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The Intention–Behavior Gap
Abstract
Bitter personal experience and meta-analysis converge on the conclusion that people do not always do the things that they intend to do. This paper synthesizes research on intention–behavior relations to address questions such as: How big is the intention–behavior gap? When are intentions more or less likely to get translated into action? What kinds of problems prevent people from realizing their intentions? And what strategies show promise in closing the intention–behavior gap and helping people do the things that they intend to do?
... However, even when such solutions are present, uptake remains low in practice [194]. This mismatch between desired and actual behavior is known as the intention-behavior gap [53,169]. According to behavior change theory, this gap can be overcome by combining sufficient motivation, abilities, and cues [56,125]. ...
... Other researchers combined the TPB and SDT to develop interventions based on autonomous motivation and found that this improves intentions, but fails to change behavior in a randomized control trial [28]. This misalignment between intentions and behaviors is a phenomena known as the intention-behavior gap [53,169]. ...
... While the primary motivation in [Core1] surrounds productivity-focused workplace progress, there have been numerous efforts recently by both workers and employers to make workplaces healthier [80]. However, due to the intention-behavior gap [53,169], these developments see low uptake in practice. Overcoming the intention-behavior gap, therefore, comprises the second aspect of our vision for workplace wellbeing, and will be addressed by the works presented in Section 3.3. ...
Humans have become exponentially more productive at work due to advances in technology. However, these advances are spurred by a desire to increase output, often without considering wellbeing. Consequently, modern knowledge workers (i.e., occupations primarily involving applying information rather than physical tasks) experience unhealthy conditions such as sedentary behavior, social isolation, and excessive screen time. The consequences of chronic exposure to such conditions can be drastic for users' mental and physical wellbeing. Even when users make efforts to increase healthy behaviors in the workplace, such as by installing standing desks, uptake remains low in practice due to the intention-behavior gap. Technology designers have an opportunity to combat the negative effects of the modern workplace, but they should not degrade productivity for their solutions to be accepted in industrial practice.
Thus, the problem is two-fold: (1) the modern office prioritizes productivity at the expense of wellbeing, and (2) users have difficulty changing their behaviors even when healthy interventions are available. These factors reveal a spectrum of influence connected to both if and how people are motivated to change their behaviors. This thesis navigates along this spectrum by conducting studies and evaluating prototypical systems to build an understanding of this motivation. Consequently, this thesis outlines a vision for a healthy future of work through two approaches. First, we investigate how to design technology to make healthy ways of working a more attractive choice for users. Second, we explore active behavior change technologies that aim to overcome the intention-behavior gap and ethically nudge users to behave according to their own goals.
In the first series of explorations, we investigate technology that inspires users to incorporate movement in the workplace. The works in this section use passive behavior change approaches, aiming to make movement an attractive option that users will choose of their own volition. We used ethnographic methods to understand the needs of users who regularly integrate physical activity into their work routines. Drawing from this knowledge, we developed a tangible prototype to explore technology-supported walking meetings. Finally, we explored using physical exertion as a design element to generate mindful experiences. Overall, these investigations provide a new understanding of how technology can seamlessly integrate physical activity into work routines while creating positive user experiences.
Next, we explore active approaches that nudge users to act in alignment with their own goals. We designed and implemented functional prototypes and conducted mixed-methods evaluations on interventions to increase movement, foster social connectedness, and manage excessive screentime, all of which are issues in the modern office. To increase ecological validity, we conducted three of the studies in the field, including one large-scale longitudinal study. These investigations provide insights into how technology can support users in overcoming intention-behavior gaps to achieve their own behavior goals in the real world.
Based on our investigations, we propose a design framework for behavior change technologies that promote a healthy workplace. The framework draws from related work and incorporates theoretical concepts from physiology and nudge theory. We designed the framework to be beneficial for researchers and technology designers in creating behavior change technologies.
In all, this thesis contributes the following: (1) prototypical systems to facilitate improvements in physical activity, mindful screen time, and social interactions, (2) field evaluations of workplace behavior change technologies, (3) an actionable design framework highlighting important design dimensions and categorizing literature for future developers of ethical behavior change technologies, and (4) a reflection on ethical behavior change. Finally, we discuss open challenges for the field and deploying research in practice. This thesis demonstrates the potential for technology to support healthier workplaces without sacrificing productivity by providing concrete solutions and ecologically validated field evaluations. By advocating for the integration of wellbeing principles into workplace design and emphasizing user-centered approaches to behavior change technologies, our work lays the groundwork for creating healthier and more productive workplaces in the future.
... In addition, this finding corroborates past research findings in other fields of studies, such as career-related literature (e.g., (Yizhong et al., 2017)). However, this finding contradicts the argument that people always do not do the things they intend to do (Sheeran & Webb, 2016), indicating the importance of further research on the predicted relationship in dark tourism literature. ...
... More specifically, while past studies considered behavioral intention as the ultimate dependent variable, we further extended the literature by demonstrating the relationship between BI and AB, indicating another contribution to our study in the related field. In fact, the rationality of our research was also based on the understanding of whether people always do the thing they intend to do (Sheeran & Webb, 2016). ...
Article History Keywords Actual behavior Bangladesh Dark tourism Motivation Theory of planned behavior. This study applies the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) to explore visitors' motivations and their actual behavior at dark tourism sites (DTS) in Bangladesh. It integrates four key motivational dimensions-national identity, educational-historical exploration, empathy, and recognition-to assess how these motivations influence visitors' attitudes (AT), behavioral intention (BI), and actual behaviors (AB). A total of 402 valid questionnaires were collected and examined using confirmatory factor analysis to assess the fit of the measurement model. This research utilized structural equation modeling (SEM) to assess the seven hypotheses. Empirical results show that visitors' motivation has a positive impact on their attitude (AT) and behavioral intention (BI). Subjective norms (SN) and perceived behavioral control (PBC) are linked to the visitors' intentions, and BI is linked to their AB. But AT to AB and AT to BI were not statistically significant. The study collected the information during the COVID-19 pandemic, without controlling for its potential effects, using a self-reported questionnaire from a single source. The research contributes to the current knowledge by examining visitors' motivations and exploring their intentions and actual behavior toward DTS in the tourism field. Contribution/Originality: This study looks at dark tourism in a new way by combining important driving forces with subjective norms (SN) and perceived behavioral control (PBC) in the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). It uniquely examines how these elements influence both behavioral intentions (BI) and actual behavior (AB) in a Bangladeshi context.
... explore moderators of the intention-health behavior relationship (see Conner & Norman, 2022;Rhodes et al., 2022;Sheeran & Webb, 2016;Webb & Sheeran, 2006 for reviews). However, as Sheeran (2002) noted, the intention-behavior gap is not symmetrical, with the majority of the gap being attributable to positive intenders who subsequently fail to act. ...
... In other words, strong intenders may fail to act when action is not supported by the presence of high levels of these variables. This is important because although intentions are construed as the most important predictor of behavior in several health behavior theories (e.g., Ajzen, 1991;Bandura, 1997;Fishbein & Ajzen, 2010;Rogers, 1983), evidence shows that intentions are not always translated into health actions (e.g., Sheeran & Webb, 2016). In the current research, as expected the proportion acting increased as we moved from the full sample, to positive intenders, and to strong intenders. ...
Objetivo: Las intenciones conductuales son uno de los predictores más fuertes del comportamiento de salud. La investigación actual exploró los factores que predicen la acción en aquellos que ya tienen intenciones fuertes (es decir, aquellos con puntuaciones de intención más extremas). Métodos: En cuatro estudios sobre diferentes tipos de conductas de salud (actividad física, detección intestinal, inicio de tabaquismo, conductas de protección contra el COVID-19), se probaron como predictores potenciales de acción las actitudes, las normas, el control conductual percibido y la conducta pasada (más el hábito en el Estudio 4) en la submuestra de participantes con intenciones extremas (fuertes). Resultados: En los Estudios 1 (N = 392) y 2 (N = 808) entre personas con intenciones fuertes, las normas y el comportamiento pasado fueron predictores consistentes de participar en actividad física evaluada objetivamente y en exámenes intestinales, respectivamente. En los Estudios 3 (N = 4,148) y 4 (N = 445) entre personas con intenciones fuertes, las actitudes afectivas (solo el estudio 3), las normas descriptivas, la capacidad/autonomía y el comportamiento pasado fueron predictores de resistirse a iniciar el tabaquismo y adoptar conductas de protección contra el COVID-19, respectivamente. El Estudio 4 también mostró que el hábito es un predictor significativo de la acción en personas con intenciones fuertes. Conclusión: Esta investigación identifica factores que podrían ser objetivos útiles para promover el compromiso con conductas de salud en aquellos que ya tienen fuertes intenciones de actuar. Investigaciones futuras podrían probar de manera útil si centrarse en estas mismas variables se traduce en un cambio de comportamiento en aquellos que ya tienen fuertes intenciones de actuar.
... Yet, it's crucial to recognize that intention does not always translate into seeking treatment (21), particularly due to the substantial barrier of stigma, as outlined by Link and Phelan (22). It involves labeling and separating individuals with mental illness, leading to stereotypes and discrimination. ...
... In line with previous findings, help-seeking intention emerged as the strongest predictor (6,7). However, the intention cannot one-to-one be transferred to behavior, reflecting the consistent intention-behavior gap (21). Moreover, our investigation did not include an examination of how formal and informal help-seeking behaviors interact with each other, as this was outside of the scope. ...
Purpose
The goal of the study was to identify the most important influences on professional healthcare use of people with depressive symptoms. We incorporated findings from research areas of health behaviors, stigma, and motivation to predict the help-seeking process variables from a wide range of personal factors and attitudes.
Methods
A sample of 1,368 adults with untreated depressive symptoms participated in an online survey with three-and six-month follow-ups. We conducted multiple linear regressions for (a) help-seeking attitudes, and (b) help-seeking intentions, and logistic regression for (c) help-seeking behavior with machine learning methods.
Results
While self-stigma and treatment experience are important influences on help-seeking attitudes, complaint perception is relevant for intention. The best predictor for healthcare use remains the intention. Along the help-seeking process, we detected a shift of relevant factors from broader perceptions of mental illness and help-seeking to concrete suffering, i.e., subjective symptom perception.
Conclusion
The results suggest a spectrum of influencing factors ranging from personal, self-determined factors to socially normalized factors. We discuss social influences on professional help-seeking and the use of combined public health programs and tailored help-seeking interventions.
Clinical trial registration
German Clinical Trials Register (https://drks.de/search/en): Identifier DRKS00023557.
... Research shows that medium-to-large intention changes result in only small-to-medium behavioral changes. This indicates an intentionbehavior gap across diverse fields of research (Sheeran & Webb, 2016;Webb & Sheeran, 2006). It suggests that the effects previously reported, which were based on intentions rather than behaviors, may be attenuated in real-world scenarios. ...
