Available via license: CC BY 4.0
Content may be subject to copyright.
Gladius XXI, 2001, pp. 193-220
SWORDS AND SABERS DURING THE EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD
POR
DAVID ALEXANDER
ABSTRACT - RESUMEN
The present article offers a discussion on early swords and sabers during the Early Islamic Period, from the
Topkapí Sarayi collection to written, iconographic and archeological sources.
El presente artículo trata las espadas y sables utilizados en los primeros tiempos del Islam a partir de la co-
lección del Topkapí Sarayi y de las fuentes escritas, iconográficas y arqueológicas.
KEY WORDS - PALABRAS CLAVE
Swords. Sabers. Islam. Topkapí Sarayi, Istambul.
Espadas. Sables. Islam. Topkapí Sarayi. Estambul.
SWORDS DURING THE EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD
The recent discovery in Spain of a ninth century sword represents a remarkable advance
in our knowledge of early Islamic swords. This archaeological find is discussed in detail by
Alberto Canto in this volume, the present article offers a discussion of early swords and sa-
bers in general. Reference is also made to the so called saif badaw^ used in the investiture of
¿Abbasid caliphs under the Mamluks; and to the origins of the saber which represents an
eastern influence on the Islamic world
A sword is a weapon with a straight double-edged blade, generally pointed at its tip, and
can be used for both cutting and thrusting; the hilt of a sword is generally symmetrical in
form. A s a b e r c a n b e de f i n e d a s a w e a p on w i th a s i ng le - e d ge d b la de , s ome t i me s s ha r p e n e d
a dd it io n a l ly a l on g t he l o we r pa r t of it s ba c k e d g e , d e s i gn e d f o r c u t ti ng a n d sl a sh in g .1 Al th ou g h
s a b e r s a r e u s ua ll y c ur ve d , e a r l i e r e x a mpl e s a r e l e s s so a n d s ome a r e v ir t ua ll y s tr a i g ht . Sa b e r
h il ts a r e a s y mme t r i c a l i n f or m i n c o n f o r mit y w it h t he a s ymme t r i c a l n a t ur e o f th e ir b l a d e s .
During the time of the Prophet the Arabs used swords, not sabers. This is confirmed by
both textual evidence and material survivals. The earliest representations in sculpture and on
coinage, always show Arabs with swords. This is the case with two eighth century examples
from the Umayyad period both representations of rulers holding swords which may be dhu÷l-
faq˝r.2 The first example is on the coinage of the Umayyad caliph ¿Abd al-Malik where a
f ig ur e is de pic te d ho lding a swor d with sc a bb a r d.3 Th e se c o nd e xa mple f r om th e Uma y ya d pa la -
c e a t Khi r ba t a l- Ma f j a r in the Jo r da n V a lle y is a p la ste r sta tu e of a r ule r holdi ng a s wor d ( Fig. 1 ) .
————
1 The thin deeply curved examples from Iran dateable to the 17th to 19th century were designed for a draw-cut.
2 See Alexander (1999).
3 American Numismatic Society, New York, no. 1970.63.1 dated 75/694-95, ill. in Blair (1992: 65, fig. 6) and
Alexander (1999: fig 3). This figure has generally been interpreted as that of the caliph, but it is also possible that it is a
portrait of the Prophet.
DAVID ALEXANDER
194 Gladius XXI, 2001
Fig. 1. Ruler with sword from Khirbat al-Mafjar ca. 105-125/724-43.
SWORDS AND SABERS DURING THE EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD 195
Gladius XXI, 2001
The early sword hilts depicted on the coins and at Khirbat al-Mafjar all have rounded
pommels, which are paralleled by several excavated hilts and also by a hilt found in a tenth
or eleventh century F˝t˘imid shipwreck off the coast of Turkey4. Hilts of this type are also
depicted in the Suw˝r al-kaw˝kib al-th˝bita of al-S˘¨f^ dated 444/1009-10 (Fig. 2).5
Fig. 2. Sword from Suw˝r al-kaw˝kib al-th˝bita of al-S˘¨f^ dated
444/1009-10, Bodleian Library, Oxford.
————
4 The hilt now in the Izmir Museum was first published in Bass (1978: 790). A line drawing of it and of another
early hilt is in Nicolle (1982: 31). It is also published in Alexander (1984: cat. no. 53).
5 See Wellesz (1965: 7, 19). The sword on pl. 19 is suspended from a baldaric.
DAVID ALEXANDER
196 Gladius XXI, 2001
Later miniature painting, especially from Iran almost always associates straight double
edged swords with the Arabs. They occur for example, in the illustrations to Rash^d al-D^n’s
J˝mi¿ al-taw˝r^kh of 714/1314-5 where Arabs are depicted with round pommeled straight
swords suspended from baldarics,6 and in a sixteenth century painting showing a battle
between two rival Arab clans (Fig. 3).
