. Sono state effettuate ANCOVA e analisi correlazionali per le variabili età, sesso, pratiche
parentali e le 5 categorie della Friendship Inteview.
Risultati
I risultati delle ANCOVA (lo Status Socio Economico è stato impostato come variabile covariata;
M = 33.36) evidenziano un effetto principale dell’Età: vi è un incremento delle diverse competenze
al crescere di quest’ultima: 1) Amicizia (F (2, 155) = 256.57; p < .001); 2) Social Perspective Taking
(F (2, 154) = 131.95; p < .001); 3) Teoria ingenua delle emozioni (F (2, 152) = 27.78; p < .001); 4)
Strategie di interazione sociale (F (2, 155) = 39.34; p < .001); 5) Aggressività (F (2, 149) = 6.50; p <
.01). In quest’ultima è stato evidenziato anche un effetto d’interazione tra l’età e il genere (F (2, 149)
= 3.66; p < .05).
La partecipazione materna alle attività del figlio di 3~6 anni correla con una maggior messa in atto
di Strategie di Interazione Sociale (N = 47; r = .29; p < .05). La partecipazione materna alle attività
del figlio di 10 anni correla con una minore aggressività riportata nelle risposte (N = 51; r = -.29; p
< .05).
Conclusioni
Lo studio conferma lo sviluppo qualitativo dell’amicizia previsto dal modello di Selman, fino al
decimo anno d’età. Viene sottolineata la natura multifattoriale del Concetto di Amicizia, legata alle
Strategie di Interazione Sociale e alle abilità richiamate dalla Teoria della Mente. I livelli di
aggressività differiscono tra maschi e femmine, ma ciò è vero solo per i bambini più piccoli. Le
pratiche materne correlano con alcune competenze del bambino in relazione alle fasce di età
indagate: con bambini piccoli, il coinvolgimento materno è correlato con la messa in atto di migliori
strategie di interazione, mentre all’uscita della scuola primaria correla negativamente con
l’aggressività.
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Linear PEI is a cationic polymer commonly used for complexing DNA into nanoparticles for cell-transfection and gene-therapy applications. The polymer has closely-spaced amines with weak-base protonation capacity, and a hydrophobic backbone that is kept unaggre-gated by intra-chain repulsion. As a result, in solution PEI exhibits multiple buffering mechanisms , and polyelectrolyte states that shift between aggregated and free forms. We studied the interplay between the aggregation and protonation behavior of 2.5 kDa linear PEI by pH probing, vapor pressure osmometry, dynamic light scattering, and ninhydrin assay. Our results indicate that: 1. At neutral pH, the PEI chains are associated and the addition of NaCl initially reduces and then increases the extent of association. 2. The aggregate form is uncollapsed and co-exists with the free chains. 3. PEI buffering occurs due to continuous or discontinuous charging between stalled states. 4. Ninhydrin assay tracks the number of unprotonated amines in PEI. 5. The size of PEI-DNA complexes is not significantly affected by the free vs. aggregated state of the PEI polymer. Despite its simple chemical structure, linear PEI displays intricate solution dynamics, which can be harnessed for environment-sensitive biomaterials and for overcoming current challenges with DNA delivery.
The study was conducted with 413 adolescents (179 females), who completed the Adolescent Friendship Attachment Scale (AFAS), the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA), and the Multidimensional Self Concept Scale (MSCS). AFAS subscales predicted differently the three dimensions of self-esteem: Secure Friendship predicted both social and competence self-esteem while anxious friendship negatively predicted social and affect self-esteem. Avoidant friendship only negatively predicted affect self-esteem. Gender differences were found: Girls scored higher than boys on both Peer Attachment scale and the AFAS Secure dimension, whereas boys obtained higher scores than girls on the AFAS Avoidant scale. Self-esteem was predicted by both the quality of parental and peer relationships, as assessed by the IPPA, and the quality of best friend attachment, as assessed by the AFAS. Parent attachment was a stronger predictor than peer attachment on self-esteem.
Aim of this study was to confirm the increase of friendship competence and its multifactorial nature in kindergarten and primary school children and to verify gender differences, parenting and socioeconomic status influences on friendship concept. A semi-structured interview was administered in a natural context to 3–8 years-old children (N = 99; mean = 6.1 years; SD = 1.35). The coding provides five sub-categories: (1) friendship; (2) social perspective taking; (3) emotions understanding; (4) social interaction strategies; (5) aggressiveness. Three parental style questionnaires were administrated to parents. Results confirm the increasing of friendship competence according to age. No gender difference was found. Father's involvement in son's activities was inversely correlated with son's aggressivity.