... Moreover, many studies demonstrate that intentions in front of a computer screen can be generalized to field settings (e.g., Bellezza et al., 2014;Moes et al., 2022;. Meta-analytical evidence supports the assertion that properly designed online experiments can generalize to real-world scenarios, albeit with weaker effect sizes (Sheeran & Webb, 2016;Webb & Sheeran, 2006). In light of the considerable scale of the wine industry, which sells millions of bottles daily, our findings are likely to have significant implications for managerial practice. ...
Climate change and the advent of artificial intelligence‐generated content are reshaping wine marketing. The interplay between consumer focus on naturalness and sustainable farming practices and the proliferation of artificial intelligence‐generated content represents a particularly salient area of research. However, the extent to which the presence of fictitious artificial intelligence‐generated labels and backgrounds impacts consumers' willingness to buy and pay for wine has yet to be addressed. This research contributes to the growing body of literature on consumer susceptibility to sustainability signaling and artificial intelligence greenwashing, focusing on the impact of backgrounds and labels with different degrees of perceived naturalness. Three experiments demonstrate that wines bearing artificial intelligence‐generated sustainability labels and third‐party accredited sustainability labels reliably exhibit an increased willingness to buy and pay compared to those without sustainability labels. These findings indicate that fictitious, artificial intelligence‐generated, and accredited labels are equally effective in influencing consumer wine choices. Customer susceptibility to food labels and wine knowledge and involvement also significantly predict willingness to buy across studies, validating the Customer Susceptibility to Front‐of‐Package Food Labeling scale. These findings highlight the necessity for future studies to investigate the role of responsible labeling, the susceptibility of customers to such labels, and the potential hazards associated with greenwashing practices involving artificial intelligence‐generated labels.
... The above two paragraphs discuss limitations regarding the data sample used. A limitation related to the content of this study was the intention-behaviour gap [54]. This paper researched expat employees' willingness to accept a (temporary) salary reduction (their intention) and not their actual behaviour if and when confronted with a pay cut. ...
... Several studies conclude that manipulating intention does not automatically lead to changed behaviour [55,56]. According to Sheeran and Webb "current evidence suggests that intentions get translated into action approximately one-half of the time" [54]. While the intention-behaviour gap is important to identify as a limitation of the study, considering the nature and context of the topic, an experiment exploring willingness to accept offers valuable insights. ...
During the COVID-19 pandemic, many organisations worldwide asked their employees to accept a temporary salary reduction to manage the financial consequences of the unprecedented event. In this paper, we use a CEO’s salary reduction announcement to all employees and investigate whether a behaviour change intervention using five selected Behaviour Change Techniques (BCTs) increases expat employees’ overall willingness to accept a temporary salary reduction. We use mixed qualitative and quantitative methods, including survey and experiment, to test our hypotheses and frame our results. The results show that, while the direction of impact was positive, respondents were overall not significantly more likely to accept a temporary salary reduction. However, a significant effect was found for the individual BCT ‘Modelling’. Participants were significantly more likely to accept a pay cut if they knew their senior management took a larger cut than asked of participants. The outcomes of this study suggest that the availability of a financial buffer and the strength of the employer–employee relationship play a, possibly more important, role in employees’ willingness to accept a pay reduction. In addition, leadership matters as this study shows that people are more willing to accept a salary reduction when senior management leads the way.
... Third, an important but often implicit assumption in the literature is that propriety translates into corresponding behaviours, i.e., an evaluator's positive propriety belief is assumed to lead the evaluator to support a legitimacy object, whereas his or her negative propriety belief or judgment is supposed to trigger resistance (Tost 2011). Although research in psychology and marketing shows that beliefs and intentions often diverge from actual behaviour (Sen and Bhattacharya 2001;Sheeran and Webb 2016), the relationship between legitimacy and behaviour has never been systematically tested. Such investigations could include experimental designs in which propriety and validity beliefs are manipulated exogenously to rule out endogeneity issues (Gruban et al. 2022). ...
In this chapter, we examine the burgeoning scholarship on legitimacy and briefly summarize the intellectual trajectory of this important concept. We discuss current conversations in legitimacy research and suggest future research directions that we believe are necessary not only to advance scholarship on organisational legitimacy but also to inform the broader field of organisational social evaluations. We recommend that scholars build richer connections between levels of analysis both theoretically and empirically, expanding on the multilevel perspective on legitimacy that has developed rich linkages between societal and individual levels. Recognizing that one of the most important research frontiers in the next decade is empirical in nature, we also develop methodological recommendations, specifically for the development of instruments to measure individual-level legitimacy, the aggregation of individual-level measures into collective-level legitimacy, and the behavioural implications of legitimacy judgments.
... It is important to analyze the intentions behind science communication behaviors, since planned science communication is more strategic and effective (Besley et al., 2019) and intentional science communication is more inclusive (Canfield et al., 2020) Understanding the factors influencing scientists' intentions in science communication can also reveal important mindset issues (Choi et al., 2023). However, there can be discrepancies between behavioral intentions and actual behaviors (Sheeran and Webb, 2016), with effective interventions causing a medium-to-large effect on intentions and a small-tomedium effect on behavior (Webb and Sheeran, 2006). Fortunately, stronger intentions have been shown to be more stable and better predictors of behavior (Conner and Norman, 2022), so working to more greatly increase STEM students' and scientists' behavioral intentions toward engaging in inclusive science communication will have a larger impact on their eventual behavior. ...
This paper presents the development of and validity evidence for a multifactorial survey scale based on the Theory of Planned Behavior to measure STEM students' attitudes/norms, self-efficacy, behaviors, and behavioral intents in inclusive science communication.
... We sought to devise an experiment to test the efficacy of nudging individuals who serve as "decision architects" for their respective organizations, delivering a more "upstream" intervention to change clinical practice behavior not at the clinician level, but at the decisionmaker level [23]. This work assumes that healthcare leaders maintain an "intention-behavior gap" related to evidence-based practice adoption: a discrepancy between what they plan or aspire to do and what they, by way of their organization, do in practice [24][25][26]. A number of existing frameworks help explain why decisionmakers' actions may not always align with their intentions, including the Theory of Planned Behavior, which describes how a person's actions are related to their beliefs about the behavior's consequences, others' expectations, and inhibiting or enabling factors [27]. ...
Importance
Leaders of healthcare organizations play a key role in developing, prioritizing, and implementing plans to adopt new evidence-based practices. This study examined whether a letter with peer comparison data and social norms messaging impacted healthcare leaders’ decision to access a website with resources to support evidence-based practice adoption.
Methods
Pragmatic, parallel-group, randomized controlled trial completed from December 2019 –June 2020. We randomized 2,387 healthcare leaders from health systems, hospitals, and physician practices in the United States, who had previously responded to our national survey of healthcare organizations, in a 1:1 allocation ratio to receive one of two cover letter versions via postal mail (all) and email (for the 60.6% with an email address), accompanying a report with their survey results. The “nudge” letter included messaging that highlighted how an organization’s results compared to peers using text, color, and icons. Both nudge and control letters included links to a resource website. We interviewed 14 participants to understand how the letter and report impacted behaviors.
Results
Twenty-two of 1,194 leaders (1.8%) sent the nudge letter accessed online resources, compared to 17 of 1193 (1.4%) sent the control letter (p = 0.424). Nine of the 14 interviewed leaders stated that viewing the letter (regardless of version) and accompanying report influenced their decision to take a subsequent action other than accessing the website. Seven leaders forwarded the report or discussed the results with colleagues; two leaders stated that receiving the letter and report resulted in a concrete practice change.
Conclusions
Receiving cover letters with a behavioral nudge did not increase the likelihood that organizational leaders accessed a resource website. Qualitative results suggested that the survey report’s peer comparison data may have been a motivator for prioritizing and delegating implementation activities, but leaders themselves did not access our online resources.
... Since the intention is a trigger to do specific behavior, peak season leads hotels and accommodations that already have the intention to comply with tax regulations to do tax compliance behavior. Intention refers to the individuals' command to themselves to be committed to specific behavior (Sheeran & Webb, 2016). Stronger intention means that individuals are highly committed to a specific behavior (Conner & Norman, 2022). ...
Research aims: This research examined the effect of hotel and accommodation performance during peak seasons on tax compliance, especially tourism seasonality-based financial performance, intention to comply, and tax compliance behavior. This research also examined the effect of tourism seasonality-based financial performance on tax compliance behavior through intention to comply.Design/Methodology/Approach: The research sample includes 48 owners and top managers of hotels and accommodations in Magelang Regency. Questionaries measure the variable. Data analysis used structural equation modeling, which included the inner model, outer model, and path analysis.Research findings: Based on data analysis, tourism seasonality affected tax compliance in the hotel and accommodation sector. The peak season of tourism brought more revenues and cash, so hotels and accommodations could pay the tax and comply with tax regulations. Intention to comply mediated the effect of tourism seasonality-based financial performance on tax compliance behavior.Theoretical contribution/Originality: This research provided new evidence of peak season on tax compliance. This research also extended the ability to pay theory of taxation based on tourism seasonality. This research also evaluated regulations of Local Regulation of Magelang Regency No. 13 2010 and Regulation of Head of Magelang Regency No. 44 2012 in tourism seasonality since no regulation regulates seasonal tax system based on tourism seasonality for hotels and accommodation.
... Like our study, some research aims to clarify or better understand the knowledge gap in this field, where two main factors predominate: first, that most people do not act on their intentions despite a strong desire to do so (Sniehotta et al., 2005); and second, that the time gap between intentions and behavior, make it difficult to obtain data that clarifies how intentions translate into entrepreneurial behavior. As Sheeran and Webb (2016) and Kolvereid and Isaksen (2006) Table 6 Pearson coefficient and stone-geisser test between the measurement of intention and behavior, the more likely it is that various events typical individuals' realities will lead to changes in entrepreneurial intention. Through this study, we were able to verify the H1. ...
Preliminary studies do not find a consensus on whether educational programs to transfer knowledge and develop entrepreneurial skills strengthen the relationship between intention and entrepreneurial behavior at the university level. Therefore, this research explores the effects of entrepreneurship education on attitudes, subjective norms, perceived control and the intention to be entrepreneurs of students in the last years of their university careers. This study uses quantitative methodology to evaluate the proposed model; A survey was conducted on students from different public and private universities located in Costa Rica, and data collection was carried out through a questionnaire with 40 questions, 306 students answered the survey. Results were analyzed with structural equation modeling using the Partial Least Square Model (PLS-SEM). We found that education does not work as a stimulant for the intention to be an entrepreneur, but it does influence perceived control. In addition, we found that the factor that most influences the intention to be an entrepreneur is the attitude towards entrepreneurship that students have. And finally, we ratify that subjective norms influence both the attitude towards entrepreneurship and the perceived control. Since most of the studies on entrepreneurship topics focus their attention on the entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial behavior of university students, the study on how entrepreneurial education affects or does not affect entrepreneurial intention is of the utmost importance, because in recent years, universities have integrated business and entrepreneurship topics into their curricula, understanding that entrepreneurship stimulates economies.