EA RL Y I SL A MIC SW O RD BL A D E S P RE SE RV E D IN T H E TO PK A PI SA RA Y I MU SE U M IN I ST A N BU L .7
There are thirty-six sword blades in the collection of arms and armour in the Topkapı
Sarayı Museum that are attributed, generally by inscriptions on the blades, to the Prophet, his
companions and to the Umayyad caliphs; that is to the first/seventh and second/eight centu-
ries. In addition one of these blades is attributed to the prophet D˝¿¨d (King David)8
The only published work to deal with these blades in any detail is al sayf fi al-Islam, by
Ünsal Yücel. He describes and illustrates twenty-seven of these early blades. Some were also
published by Abd al-Rahman Zaki in 1979. The only other scholar to deal with this subject,
e sp e c ia l ly p r ov id in g a n e xh a u st i ve a n a l ys is of t h e in sc r ip ti o ns a nd po ss i bl e da t in g i s Lu dv i k
K a l us , w ho a r gu e s t h a t g e ne r a ll y t he in sc r i p ti on s s e e m t o be la te r a dd it i on s. N e ve r t h e l e s s, e v e n
i f th e s e w e r e a dd e d du r i n g la te r p e r i od s it r e ma i ns v e r y l ik e ly t ha t ma n y o f th e b la d e s a r e f r om
t he e a r l y I s l a mic p e r i od . Bot h t he b l a d e s a n d th e i ns c r i pt io n s a r e d is c u s se d in a ma n us c r ip t
w hi c h i s s c h e du le d t o be pu bl is h e d b y t he Fr e n c h Ar c h a e o lo gi c a l I ns t it ut e i n An a to li a.9
Of the thirty-six sword possibly early blades one is attributed to the Prophet10, one to the
first caliph Ab¨ Bakr (r. 11-13/632-34),11 three to the second caliph ¿Umar (13-23/634-44),12
f iv e to th e t hi r d c a li ph ¿U th ma n ( 23 - 35 /6 44 - 56 ) 13. O ne s w or d i s a t tr i bu te d t o th e Pr o p he t’ s s on
i n la w a nd c o us in ¿A l^ ( r . 35 - 4 0 /6 56 - 66 1) ( Fig. 4 ) a n d a no th e r to h i s br o th e r J a ¿f a r a l - T a y y ˝ r .14
O ne s wo r d bl a de i s attributed to the Pr o ph e t ’ s se c r e ta r y Ab¨ H˘asan,15 two are attributed to the
dfg
————
6 Blair (1995: e.g. folios 66a, 72a, 292a).
7 These blades are to be published in Alexander and Kalus forthcoming. In this catalogue of the sword blades in
the Topkapı Sarayı Museum the inscriptions are discussed and analyzed by Ludvik Kalus.
8 TKS inv. no. 2/137, see Yücel (1988: no. 3).
9 Alexander and Kalus forthcoming. The collection in the Topkapı goes back to the period of Mehmet II (r.848-
50/1444-6 and 855-86/1481-81), but the largest groups of non-Ottoman arms to enter the collection probably were
added after the battle of Ch˝ldir˝n in 920/1514 and after the Ottoman conquest of the Mamluks in 923/1517. The blades
attributed to the early Islamic period perhaps arrived with the Mamluk booty, but unfortunately, even this is uncertain
for these blades are not mentioned in the early inventories and could also have been donated by courtiers or purchased
from merchants.
10 TKS inv. no. 2/129, Yücel 1988, no. 1 and Alexander (1999: fig. 6); in addition another saber blade is also said
to have belonged to Muh˘ammad TKS inv. no. 2/130.
11 TKS 2/131, Yücel (1988: no. 4).
12 TKS inv. nos. 2/132, 2/133 and 2/134, Yücel (1988: nos. 5, 6 and 7); 2/133 bears and inscription stating that it
was subsequently transferred to the Umayyad caliph Mu¿awiya in the year 45/665-66 and later to the ¿Abbasid caliph
H˝r¨n al-Rash^d (r. 170-93/786-89). Ludvik Kalus regards all these inscriptions as contemporary and doubts that they
are as early as the eighth century see Alexander and Kalus forthcoming.
13 H/3775, 2/135, 2/136, 1/230, and 1/9 the first three are illustrated in Yücel (1988: nos. 8, 9, 10). no. 2/136 is a
dhu÷l-faq˝r, and is signed by the swordsmith Muh˘ammad ibn Abdull˝h, another almost identical blade by the same
smith is illustrated in Alexander (1999: fig 8), TKS inv. no. 1/205. No. 2/135 has a straight blade with a sharpened back-
edge and is technically a saber, it is included here because it appears to have originally been a sword blade and only later
re-worked to function as a saber.