A total of 258 children aged 4-7 years, from 192 families of diverse structure (stepfather, single parent, stepmother/complex stepfamilies, and nonstep families), participated in this study of young children’s perceptions of their family relationships. Children completed a Four Field Map, in which they placed their family members and friends in a series of concentric circles representing the closeness of the relationship. Biological relatedness and family type affected the placement of fathers, but not mothers or siblings; children in stepfather families were more likely to place their stepfathers as “not close”. Links were found between the quality of child-mother and child-sibling relationships and the closeness of children’s friendships. Children’s externalising problems were related to their perceptions of their relationships with fathers and their prosocial behaviour to their closeness with both fathers and mothers.
A high-quality friendship is characterized by high levels of prosocial behavior, intimacy, and other positive features, and low levels of conflicts, rivalry, and other negative features. Friendship quality has been assumed to have direct effects on many aspects of children's social development, including their self-esteem and social adjustment. Recent research suggests, however, that friendship quality affects primarily children's success in the social world of peers. Friendship quality could also have indirect effects, by magnifying or diminishing the influence of friends on each other's attitudes and behaviors. Having high-quality friendships may lessen children's tendencies to imitate the behavior of shy and withdrawn friends, but little evidence supports the hypothesis that high-quality friendships magnify friends’ influence.
Using a short-term longitudinal design (6 months), this study examined cumulative contextual risk as a predictor of effortful control (EC) and social competence in a community sample of children (N = 80, ages 33–40 months at time 1). Maternal parenting was examined as a mediator of contextual risk. EC was assessed using laboratory tasks, and parenting was assessed using observational ratings. Time 1 contextual risk was negatively related to time 2 EC after controlling for time 1 EC. Mothers' limit setting and scaffolding predicted higher time 2 EC and accounted for the effect of contextual risk. Time 1 EC, contextual risk, and parenting predicted time 2 social competence, and contextual risk had an indirect effect on social competence through parenting. Results suggest that contextual risk predicts smaller relative increases in EC and that parenting accounts for this effect. Knowledge of the factors that divert or promote effortful control can provide targets for intervention to enhance effortful control abilities and better adjustment.
Links between individual differences in 4-year-olds’ social understanding, language abilities, temperament, behavioral adjustment and family background and the quality of their interaction with a close friend were investigated. 64 pairs of friends were filmed playing together on two occasions, and each child tested on a battery of assessments of theory of mind, emotion understanding and language. Teachers and mothers reported on children’s adjustment and temperament respectively. There were marked differences in children’s interactions with their friends; the sociocognitive abilities and behavioral characteristics of both child and friend contributed significantly to cooperative shared pretend, to low frequency of conflict and to successful communication between friends; behavioral adjustment and family background also contributed independently to friendship quality. The similarity between friends in behavioral adjustment and sociolinguistic skills was notable.
Aquí se expone la influyente teoría interpersonal de la psiquiatría desarrollada por Sullivan a partir del psicoanálisis.
Prior studies of childhood aggression have demonstrated that, as a group, boys are more aggressive than girls. We hypothesized that this finding reflects a lack of research on forms of aggression that are relevant to young females rather than an actual gender difference in levels of overall aggressiveness. In the present study, a form of aggression hypothesized to be typical of girls, relational aggression, was assessed with a peer nomination instrument for a sample of 491 third-through sixth-grade children. Overt aggression (i.e., physical and verbal aggression as assessed in past research) and social-psychological adjustment were also assessed. Results provide evidence for the validity and distinctiveness of relational aggression. Further, they indicated that, as predicted, girls were significantly more relationally aggressive than were boys. Results also indicated that relationally aggressive children may be at risk for serious adjustment difficulties (e.g., they were significantly more rejected and reported significantly higher levels of loneliness, depression, and isolation relative to their nonrelationally aggressive peers).
Friendship Interview Coding System (unpublished manuscript)
- M H Bornstein
Bornstein, M. H. (1998). Friendship Interview Coding System (unpublished manuscript).
Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, N.I.H.