... Similarly, the measurement of the intention to open the windows was operationalized as a single item to represent a direct measure, associated with the behavioral choice to open windows. We aimed to limit the theoretical gap between intention and behavior (Sheeran & Webb, 2016) by proposing a more direct and representative measure of a choice to open windows (Allen et al., 2022). However, several items could be administered to reflect the diverse aspects of the behavior and its intention in the future. ...
Many odorless and invisible pollutants contribute to poor indoor air quality at home. Previous research has shown that subjective ratings of indoor air quality are biased by a home halo effect. This effect is characterized by the tendency to subjectively assess air quality based on pleasant aspects that are unrelated to its objective quality. We hypothesize that the pleasing aesthetics of a living room image will increase the perceived indoor air quality in the room and influence the intention to improve air quality. In three studies, participants (n = 1,016) were exposed to an image of a low- or high-aesthetic living room. Perceived self-reported knowledge (SRK) of indoor air quality was surveyed. Results showed that indoor air quality was rated as better in a highly aesthetic living room. Participants with low perceived SRK were less likely to ventilate the low aesthetic living room. Practical implications for communications on indoor air risk and interior design are discussed, especially the integration of knowledge surrounding the aesthetic halo effect into the education and design processes of interior designers to heighten awareness among occupants and prioritize materials minimizing indoor air pollution. For occupants, a necessity for enhanced comprehension of indoor air quality and the adoption of proactive measures is examined through public health policies that address broader concerns surrounding indoor air quality and endorse initiatives for disseminating information related to indoor concerns.
... This study scrutinized consumers' intentions to undertake EMCR through the lens of the extended TPB, without recording actual EMCR behaviors. Admittedly, the phenomenon of intention-behavior gap has been widely documented in academic literature (Sheeran and Webb 2016), including in studies into green consumption (Nguyen et al. 2019). On top of that, whereas the TPB postulates that one's attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control are significantly associated with one's behavior through an indirect effect of formed intentions (Ajzen 1991), the cross-sectional research design adopted for this project prevents us from drawing causal inferences. ...
Limited research has focused on consumption reduction as one potential pathway to meet sustainable development goals. This paper investigates consumers’ intentions to undertake consumption reduction through the lens of an extended theory of planned behavior (TPB), where selected individual differences, namely the need for evaluation (NE) and self-referencing (SR), are given considerable attention. In total, 226 respondents participated in this web-based survey study. The results from structural equation modeling analysis confirm that the extended theory of planned behavior effectively explains consumers’ intentions to undertake consumption reduction. Notably, the individual differences of the NE and SR each uniquely moderate the relationships within the TPB model. This study provides a theoretical contribution by integrating the selected moderators (i.e., the NE and SR) into the TPB framework, increases the TPB’s predictive power, and further provides a novel understanding of the underlying influences of individual differences on consumers’ intentions to undertake consumption reduction for the benefit of the environment. Moreover, the findings offer practical implications for policymakers and social marketers in designing tailor-made interventions and consumption reduction strategies by considering the important role of individual differences.
... Alternatively, it is possible that there are other factors that may underlie the retention of women coaches, for example trait-level individual differences (e.g., Big 5 personality traits; McCrae & Costa, 1987) or mental health and wellbeing, that could be addressed in future research. Finally, the assessment of coaches intentions to exit the profession may not translate into engagement in such turnover (Sheeran & Webb, 2016). In future, longitudinal research could usefully ascertain associations between changes in barriers (and supports) and engagement in voluntary turnover. ...
Women remain underrepresented in tennis coaching roles in Australia. This study aimed to examine the factors (barriers and facilitators) that may underlie gendered experiences in sport coaching and their links to retention in the profession, through the lens of Self-determination Theory. An online survey assessed barriers to coaching (individual, interpersonal, organisational and socio-cultural levels), coaching motivation and social support for coaching. Participants also completed measures of coach retention (coaching commitment, intentions to continue coaching). The survey was completed by 243 Australian tennis coaches (M age = 49.5 ± 16.4 years, 35.8% women). The findings indicated that women coaches perceived experiencing significantly more socio-cultural barriers (e.g. discrimination, marginalisation) than their men counterparts. Fewer women (41.4%) than men (55.8%) intended to remain in the profession long-term (>10 years). Regression analyses did not reveal any predictors of retention among women coaches. In men, integrated regulation (β = 0.22, p = .036) and amotivation (β =-0.24, p = .010) predicted coaching commitment. Interpersonal barriers (OR = 0.27, p = .038), external regulation (OR = 0.68, p = .023) and amotivation (OR = 0.72, p = .040) predicted male's intentions to exit the profession sooner. This study sheds light on the factors that shape the experiences of sport coaches. Ongoing efforts to support the retention of women in sport coaching are necessary and may include challenging socio-cultural barriers. ARTICLE HISTORY
... It is worth mentioning that this theory has been successful in predicting, explaining and changing people's behaviour in different situations [20][21][22][23] . Because from the perspective of social cognitive theory, neither internal forces nor external stimuli alone can encourage a person to act; rather, human performance is described in terms of a triple opposition in which cognitive, behavioural, and other individual factors and environmental events act together as mutual determinants of each other 18,24 . ...
With the emergence of new strains of Covid-19, the adoption of preventive behaviors is still considered a requirement to control this disease. Therefore, considering the importance of social cognitive factors in adopting various types of preventive behaviors, the present study was conducted to design and psychometrically measure the social cognitive factors related to Covid-19 preventive behaviors. A cross-sectional study was conducted on 526 people ages 18 and over with multi-stage stratified, cluster and random sampling in Isfahan, Iran in 2022. The questionnaire was validated and formulated in three stages: designing, creating and reducing items. After collecting information and creating a bank of items, qualitative and quantitative methods were used to calculate the tool’s validity. Data analysis was done in SPSS23 software at a significance level of less than 0.05. In the present study, the average age score of the participants was 39.16 ± 11.48. The results related to the construct validity in the exploratory part show that the five factors (Outcome expectations, self-efficacy, social support, self-regulation and barrier self-efficacy) obtained have a specific value higher than one and range from 1.376 to 9.343. Correlation between factors shows that all factors have a relatively high relationship with each other (P < 0.05). According to the exploratory factor analysis, the final questionnaire contains 29 items and 5 constructs from socio-cognitive theory. The results showed that the thematically and technically designed tool has been prepared in an appropriate way for each of the structures and can accurately measure the structures of outcome expectations, self-efficacy, social support, self-regulation and barrier self-efficacy to explain the preventive behaviors of Covid-19 to evaluate.
... However, it is often insu cient to drive meaningful change (Pronin et al., 2002;West et al., 2012). This is because there's often a gap between what individuals know and what they actually do in many domains of human behavior (e.g., Sheeran & Webb, 2016;Kollmuss & Agyeman, 2002). ...
The term "additive bias" refers to the tendency of individuals to solve problems by adding elements, even when removing elements would be a more effective approach. Both anecdotal evidence and research have shown that this bias can significantly influence decision-making and problem-solving, often leading to sub-optimal solutions. In this Brief Communication, I present the results of a pilot study assessing the effectiveness of the newly developed Additive Bias Implicit Association Test (ad-IAT) as an educational tool for increasing individuals' awareness of their own biases. The findings suggest that the ad-IAT provides educational benefits comparable to those gained from direct experience with biases, which typically requires more time and conscious awareness to develop.
... Relatedly, we examined the intention to recycle and reuse, which may not translate into actual behaviors. As opportunities to reuse increase and people become more familiar with such behaviors, research may consider incorporating direct observation to add to the intention-behavior gap literature (Sheeran & Webb, 2016). Second, we only examined self-efficacy in this research, but beliefs related to whether the recommended actions will be effective in reducing waste (response efficacy) are also key. ...
Although persuasive messages are designed to motivate individuals to engage in intended behaviors, they do not always work. Often, people follow previously established values and ideologies and dismiss persuasive messages. We examine how participants react to a persuasive message related to plastic pollution and how these reactions shape their willingness to recycle and reuse. Results indicate that environmental values and political ideology are associated with message derogation in distinct ways, which, in turn, affect risk perception, self‐efficacy, and intention to recycle and reuse. Further, past behavior moderates the relationship between message derogation and perceived risk, but not the relationship between message derogation and self‐efficacy. These results suggest that pre‐existing values and ideologies play an important role in message derogation, a hitherto under‐researched phenomenon that has key implications for self‐reported behavioral change. Moreover, past behavior could serve as a powerful lever in steering risk perception and behavioral intent.
... First, many studies tend to focus on a narrow set of variables within the TPB framework, often overlooking the complex interplay between external factors, such as market conditions and regulatory environments, and the core components of TPB (Fishbein & Ajzen, 2010). Additionally, while TPB has been effective in predicting intentions, its application in predicting actual behavior in real estate, particularly in longitudinal studies, remains underexplored (Sheeran & Webb, 2016). ...
This paper explores consumer decision-making in the real estate market through the lens of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), providing an integrative analysis that enhances our understanding of the psychological and social factors influencing property purchases. By examining the roles of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, the study demonstrates how these components interact to shape consumer intentions and behaviors in real estate transactions. The findings suggest that TPB offers a robust framework for predicting consumer behavior and designing effective marketing strategies that align with consumer needs. The study also highlights the broader implications for real estate professionals and policymakers, advocating for the adoption of TPB as a guiding model to improve customer engagement and decision-making processes in the evolving real estate industry.
... Thus, a possibly more effective approach is the formation of a new competing habit, also known as habit substitution [140]. One way to do this substitution is through implementation intentions (if-then plans) that link anticipated contexts and cues to responses ('if situation X occurs, then I will do response Y') [171]. Implementation intentions have been described as instant habits which are installed through a single instance of strategic goal-directed control [172]. ...
Habits are the behavioral output of two brain systems. A stimulus–response (S–R) system that encourages us to efficiently repeat well-practiced actions in familiar settings, and a goal-directed system concerned with flexibility, prospection, and planning. Getting the balance between these systems right is crucial: an imbalance may leave people vulnerable to action slips, impulsive behaviors, and even compulsive behaviors. In this review we examine how recent advances in our understanding of these competing brain mechanisms can be harnessed to increase the control over both making and breaking habits. We discuss applications in everyday life, as well as validated and emergent interventions for clinical populations affected by the balance between these systems. As research in this area accelerates, we anticipate a rapid influx of new insights into intentional behavioral change and clinical interventions, including new opportunities for personalization of these interventions based on the neurobiology, environmental context, and personal preferences of an individual.
... However, this conflicts with expert interviews conducted in the same study, which indicate a different behavior (actual behavior). This so-called intention-behavior gap is a well-known psychological phenomenon (e.g., Sheeran & Webb, 2016), often observed in sustainable consumption behavior (Nguyen et al., 2019). ...
The mandatory offering of reusable packaging, in effect since 2023, aims to reduce the consumption of single-use packaging in Germany. Businesses offering takeaway meals are obligated to provide their customers with a reusable option. While the use of reusable cups for takeaway beverages has been quite well researched, there has been limited investigation into the usage of reusable containers for takeaway meals. In March 2023, a representative survey involving 2,101 individuals in Germany was conducted to understand user habits, preferences, and barriers regarding reusable containers for takeaway meals. The results indicate that consumers routinely use reusable containers for self-prepared meals; however, the usage of food containers for takeaway meals prepared by others is not yet widespread. Additionally, there are many uncertainties and everyday practical challenges regarding the usage of reusable containers that can be borrowed from pooling systems. These findings contribute to a better understanding of consumer behavior regarding food containers. Based on this, recommendations are formulated for restaurateurs, reusable food container suppliers and decision-makers in politics and administration, which should contribute to the promotion of reusable food and waste prevention in the takeaway sector.
... Nonetheless, these models have many shortcomings. For example, research has shown that citizens' behaviors often diverge from their intentions (Sheeran & Webb, 2016), explaining a hesitation to opt-in to a data ecosystem even when willing to share data in principle (SBK, 2019). This intentionbehavior gap leads to unrealized gains causing a paradigm shift in the legislation. ...
Given the access to citizens' data, data ecosystems have the potential to address important societal problems. Thus, it is no surprise that we observe a shift toward opt-out models of data sharing worldwide. However, little is known about how citizens perceive and act in these settings. This study conducts an in-depth study on a health data ecosystem to investigate the psychological processes, stress stimuli, and responses of citizens when confronted with data ecosystems. The findings reveal four stress stimuli-overload, privacy invasion, information deficits, and value incongruence - and detail how stress influences citizens' decisions to either stay or opt out of data ecosystems. They are consolidated in the "Citizen-in-the-Loop" model describing a circular dynamic where citizens respond to stress by seeking information, inadvertently creating further stress and perpetuating the cycle. Practitioners and policymakers can use this understanding to develop policies that reach for both, citizens' data sovereignty and societal benefits.
... Research objective 2 (benefits and drawbacks of run streaking) was examined in line with expectancy-value models (Wigfield et al., 2009) to provide a broad and general perspective on human behaviour resulting from expectant outcomes and the value placed on these outcomes. The particular emphasis in this study was on the subjective value individuals place on the outcomes of engagement in run streaking as a motivator for continued performance (Sheeran & Webb, 2016). ...
Background
Running as a form of physical activity is beneficial to overall health and wellbeing. The aim of the study is to examine ‘run streaking’ (i.e. running on consecutive days, for a minimum period of time or distance, typically at least one mile) as a technique for habit formation and behaviour change.
Methods
Qualitative semi-structured interviews with 21 recreational adult runners (11 female and 10 male). Run streak length ranged from a minimum of 100 days to over 4500 days. Transcripts were analysed using a hybrid deductive–inductive thematic analysis.
Results
Run streaking was reported to lead to several benefits, health improvements and a sense of accomplishment, although many run streakers reported running through injuries and lack of recovery. Accounts of run streaking showed features of automaticity indicative of habitual behaviour. Other behavioural processes identified included motivation, identity, self-regulation and social support. Behavioural streaking showed the potential to influence change in behaviours other than running.
Conclusion
Accounts of run streaking demonstrate an interplay between automatic and deliberate processes in the maintenance of running behaviour. Behavioural streaking is a technique that could be used in other behaviour change contexts beyond running to support habit formation.
... 2 Fostering autonomy by foregrounding daily choices to prompt self-reflection 2.1 Related work Human autonomy is a fundamental concept. In HCI, autonomy involves designing persuasive technologies that encourage people to adopt certain behavior patterns [22,23,27], discussing dark patterns in design [10,18,20], or facilitating universal access to technology that embraces both body-and neurodiversity [9,28,30]. With the increasing integration of technology and otherware [14] into people's lives, the issue of understanding and designing for human autonomy becomes even more relevant. ...
... Theories of reasoned action [5] and planned behavior [6] suggest that intention is a psychological tendency or internal drive that prompts individuals towards a specific goal, making it the most direct predictor of behavior. Numerous analyses have found that intention offers superior prediction of behavior in correlational tests compared to other cognitions including (explicit and implicit) attitudes, norms, self-efficacy, and perceptions of risk and severity as well as personality factors [7]. Exploring and identifying the public donation intention during major public health emergencies is crucial for guiding resource allocation, improving donation efficiency, optimizing policy formulation, and enhancing social unity. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic is a major public health emergency that has caused significant global devastation. However, it has also fostered unprecedented worldwide solidarity. During this crisis, we have witnessed large-scale donations and assistance both domestically and internationally. In the face of such extensive public engagement, understanding the driving factors behind public donations is crucial in responding to future global shocks like the COVID-19 pandemic. This study proposes an analytical framework and examines the factors influencing public donation intention during major public health emergencies and their interactions. Based on the online and telephone survey data of 11,682 responses collected in China during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, this study employs multiple logistic regression and moderation effect models to analyze these influencing factors and their interactions on public donation intention. The findings reveal a remarkably high level of public engagement, with 79% of respondents expressing donation intention. Further analysis indicates that the hardship level caused by the pandemic, degree of risk perception, community material support, and evaluation of the pandemic response all have a significant and positive impact on public donation intention. Moreover, the evaluation of the pandemic response and community material support significantly and positively moderate the impact of the hardship level caused by the pandemic and degree of risk perception on public donation intention, respectively. This study provides valuable guidance for governments and organizations worldwide. It is helpful for enriching crisis management theory and improving crisis response mechanisms.
... Given the limitations of current technological solutions, this systematic review is motivated by the necessity of understanding and promoting individual-level measures to tackle PM 2.5 exposures. This paper adopts Behavioral science theories, which point out that behavior is an incentive for one's intention to act [21,22]. Despite the importance of individual-level prevention measures, there is a significant knowledge gap in understanding the factors that influence the adoption of preventive measures. ...
... With some exceptions (see Landmann & Rohmann, 2020;Thomas et al., 2020), most of the earlier literature has focused on theoretical predictions and employed correlational designs and samples from a general population rather than actual protesters. Because it is difficult to measure actual collective action, especially when it is nonnormative, these studies often used people's willingness to engage in collective action as a proxy for protest participation (Finkel & Muller, 1998;Sheeran & Webb, 2016). ...
The climate crisis calls for radical action, but what drives people to engage in climate protest? We recruited respondents during protests of Extinction Rebellion in the Netherlands and examined how intentions to engage in normative action (e.g., protest march), moderate nonnormative action (e.g., roadblock), and openness to more extreme nonnormative action (e.g., property damage) related to perceived injustice and trust in authorities. Study 1 found that perceived injustice was linked to all action intentions, while trust was only negatively associated with nonnormative protest. Study 2 revealed that nonnormative protest was specifically related to lower trust in democracy, judges, and the police. Furthermore, moderate action intentions were related to various injustice perceptions, whereas extreme actions were exclusively linked to social injustice.
Creating interaction opportunities between people of different ages can reduce ageism and increase solidarity. However, spatial age segregation persists due to a lack of age-inclusive public spaces. We explored factors motivating older adults to seek/avoid contact with younger adults in regular neighborhood coffeeshops primarily frequented by younger customers. Semi-structured interviews in Study 1 ( N = 12) revealed that older adults perceived age-related exclusivity in “young” spaces like coffeeshops, were hindered from visiting by metastereotypes and discrimination, but were motivated by perceived learning opportunities. Studies 2 ( N = 107) and 3 ( N = 218) employed questionnaires and tracked coffee vouchers, showing that participants with stronger learning goals and more positive metastereotypes showed greater intention to seek contact. However, only the higher-powered Study 3 revealed the importance of frequent intergenerational contact and learning goals for initiating contact in real-life. The discussion highlights implications for creating more age-inclusive spaces to foster intergenerational interaction.
Supporting more autistic people into employment is a major priority of the United Kingdom’s National Autism Strategy (2021–2026). However, little is known about the barriers employers perceive to hiring autistic people. A pre-registered cross-sectional survey study was conducted on a nationally representative sample of 1212 individuals with recent hiring experience. The Capability, Opportunity, Motivation – Behaviour framework and the Theoretical Domains Framework were used to identify perceived barriers to hiring autistic people. Results indicated that intentions to hire autistic people and to make adjustments to the hiring process were high. However, barriers existed in relation to knowledge about autism and how to make adjustments, as well as perceived limited opportunities to hire autistic people. Intentions to hire autistic people were higher for younger participants, men, people with higher levels of autism knowledge and those with more experience of previously hiring autistic people. Analysis of qualitative responses revealed employer concerns about workplace relationships, productivity and the need for training and adjustments to hiring processes. This study demonstrated that important targets for intervention are improving employer knowledge of autism and building more inclusive hiring practices. Practical suggestions for implementation are provided. These findings are significant for development of policies aimed at improving employment outcomes for autistic people.
Lay abstract
In the United Kingdom, autistic adults struggle more to find jobs than non-autistic adults, which is a big concern to the government. To help more autistic people get jobs, hiring processes need to be better. By understanding what employers find challenging about hiring autistic people, we can come up with solutions to improve autistic people’s employment chances. A survey of 1212 employers and employees who hire people was conducted to find out what affects employers’ decisions to hire autistic people. Most people said they were open to hiring autistic applicants. This was particularly true for younger employers and men. People who had hired autistic people before were more likely to intend to do so again. However, key barriers to hiring were (1) not knowing enough about autism and (2) problems with how hiring is usually done in organisations. Employers also reported worrying about whether autistic employees would fit in at work, their productivity and the need for better training and changes to hiring methods. Our results indicate that it is important to educate employers about autism and make hiring practices more inclusive.
Despite population-based cancer screening programmes effectively decreasing mortality, participation rates are unsatisfactory for both cervical and breast screening. This research tested an integrated theory of planned behaviour model applied to cervical cancer screening (CCS; Study 1) and breast cancer screening (BCS; Study 2) attendance. Women residing in Campania (Italy) and belonging to each screening target population joined two independent surveys (Study 1: n = 332, M age = 41.03, SD = 11.45; Study 2: n = 298, M age = 55.03; SD = 5.17). In both studies, screening behaviour was predicted by intention to undergo the screening, action and coping planning. Significant predictors of intention were subjective norms, perceived behavioural control and self-identity in Study 1, and subjective norms, anticipated regret and self-identity in Study 2. A mediation analysis confirmed the role of action and coping planning in the intention-behaviour relation. This model can guide forthcoming interventions and steer enhancements in healthcare access.
This study aimed to determine the Physical Activity and Students Performance of grade 11 students in Physical Education Class of Baliwasan Senior High School during the school year 2022-2023. The study employed quasi-experimental research design using pre-test and post-test in physical education during the second semester period. The participants of this study were 50 Grade 11 students of GAS A and 50 GAS B students under the GAS strand. A purposive sampling technique was utilized in determining the sample of the study. The findings revealed that the performance of grade 11 students was satisfactory. The pretest for both the control and experimental group was poor. The posttest results of the control and experimental group were satisfactory. The mean gain score of the control and experimental group increased significantly. There was a significant difference in the mean gain score of the control and experimental group. There was a significant difference between the pretest and posttest results in physical education of the control and experimental group. It is highly recommended that the senior high school teachers may use the FITT intervention program and the application of CSPAP strategy approach in teaching physical education. They may also integrate the SEAT in physical education class where the students’ performance was unified in their performance task and the teacher recorded their response and outcome through rubrics.
Introduction
Climate change is a paramount global health threat with multifaceted implications. Societal change is required to mitigate the negative effects of climate change, as well as help people adapt to the associated health risks. This requires situation-specific, large-scale data to help scientists and policymakers understand public perceptions and behaviours and identify the levers to increase public readiness to act against climate change and protect health. The Planetary Health Action Survey (PACE) assesses this readiness to act as a regular monitoring of representative samples in Germany. The ongoing monitoring seeks to develop and refine an integrated conceptual model of the trait-like readiness to act, comprising policy acceptance, political participation and individual behaviours as indicators of the trait. It also proposes as set of determinants to explain different levels of readiness to act. This study protocol provides newly developed valid measurement instruments and the methodological details of the monitoring.
Method and analysis
PACE assesses indicators of the readiness to act and a set of sociocognitive factors predicting the readiness to act in continuous cross-sectional data collections. The latter comprise climate change knowledge, trust in institutions, perceived health risks, self-efficacy, social norms and perceived effectiveness of policy measures. The online questionnaire is updated regularly. Data collection involves non-probabilistic quota samples from Germany (n≈1000 at each collection).
Ethics and dissemination
The project adheres to the ethical guidelines of the University of Erfurt and the German Research Foundation. Ethical clearance was granted by the University’s Institutional Review Board (No #20220525/No #2024-01). Participants are guaranteed confidentiality and anonymity, and informed consent is obtained before participation. Results will be published in peer-reviewed journals. Additionally, we aim to inform and empower the public and support stakeholders (media, policymakers, climate protection organisations) in preparing climate communication and assisting policymakers through the project website including an interactive tool, detailed reports and short summaries for practitioners.
The factors that influence volunteerism are still insufficiently investigated today. What motivates people to engage as volunteers, and how can their willingness to do so be increased through the application of behavioural psychology in marketing campaigns? This study analyses the possibility to influence volunteer participation by applying behavioural psychology, in particular, ten behaviour change techniques (BCTs) from the BCT Taxonomy. Eighty-three study participants were recruited via the mailing list of an inclusive local charity (KEEN Oxford). Individuals were assigned to one of two groups (control/intervention) in a survey, each consisting of an email addressing potential recruits. The results show a significant difference between the two groups (p<.05), for the increase in both willingness to volunteer (1.56 vs 0.35 points on a ten-point scale) as well as time commitment (4 vs 0.54 hours). This reinforces the hypothesis that behavioural psychology can increase volunteer participation.
Using the Elaboration Likelihood Model, this study examines the impact of wine influencers' characteristics on consumers' attitudes, purchase intentions, and actual buying behavior. A survey of 404 social media users was conducted using a structured questionnaire. The structural modeling analysis found that perceived credibility impacts attitudes toward influencers but not recommended brands. However, perceived expertise and trust strongly predict attitudes toward influencers and brands. Congruence has no significant impact. Attitudes toward influencers and brands positively correlate with purchase intention, which, in turn, leads to actual purchases. These insights offer marketers a roadmap for leveraging wine influencers' characteristics to impact consumer behavior effectively
Regular practice of gratitude has the potential to enhance psychological wellbeing and foster stronger social connections among young adults. However, there is a lack of research investigating user needs and expectations regarding gratitude-promoting applications. To address this gap, we employed a user-centered design approach to develop a mobile application that facilitates gratitude practice. Our formative study involved 20 participants who utilized an existing application, providing insights into their preferences for organizing expressions of gratitude and the significance of prompts for reflection and mood labeling after working hours. Building on these findings, we conducted a deployment study with 26 participants using our custom-designed application, which confirmed the positive impact of structured options to guide gratitude practice and highlighted the advantages of passive engagement with the application during busy periods. Our study contributes to the field by identifying key design considerations for promoting gratitude among young adults.
This study investigates the factors influencing intentions to adopt circular business models (CBMs) among businesses in Vietnam, a manufacturing hub in the region. To conduct the investigation, we developed a conceptual framework based on the behavioral theory of the firm and the resource‐based view, categorizing factors into two dimensions: financial and non‐financial. Through empirical analysis involving a survey of 291 businesses and employing partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS‐SEM), we found that financial factors, including capital availability, expected economic benefits, and cost management competence, exert a stronger influence on the adoption of CBMs compared to non‐financial factors, such as stakeholder pressure, technology competence, and innovation competence. Furthermore, while several businesses are actively engaging in activities related to CBMs, managerial commitment towards full CBM adoption remains a prospective goal rather than an immediately actionable present reality. This study contributes in both theoretical and practical terms by addressing a critical research gap and quantifying the impact of financial and non‐financial factors on CBM adoption. Our findings offer valuable insights for businesses and policymakers, facilitating the promotion of circular economy and sustainable development.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to predict the probability and duration of “Buying Intention Survival” (BIS) and to propose a conceptual framework illustrating its determinants. More specifically, it aims to determine the likelihood of buying intention abandonment (BIA) and the time frame in which the intention abandonment might occur.
Design/methodology/approach
The data for this study were collected using an online survey of a sample of 573 Tunisian consumers. The data were then subjected to a survival analysis. This method is used for the first time in this context.
Findings
Results show that the average duration of the BIS could extend over 162 months. Findings also suggest that involvement, anticipated regret linked to a no-purchase decision and social influence have a positive effect on BIS, whereas anticipated regret linked to purchase influences BIS negatively.
Practical implications
Accurately anticipating the date of BIA is of paramount importance for marketers as it allows them to implement strategies that reduce the risk of abandonment and encourage customers to promptly fulfill their purchasing intentions.
Originality/value
This paper introduces a new concept, namely, BIS, and applies a survival analysis method to determine whether purchase intention disappears over time, how soon it may disappear, and possible reasons this may occur.
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Abstract
Background: Nudge is an attempt to easily and cheaply influence an individual's health judgments, decisions, or behaviors in nuanced and predictable ways. To date, there are no published reviews of the evidence for or against nudges as health promotion strategies in older adults.
Objective: This review aims to summarize what is known about the impact of various nudges that target different kinds of health behavior in older adults.
Design: A scoping review
Review methods: We conducted a comprehensive search across the PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, EBSCOhost, and the Cochrane Library databases from the earliest available date to March 2024. To gain a broad understanding of this field, we used relevant search terms related to 'nudge' and 'older adult'. All articles selected and data extracted were double-checked. Nudges were summarized and analyzed according to Thaler’s dual-systems theory taxonomy.
Results: Overall, 18 articles were selected. Nudges have been applied to reduce overuse in healthcare (n=7), enhance vaccination uptake (n=4), raise dietary intake (n=3), increase physical activity (n=1), improve lifestyle management (n=1), improve hand hygiene (n=1), and improve terminal treatment (n=1). Twelve nudges were used to promote health for older adults. Type I nudges included environmental cues, reminders, default options, and feedback. Type II nudges were framing, social norms, social comparison, highlighted suggested choices, pre-commitment, accountability justification, expert authority, and gamification. Most, but not all, nudges have proven to be feasible and effective for health promotion among older adults.
Conclusions: This encouraging evidence suggests there is potential for nudges to promote health among older adults. Future research should tailor nudges to individual and cultural characteristics, explore the most effective nudges and long-term effects, expand nudges to more health domains, implement age-friendly digital nudges, and analyze the nursing economics of nudges.
Registration: Open Science Framework websites (OSF.IO/PGY25).
Keywords
Nudge; health promotion; older adults; health behavior
Demand-side food policies can play a critical role in aligning consumption patterns with global climate change mitigation targets, and carbon food labels have garnered increasing attention as a potential policy instrument. While their effectiveness in changing consumer behavior is still debated, there is a lack of robust empirical evidence from randomized experiments in real-world supermarket settings. In this study, we present evidence from pre-registered randomized experiments, including a representative survey sample of 2,372 Swiss residents and a field experimental sample of over five million daily food purchase decisions made by 1,602 Swiss consumers over several years. For the experiments, we collaborated with one of Switzerland's largest retailers to causally evaluate the impact of one of the world's first carbon food labels implemented in grocery stores. Our findings indicate a positive effect of the carbon food label treatment on individuals' reported attitudes and purchase intentions. However, the treatment had a limited effect on actual purchasing behavior, resulting in no significant decreases in food-related emissions and slight increases in poultry purchases. This suggests that carbon food labels alone are unlikely to be an effective demand-side instrument and should be complemented by other food policies to effectively align consumer demand with climate mitigation goals. Keywords Food-related emissions, carbon food label, food consumption behavior, plant-based diets, demand-side policy change, field experiment 2
The extent to which people self-disclose depends on the valence and intimacy of that information. We developed a 16-item measure that features both dimensions to assess participants’ inclination to self-disclose to humans and robots across three studies, i.e., the VISS scale. We hypothesized that participants would prefer a human over a robot conversation partner, independent of the valence and intimacy of the topic. Using the VISS, participants reported equal willingness to self-disclose to a human and a robot. However, in one out of three studies, participants were more willing to self-disclose positive topics that are low in intimacy (PTLI) to a fellow human, whereas in two out of three studies, they were less prone to self-disclose negative topics that are high in intimacy (NTHI) to a human compared to a robot. Two out of three studies provide a plausible explanation for these differences: participants indicated more motives to self-disclose PTLI to a human than to a robot, with relationship development being one central motive that was more strongly indicated in relation to a human. Furthermore, participants perceived more risks to self-disclose NTHI to a human than to a robot, with the risk of rejection being most prevalent for a human.
Effective health promotion may benefit from understanding how persuasion emerges. While earlier research has identified brain regions implicated in persuasion, these studies often relied on event-related analyses and frequently simplified persuasive communications. The present study investigates the neural basis of valuation change induced by a persuasive healthy eating call, employing naturalistic stimuli. Fifty healthy participants performed two blocks of a bidding task, in which they had to bid on sugar-containing, sugar-free, and nonedible products during functional MRI. In between the two blocks, they listened to a persuasive healthy eating call that influenced their bidding behavior. Intriguingly, participants who resisted persuasion exhibited increased synchronization of brain activity during listening in several regions, including default mode network structures. Additionally, intersubject functional connectivity among these brain regions was found to be weaker in persuaded individuals. These results emphasize the individualized nature of processing persuasive messages, challenging conventional interpretations of synchronized neural activity. Our findings support the emerging practice of tailoring persuasive messages in health promotion campaigns.
This book contains selected papers from the 2023 annual conference of the "Plattform Privatheit", highlighting the importance and impact of data sharing in today's society. It offers an insight into the legal framework, ethical challenges and practical approaches to the use of data. Experts from various disciplines shed light on how data can contribute to innovation, research and the common good. In addition, specific examples and methods are presented aiming to make data sharing fair and transparent. The role of data intermediaries and regulation through European laws are also discussed in detail. A work for researchers, policy makers and companies who want to better understand the complexity of data sharing and its potential. With contributions by Fabiola Böning | Stefanie Brückner | Dr. Daniel Franzen | Dr. Michael Friedewald | Stefanie Fuchsloch, LL.M. | Priv.-Doz. Dr. Christian Geminn | Prof. Dr. Dagmar Gesmann-Nuissl | Prof. Dr. Stephen Gilbert | Henrik Graßhoff | Antonios Hazim | Dr. Gunnar Hempel | Andrea Horch | Dr. Paul C. Johannes, LL.M. | Dr. Murat Karaboga | Prof. Ulrich Kelber | Dr. Michael Kubach | Uwe Laufs | Stefanie Meyer | Prof. Dr. Claudia Müller-Birn | Dr. Crispin Niebel | Alexander Orlowski | Prof. Dr. Andrea Pfennig | Dr. Abel Reiberg | Prof. Dr. Alexander Roßnagel | Christopher Ruff | Prof. Dr. Stefan Schiffner | Dr. Stephan Schindler | Dr. Anna-Raphaela Schmitz | Lukas Schmitz | Prof. Dr. med. habil. Peter Schwarz | Prof. Dr. York Sure-Vetter | F. Gerrik Verhees | Dr. Oliver Vettermann | Dr. Marco Wedel | Alexandra Wudel | Dr. Wolf Zinke
Faced with increasing waste production, authorities are seeking to encourage better household waste management and need to identify levers for change. We propose a model integrating the major determinants of pro-environmental behaviour assumed in prominent theoretical models. Based on meta-analytical evidence, we incorporated situational, normative, attitudinal and self-processes and tested this integrative model to predict intentions to perform two overlooked behaviours: food waste separation and deposit at waste disposal centres. To go beyond intention we also investigated habits to sort food waste. An online survey was administered to two samples ( N total = 2,814) and data were analysed using structural equation modelling. The results showed a good fit of an integrative model ( CFIs > .917; TLIs > .910; RMSEAs < .043; SRMRs < .071). Waste management intentions and habits are directly predicted mainly by personal norms and perceived behavioural control. The latter is predicted by facilitating conditions and pro-environmental identity. Personal norms are predicted by social norms, pro-environmental identity and perceived behavioural control. Our results confirm the relevance of a model integrating situational, normative, attitudinal and self-processes to explain waste management intentions and provide a basis for the development of waste management interventions.
This study examined the future entrepreneurial behavior of female university students. It also examined the moderating role of university business incubators in the relationship between planned behavior and future entrepreneurial behavior among female students. A questionnaire was developed based on Ajzen’s proposals on how to build a questionnaire for the theory of planned behavior and then distribute it to female students at Jordanian universities. The results of the study indicated the presence of future entrepreneurial behavior among female university students in Jordan. The results also indicated that there is a statistically significant relationship between planned behavior and future entrepreneurial behavior. Moreover, the moderating role of university business incubators was significant. The study concluded that female university students have plans and intend to start their own projects and become entrepreneurs despite their young age and economic situation. They are becoming more educated about the importance of being part of a university business incubator and its vital impact on their behavior, networks and future of entrepreneurship. Studying the future entrepreneurial behavior of female university students is particularly necessary given the difficult economic situation and the particularly high unemployment rate among women in Jordan.
This article aims to examine the effects of mortality salience on explicit racism (Studies 1 and 2) and implicit racism (Study 3) in Singapore. There was no significant effect of mortality salience on both explicit racism and implicit racism (Studies 1–3). Furthermore, while social dominance orientation was associated with higher explicit racism, it did not moderate the effects of mortality salience on explicit racism (Study 2). In contrast, while social dominance orientation was not associated with implicit racism, it moderated the effects of mortality salience on implicit racism (Study 3). The results might be explained by the adoption of a superordinate Singaporean identity, the strict laws against explicit racism in Singapore, and a lack of mortality salience effects. Future research directions include examining the effects of mortality salience on racism in countries with lenient laws against racism and examining right-wing authoritarianism as a potential moderator.
Application of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to healthy eating in 144 health promotion clinic attendees is reported. Respondents completed self-report TPB measures after the clinic (Time 1) and 6 months later (Time 2) with a measure of perceived past behavior. Intention stability was assessed on Time 1–2 differences. Six years later (Time 3), respondents completed measures of healthy eating intentions and behavior. Intentions were predicted by attitudes, perceived behavioral control, and perceived past behavior (cross-sectionally). Healthy eating behavior (Time 3) was predicted from intentions (Time 2). As intention stability increased, intentions and perceived past behavior became stronger and weaker predictors of behavior, respectively. Implications for understanding health cognitions in long-term performance of health behavior are discussed.
Despite increasing incidence of HIV/AIDS, there has been no systematic review of correlates of condom use among heterosexual samples. To rectify this, the present study used meta-analysis to quantify the relationship between psychosocial variables and self-reported condom use. Six hundred sixty correlations distributed across 44 variables were derived from 121 empirical studies. Variables were organized in terms of the labeling, commitment, and enactment stages of the AIDS Risk Reduction Model (Catania, Kegeles, & Coates, 1990). Findings showed that demographic, personality, and labeling stage variables had small average correlations with condom use. Commitment and enactment stage variables fared better, with attitudes toward condoms, behavioral intentions, and communication about condoms being the most important predictors. Overall, findings support a social psychological model of condom use highlighting the importance of behavior-specific cognitions, social interaction, and preparatory behaviors rather than knowledge and beliefs about the threat of infection.
People approach pleasure and avoid pain. To discover the true nature of approach–avoidance motivation, psychologists need to move beyond this hedonic principle to the principles that underlie the different ways that it operates. One such principle is regulatory focus, which distinguishes self-regulation with a promotion focus (accomplishments and aspirations) from self-regulation with a prevention focus (safety and responsibilities). This principle is used to reconsider the fundamental nature of approach–avoidance, expectancy–value relations, and emotional and evaluative sensitivities. Both types of regulatory focus are applied to phenonomena that have been treated in terms of either promotion (e.g., well-being) or prevention (e.g., cognitive dissonance). Then, regulatory focus is distinguished from regulatory anticipation and regulatory reference, 2 other principles underlying the different ways that people approach pleasure and avoid pain.
Can self-control be improved through practice? Several studies have found that repeated practice of tasks involving self-control improves performance on other tasks relevant to self-control. However, in many of these studies, improvements after training could be attributable to methodological factors (e.g., passive control conditions). Moreover, the extent to which the effects of training transfer to real-life settings is not yet clear. In the present research, participants (N 174) completed a 6-week training program of either cognitive or behavioral self-control tasks. We then tested the effects of practice on a range of measures of self-control, including lab-based and real-world tasks. Training was compared with both active and no-contact control conditions. Despite high levels of adherence to the training tasks, there was no effect of training on any measure of self-control. Trained participants did not, for example, show reduced ego depletion effects, become better at overcoming their habits, or report exerting more self-control in everyday life. Moderation analyses found no evidence that training was effective only among particular groups of participants. Bayesian analyses suggested that the data was more consistent with a null effect of training on self-control than with previous estimates of the effect of practice. The implication is that training self-control through repeated practice does not result in generalized improvements in self-control.
To successfully pursue a goal in the face of temptation, an individual must first identify that she faces a self-control conflict. Only then will the individual exercise self-control to promote goal pursuit over indulging in temptation. We propose a new model that distinguishes between the problems of conflict identification and those of conflict resolution. We then review research on the factors that influence conflict identification and those that determine conflict resolution.
Cybernetic models suggest that to achieve one's long-term goals, one must create specific plans, enact these plan, monitor progress toward the goal, and resist temptations. Although many studies have examined these proposals in laboratory settings, few studies have examined such processes in daily life. This was the explicit purpose of the current investigation. Participants identified 4 long-term goals during an orientation session. They then completed a diary protocol in which they reported on these self-regulatory processes. The results were largely consistent with predictions. Of the 20 hypotheses examined, 17 were significant in the expected direction. For example, testing led to the initiation of long-term goal operations, which in turn led to goal progress. Likewise, temptations led to self-control operations, which in turn led to the successful resistance of temptations. The investigation thus suggests that cybernetic principles have broad relevance to understanding goal pursuit in daily life. (PsycINFO Database Record
Control theory and other frameworks for understanding self-regulation suggest that monitoring goal
progress is a crucial process that intervenes between setting and attaining a goal, and helps to ensure that
goals are translated into action. However, the impact of progress monitoring interventions on rates of
behavioral performance and goal attainment has yet to be quantified. A systematic literature search
identified 138 studies (N �= 19,951) that randomly allocated participants to an intervention designed to
promote monitoring of goal progress versus a control condition. All studies reported the effects of the
treatment on (a) the frequency of progress monitoring and (b) subsequent goal attainment. A random
effects model revealed that, on average, interventions were successful at increasing the frequency of
monitoring goal progress (d� �= 1.98, 95% CI [1.71, 2.24]) and promoted goal attainment (d� �= 0.40,
95% CI [0.32, 0.48]). Furthermore, changes in the frequency of progress monitoring mediated the effect
of the interventions on goal attainment. Moderation tests revealed that progress monitoring had larger
effects on goal attainment when the outcomes were reported or made public, and when the information
was physically recorded. Taken together, the findings suggest that monitoring goal progress is an
effective self-regulation strategy, and that interventions that increase the frequency of progress monitoring
are likely to promote behavior change.
Objective:
Previous research has shown that the degree to which individuals base their intentions on particular underlying cognitions (i.e., motives) significantly moderates the intention-behavior relationship. Studies have individually examined the moderating effect of intentions based on overall attitude, affective attitudes, injunctive norms, and moral norms. The present research used a within-persons approach to simultaneously test the moderating effects of intentions based on instrumental attitude, affective attitude, anticipated affective reactions, injunctive norms, descriptive norms, and moral norms on the intention-behavior relationship and the impact of controlling for intention stability, self-efficacy, and past behavior.
Method:
Adults (N = 366) completed questionnaires assessing instrumental attitude, affective attitude, anticipated affective reactions, injunctive norms, descriptive norms, moral norms, self-efficacy and past behavior at baseline; intentions at baseline and 1-month follow-up; and behavior at 2-month follow-up for 20 health behaviors. The main outcome measures were the self-reported performance of 20 health behaviors.
Results:
When tested simultaneously using multilevel modeling the only significant moderator of the intention-behavior relationship was the extent to which intentions were based on anticipated affective reactions (intentions more strongly based on anticipated affective reactions were significantly stronger predictors of behavior). This effect remained when we also controlled for intention stability (which also moderated the intention-behavior relationship), self-efficacy, and past behavior.
Conclusions:
Intentions based on anticipated affective reactions may be particularly important predictors of health behaviors. Studies manipulating such intentions to test their effects on behavior change are required. (PsycINFO Database Record
Failures of self-control are thought to underlie various important behaviors (e.g., addiction, violence, obesity, poor academic achievement). The modern conceptualization of self-control failure has been heavily influenced by the idea that self-control functions as if it relied upon a limited physiological or cognitive resource. This view of self-control has inspired hundreds of experiments designed to test the prediction that acts of self-control are more likely to fail when they follow previous acts of self-control (the depletion effect). Here, we evaluated the empirical evidence for this effect with a series of focused, meta-analytic tests that address the limitations in prior appraisals of the evidence. We find very little evidence that the depletion effect is a real phenomenon, at least when assessed with the methods most frequently used in the laboratory. Our results strongly challenge the idea that self-control functions as if it relies on a limited psychological or physical resource.
Several studies have investigated the neural basis of effortful emotion regulation (ER) but the neural basis of automatic ER has been less comprehensively explored. The present study investigated the neural basis of automatic ER supported by ‘implementation intentions’. 40 healthy participants underwent fMRI while viewing emotion-eliciting images and used either a previously-taught effortful ER strategy, in the form of a goal intention (e.g., try to take a detached perspective), or a more automatic ER strategy, in the form of an implementation
intention (e.g., “If I see something disgusting, then I will think these are just pixels on the screen!”), to regulate their emotional response. Whereas goal intention ER strategies were associated with activation of brain areas previously reported to be involved in effortful ER (including dorsolateral prefrontal cortex), ER strategies based on an implementation intention strategy were associated with activation of right inferior frontal gyrus and ventro-parietal cortex, which may reflect the attentional control processes automatically captured by the cue for action contained within the implementation intention. Goal intentions were also associated with less effective modulation of left amygdala, supporting the increased efficacy of ER under implementation intention instructions, which showed coupling of orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala. The findings support previous behavioural studies in suggesting that forming an implementation intention enables people to enact goal-directed responses with less effort and more efficiency.
Research dealing with various aspects of* the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985,
1987) is reviewed, and some unresolved issues are discussed. In broad terms, the theory is
found to be well supported by empirical evidence. Intentions to perform behaviors of different
kinds can be predicted with high accuracy from attitudes toward the behavior, subjective
norms, and perceived behavioral control; and these intentions, together with perceptions of
behavioral control, account for considerable variance in actual behavior. Attitudes, subjective
norms, and perceived behavioral control are shown to be related to appropriate sets of salient
behavioral, normative, and control beliefs about the behavior, but the exact nature of these
relations is still uncertain. Expectancy value formulations are found to be only partly
successful in dealing with these relations. Optimal rescaling of expectancy and value
measures is offered as a means of dealing with measurement limitations. Finally, inclusion of
past behavior in the prediction equation is shown to provide a means of testing the theory*s
sufficiency, another issue that remains unresolved. The limited available evidence concerning
this question shows that the theory is predicting behavior quite well in comparison to the
ceiling imposed by behavioral reliability.
Whereas hedonic consumption is often labeled as impulsive, findings from self-licensing research suggest that people sometimes rely on reasons to justify hedonic consumption. Although the concept of self-licensing assumes the involvement of reasoning processes, this has not been demonstrated explicitly. Two studies investigated whether people indeed rely on reasons to allow themselves a guilty pleasure. Participants were exposed to a food temptation after which passive and active reasoning was assessed by asking participants to indicate the justifications that applied to them for indulging in that temptation (Study 1) or having them construe reasons to consume the hedonic product (Study 2). Regression analyses indicated that higher levels of temptation predicted the number of reasons employed and construed to justify consumption. By providing evidence for the involvement of reasoning processes, these findings support the assumption of self-licensing theory that temptations not only exert their influence by making us more impulsive, but can also facilitate gratification by triggering deliberative reasoning processes.
Mindful attention, a central component of mindfulness meditation, can be conceived as becoming aware
of one’s thoughts and experiences and being able to observe them as transient mental events. Here, we
present a series of studies demonstrating the effects of applying this metacognitive perspective to one’s
spontaneous reward responses when encountering attractive stimuli. Taking a grounded cognition
perspective, we argue that reward simulations in response to attractive stimuli contribute to appetitive
behavior and that motivational states and traits enhance these simulations. Directing mindful attention at
these thoughts and seeing them as mere mental events should break this link, such that motivational states
and traits no longer affect reward simulations and appetitive behavior. To test this account, we trained
participants to observe their thoughts in reaction to appetitive stimuli as mental events, using a brief
procedure designed for nonmeditators. Across 3 experiments, we found that adopting the mindful
attention perspective reduced the effects of motivational states and traits on appetitive behavior in 2
domains, in both the laboratory and the field. Specifically, after applying mindful attention, participants’
sexual motivation no longer made opposite-sex others seem more attractive and thus desirable as
partners. Similarly, participants’ levels of hunger no longer boosted the attractiveness of unhealthy foods,
resulting in healthier eating choices. We discuss these results in the context of mechanisms and
applications of mindful attention and explore how mindfulness and mindful attention can be conceptualized
in psychological research more generally.
Despite evidence that monitoring domestic electricity usage can reduce consumption, there is currently little information on what factors motivate people to monitor their consumption. The present research used an augmented version of the theory of planned behavior as a framework for understanding householders’ intentions. Participants (N = 346) completed a questionnaire measuring their beliefs about electricity use and monitoring consumption, their environmental behavior, and concern about climate change. Regression revealed that the primary predictors of intentions to monitor consumption were perceived behavioral control, attitudes toward monitoring, past behavior, descriptive, and subjective norms. In addition, we developed a modified home electricity monitor that legged when participants looked at their consumption. A subset of participants (n = 38) were given a monitor for three months. Participants looked at the monitor relatively frequently during the first week but usage rapidly declined. There was, however, some evidence that participants found the monitor beneficial.
Objective: The purpose of the current study was to test theory-based predictions of mediators and moderators of treatment effects of a pilot randomized controlled trial, which aimed to increase adherence to preventive medication in stroke survivors via addressing both automatic (i.e., habitual responses) and reflective (i.e., beliefs and value systems) aspects of medication-taking behavior. Method: Sixty-two stroke survivors were randomly allocated to either an intervention or control group. Intervention participants received a brief 2-session intervention aimed at increasing adherence via (a) helping patients establish better medication-taking routines using implementation intentions plans (automatic), and (b) eliciting and modifying any mistaken patient beliefs regarding medication and/or stroke (reflective). The control group received similar levels of non-medication-related contact. Primary outcome was adherence to antihypertensive medicine measured objectively over 3 months using an electronic pill bottle. Secondary outcome measures included self-reported adherence (including forgetting) and beliefs about medication. Results: Intervention participants had 10% greater adherence on doses taken on schedule (intervention, 97%; control, 87%; 95% CI [0.2, 16.2], p = .048), as well as significantly greater increases in self-reported adherence and reductions in concerns about medication. Treatment effects were mediated by reductions in both forgetting and concerns about medication, and moderated by the presence of preexisting medication-taking routines. Conclusions: Addressing both automatic and reflective aspects of behavior via helping stroke survivors develop planned regular routines for medication-taking, and addressing any concerns or misconceptions about their medication, can improve adherence and thus potentially patient outcomes.
Objective:
Motivation is not sufficient to actually use condoms, as self-regulatory processes are needed to translate motivation into action. Buying condoms and carrying them constitute preparatory behaviors that may serve as proximal predictors of action. Whether or not such preparatory behaviors operate as mediators between intention and action within a broader behavior change framework has been examined.
Method:
A sample of 150 heterosexual men between ages 18 and 25 years responded at three points in time to a computer-based survey that assessed behavior as well as social-cognitive antecedents. A structural equation model was specified that included preparatory behaviors and self-efficacy as mediators at Time 2.
Results:
Preparatory behaviors were the most proximal predictors of condom use, and they were, themselves, predicted by self-efficacy and intention. The latter was partly determined by positive emotional outcome expectancies.
Conclusion:
To bridge the intention-behavior gap, preparatory behaviors play a mediating role, and they represent a side of planning that constitutes the most proximal predictor of condom use.
Hedonic overconsumption is often considered to be caused by impulsive factors. The current paper investigates whether self-licensing, relying on reasons to justify subsequent gratification, can also be included as a significant contributor to hedonic consumption. Two studies were conducted to investigate whether self-licensing can account for an increase in hedonic consumption while ruling out impulsive factors such as resource depletion, negative affect, and visceral state as alternative explanations. A pilot study indicated that perceiving oneself as having invested greater effort and thus having a self-licensing cue did not lead to a decline in self-control capacity compared with not having a self-licensing cue. The main study employed the same procedure and established that having a licensing cue did lead to increased snack intake while controlling for impulsive factors. Together, these studies support the notion that self-licensing is a separate mechanism leading to hedonic gratification independent of impulsive factors. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
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Weakness of the will may lead to ineffective goal striving in the sense that people lacking willpower fail to get started, to stay on track, to select instrumental means, and to act efficiently. However, using a simple self-regulation strategy (i.e., forming implementation intentions or making if–then plans) can get around this problem by drastically improving goal striving on the spot. After an overview of research investigating how implementation intentions work, I will discuss how people can use implementation intentions to overcome potential hindrances to successful goal attainment. Extensive empirical research shows that implementation intentions help people to meet their goals no matter whether these hindrances originate from within (e.g., lack of cognitive capabilities) or outside the person (i.e., difficult social situations). Moreover, I will report recent research demonstrating that implementation intentions can even be used to control impulsive cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses that interfere with one’s focal goal striving. In ending, I will present various new lines of implementation intention research, and raise a host of open questions that still deserve further empirical and theoretical analysis.
Self-regulation failure is often explained as being overwhelmed by impulse. The present article proposes a novel pathway, presenting a theoretical framework and empirical review of a justification-based account of self-regulation failure. With justification we refer to making excuses for one's discrepant behavior, so that when experiencing a self-regulation dilemma between immediate impulses and long-term intentions, people resolve the conflict by developing and employing justifications that allow violations of the goal they endorse. Accordingly, rather than inhibiting motivations from the impulsive system, the reflective system can also facilitate them, leading to self-regulation failure. We bring together empirical evidence from various domains demonstrating that justifications can instigate self-regulation failure and rule out alternative accounts. Having established that justification processes contribute to self-regulation failure, we then propose several mechanisms that may fuel the effect. Finally, routes for future research and the conceptual and practical implications of these novel insights for self-regulation are discussed.
Can cognitive abilities such as reasoning be improved through working memory training? This question is still highly controversial, with prior studies providing contradictory findings. The lack of theory-driven, systematic approaches and (occasionally serious) methodological shortcomings complicates this debate even more. This review suggests two general mechanisms mediating transfer effects that are (or are not) observed after working memory training: enhanced working memory capacity, enabling people to hold more items in working memory than before training, or enhanced efficiency using the working memory capacity available (e.g., using chunking strategies to remember more items correctly). We then highlight multiple factors that could influence these mechanisms of transfer and thus the success of training interventions. These factors include (1) the nature of the training regime (i.e., intensity, duration, and adaptivity of the training tasks) and, with it, the magnitude of improvements during training, and (2) individual differences in age, cognitive abilities, biological factors, and motivational and personality factors. Finally, we summarize the findings revealed by existing training studies for each of these factors, and thereby present a roadmap for accumulating further empirical evidence regarding the efficacy of working memory training in a systematic way.
Using meta-analytic tests based on 87 statistically independent samples, we investigated the relationships between the five-factor model (FFM) of personality traits and organizational citizenship behaviors in both the aggregate and specific forms, including individual-directed, organization-directed, and change- oriented citizenship. We found that Emotional Stability, Extraversion, and Openness/Intellect have incremental validity for citizenship over and above Conscientiousness and Agreeableness, 2 well- established FFM predictors of citizenship. In addition, FFM personality traits predict citizenship over and above job satisfaction. Finally, we compared the effect sizes obtained in the current meta-analysis with the comparable effect sizes predicting task performance from previous meta-analyses. As a result, we found that Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Extraversion have similar magnitudes of rela- tionships with citizenship and task performance, whereas Openness and Agreeableness have stronger relationships with citizenship than with task performance. This lends some support to the idea that personality traits are (slightly) more important determinants of citizenship than of task performance. We conclude with proposed directions for future research on the relationships between FFM personality traits and specific forms of citizenship, based on the current findings.
Objective:
This study tested key variations in the question-behavior effect against a control condition or an implementation intention condition on returning to give blood among lapsed donors (individuals who had not given blood in the past 2 years).
Design:
At baseline, 7,000 lapsed donors were randomized to 1 of 6 experimental conditions or to a control condition. Participants in the experimental conditions were asked to complete a 6-item postal questionnaire assessing intentions only, interrogative intention, moral norm plus intention, anticipated regret plus intention, positive self-image plus intention, or implementation intentions. OBJECTIVE measures of behavior were obtained 6 and 15 months later. The frequency of registrations to give blood over the next 6 and 15 months was measured.
Results:
Intention-to-treat analysis of the frequency of registrations (GENMOD procedure, Poisson distribution) indicated main effects for condition (experimental vs. control) at both 6 months, χ²(1) = 4.64, p < .05, and 15 months, χ²(1) = 5.88, p < .05. Positive self-image and implementation intention interventions outperformed the control condition at 6 months. At 15 months, standard intention, interrogative intention, and regret plus intention conditions showed more frequent registrations compared with control and were just as effective as implementation intention formation. Moderation analysis showed that the moral norm and positive self-image conditions were significant for first-time (1 previous donation) but not repeat (2 or more previous donations) donors.
Conclusion:
The question-behavior effect can be used to reinvigorate blood donation among lapsed donors, and can be as effective as forming implementation intentions.
The present experiment investigated cognitive and behavioral effects of planning (i.e. forming implementation intentions) on goal pursuit during the performance of mundane behaviors. Participants received the goal to collect a coupon halfway the hall from the lab to the cafeteria. Later, they were also given the task to go from the lab to the cafeteria. Thus participants had to attain a new goal by interrupting a mundane behavior. Some participants enriched their goal with implementation intentions, others did not. Results showed that participants who formed implementation intentions were more effective in goal pursuit than the control group. Importantly, the data suggest that the effects of planning on goal completion are mediated by a heightened mental accessibility of environmental cues related to the goal completion task. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Past behavior guides future responses through 2 processes. Well-practiced behaviors in constant contexts recur because the processing that initiates and controls their performance becomes automatic. Frequency of past behavior then reflects habit strength and has a direct effect on future performance. Alternately, when behaviors are not well learned or when they are performed in unstable or difficult contexts, conscious decision making is likely to be necessary to initiate and carry out the behavior. Under these conditions, past behavior (along with attitudes and subjective norms) may contribute to intentions, and behavior is guided by intentions. These relations between past behavior and future behavior are substantiated in a meta-analytic synthesis of prior research on behavior prediction and in a primary research investigation.
To successfully pursue a goal in the face of temptation, an individual must first identify that she faces a self-control conflict. Only then will the individual exercise self-control to promote goal pursuit over indulging in temptation. We propose a new model that distinguishes between the problems of conflict identification and those of conflict resolution. We then review research on the factors that influence conflict identification and those that determine conflict resolution.
Psychological approaches often conceptualize "free will" as self-determined decision-making. However, the functional mechanisms potentially underlying volitional freedom or its limitations have barely been elaborated. Starting from a functional definition of volition, we illustrate how personality systems interactions (PSI) theory may contribute to explaining underlying mechanisms of volitional freedom. Specifically, based on neurobiological evidence, this theory postulates that degrees of volitional freedom increase with an increasing involvement of more complex levels of psychological functioning (e.g., from habits and affective impulses toward motives, specific goals, intentions, and more global, personal goals). We will demonstrate how, at a psychological level, demand-related stress limits the pursuit of specific goals, whereas threat-related stress limits self-congruent choice of specific goals. Empirical evidence will be reported that relate to these two possible ways of losing volitional ("top-down") control. In addition, we report on neurobiological findings supporting the present view of volitional freedom and its limitations.
Two experiments based upon Gollwitzer's (1993) concept of implementation intentions are described. In both experiments, attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control and intentions from Ajzen's (1991) theory of planned behaviour were used to measure participants' motivation prior to an intervention in which participants made implementation intentions specifying where and when they would take a vitamin C pill each day. Behaviours were assessed by self-report and pill count at both 10 days and 3 weeks in Experiment 1, and at 2 weeks and 5 weeks in Experiment 2. Results supported the view that participants who formed implementation intentions were less likely to miss taking a pill every day compared to controls. Evidence suggested that implementation intentions were effective because they allowed participants to pass control of behaviour to the environmental cues contained in the implementation intention. Implications of the study and some suggestions for future research are outlined. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Experience has a paradoxical effect on intention-behavior consistency. In some studies greater experience is associated with weaker intention-behavior relations (due to habit formation), whereas in other studies experience strengthens the relationship between intention and behavior (by stabilizing intentions). The present research tests the idea that both of these findings are possible—because experience produces a quadratic relationship between intentions and behavior. Findings from a longitudinal study of blood donors (N = 2,389) indicated that the intention-behavior relation exhibited the predicted inverted U-shaped curve as a function of lifetime donation experience. Greater experience of donation enhanced the predictive validity of intention up to a point; thereafter, increasing experience was associated with weaker prediction of donation behavior by intention. These findings are consistent with the idea that experience both strengthens and weakens the intention-behavior relation and help to resolve a long-standing paradox in research on behavioral prediction.
Although observers of human behavior have long been aware that people regularly struggle with internal conflict when deciding whether to behave responsibly or indulge in impulsivity, psychologists and economists did not begin to empirically investigate this type of want/should conflict until recently. In this article, we review and synthesize the latest research on want/should conflict, focusing our attention on the findings from an empirical literature on the topic that has blossomed over the last 15 years. We then turn to a discussion of how individuals and policy makers can use what has been learned about want/should conflict to help decision makers select far-sighted options. © 2008, Association for Psychological Science. All rights reserved.
How can progress in research on health behavior change be accelerated? Experimental medicine (EM) offers an approach that can help investigators specify the research questions that need to be addressed and the evidence needed to test those questions. Whereas current research draws predominantly on multiple overlapping theories resting largely on correlational evidence, the EM approach emphasizes experimental tests of targets or mechanisms of change and programmatic research on which targets change health behaviors and which techniques change those targets. There is evidence that engaging particular targets promotes behavior change; however, systematic studies are needed to identify and validate targets and to discover when and how targets are best engaged. The EM approach promises progress in answering the key question that will enable the science of health behavior change to improve public health: What strategies are effective in promoting behavior change, for whom, and under what circumstances? Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Psychology Volume 68 is January 03, 2017. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
The resource model of self-control casts self-control as a capacity that relies on some limited resource that exhausts with use. The model captured our imagination and brought much-needed attention on an important yet neglected psychological construct. Despite its success, basic issues with the model remain. Here, we ask six questions: (i) Does self-control really wane over time? (ii) Is ego depletion a form of mental fatigue? (iii) What is the resource that is depleted by ego depletion? (iv) How can changes in motivation, perception, and expectations replenish an exhausted resource? (v) Has the revised resource model unwittingly become a model about motivation? (vi) Do self-control exercises increase selfcontrol? By providing some answers to these questions – including conducting a meta-analysis of the self-control training literature – we highlight how the resource model needs to be revised if not supplanted altogether.
The present experiment investigated cognitive and behavioral effects of planning (i.e. forming implementation intentions) on goal pursuit during the performance of mundane behaviors. Participants received the goal to collect a coupon halfway the hall from the lab to the cafeteria. Later, they were also given the task to go from the lab to the cafeteria. Thus participants had to attain a new goal by interrupting a mundane behavior. Some participants enriched their goal with implementation intentions, others did not. Results showed that participants who formed implementation intentions were more effective in goal pursuit than the control group. Importantly, the data suggest that the effects of planning on goal completion are mediated by a heightened mental accessibility of environmental cues related to the goal completion task. Copyright (C) 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Strategies are needed to ensure that the U.S. Government meets its goals for improving the health of the nation (e.g., Healthy People 2020). To date, progress toward these goals has been undermined by a set of discernible challenges: People lack sufficient motivation, they frequently fail to translate healthy intentions into action, their efforts are undermined by the persistence of prior