14 TKS 2/138 and 2/143, the former is published in Yücel (1988: no. 11), it is also illustrated in Alexander (1999:
fig. 12), and in Zaki (1979: fig. 204) where it is called the sword of Zayn al-¿AÚbid^n. It has two gold filled holes near the
tip of the blade. The latter is published in Yücel (1988: no. 16) and Alexander (1999: fig 12).
15 TKS inv. no. 2/141, Yücel (1988: no. 14), it has one gold filled hole.
SWORDS AND SABERS DURING THE EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD 197
Gladius XXI, 2001
Fig. 3 Arabs with swords, the battle of the clans from a Majnun wa Layla of Nizam^, The Me-
tropolitan Museum of Art, acc. no.13.228.9.
DAVID ALEXANDER
198 Gladius XXI, 2001
Fig. 4. Saif Bedaw^ ? so called «sword of ¿Al^», Mamluk
ceremonial sword blade, 15th century Topkapı
Saraı Museum, Istanbul. inv. no. 2/138
SWORDS AND SABERS DURING THE EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD 199
Gladius XXI, 2001
Prophet’s companion Mu¿˝d Jabal,16 two to the Prophet’s companion Dirar b. al-Azwar,17
and one each to the companions Zubayr b. al-¿Aw˝n, Sa¿d b. ¿Ub˝da and ¿Umar b.Yasar18.
Three other blades are attributed to the Prophet’s companions but their inscriptions are now
too worn to read19. There are also four blades attributed to the Prophet’s great general Kh˝lid
b. al-Wal^d20 and five attributed to the early Umayyad caliphs, these include two bearing the
name of Mu÷awiya (r.41-60661-80)21. The other Umayyad blades bear inscriptions in the
names of ¿Umar b. ¿Abd al-Az^z (99-101/717-20) and Hish˝m b. Abd al-Malik (r. 105-
25/724-43).22 Finally there is a blade seemingly ascribed to an un-named ¿Abbasid caliph
bearing the improbable date of 101/719-20.23
Three further points can be made about this group of blades; firstly, the very fact that
they are with one exception sword and not saber blades is important.24 As noted above, the
Arabs during the time of the Prophet used swords, and not sabers. The fact that so many
sword blades survived presumably, in the Mamluk treasury, probably indicates that at the
very least they were regarded as authentic by as early as the fifteenth century. Secondly, the
attributions on the blades coincide almost too neatly with the most important individuals
from the early days of Islam. As one would expect there is a complete series of blades attrib-
uted to the Prophet and the four «orthodox» caliphs, but also among the companions the at-
tributions are to some of the historically more important. Such as for example Sa¿d b. ¿Ub˝da
who was a chief of the clan of S˝¿ida, attended the important meeting at Akaba and was an
early convert to Islam. He eventually became the leader of the Ans˘˝r and almost was elected
the Prophet’s successor. The same is true in the case of the Umayyad caliph ¿Umar b. ¿Abd
al-Az^z who ruled for only two years and was distinguished not for his administrative skills
but rather for his piety and sense of fair play. Thirdly, many of these blades, at least eight,
are drilled with small holes filled with gold. A typical example is the blade attributed to the
Prophet mentioned above. This sword is illustrated in a recent issue of Gladius where one of
the gold filled holes is clearly visible.25 An early type of sword blade described in written
sources of the early Islamic period was the S˘ams˘˝m sword and these were apparently distin-
guished by having two holes drilled at the end of their blades. 26 It is possible that the metal
filled holes on many of the Topkapı blades is an indication that they are very early in date.
————
16 TKS inv. no. 1/299 and 1/301
17 TKS 1:204 and 1/207. Dirar was a clan leader and famous for having executed M˝lik b. Nuwayra
18 TKS 2/140, 1/110 and 2/149. The former is illustrated in Yücel (1988: no. 13), it has two gold filled holes. The
latter see Yücel (1988: no. 22), is signed by the smith Ah˘mad al-Mak^ and has one gold filled hole.
19 TKS 1/5063 and 2/142, the third TKS inv. no. 2/148 is attributed to a companion but no reason is given and there
is no inscription. The third blade 2/148 see Yücel (1988: no. 21), is decorated with a lion and dragon in combat; it is not
inscribed and no reason is given for its attribution to one of the companions
20 TKS 2/144, 2/145, 2/146, and 2/147, see Yücel (1988: nos. 17,18,19 and 20), no. 2/147 has two gold filled holes
and no. 2/145 is dated 1020/1611
21 TKS 1/83 and 1/84, Yücel (1988: nos. 23 and 24), the former has six gold filled holes arranged in groups of
three; the latter carries an inscription stating that it was that it was made for the second caliph ¿Umar b. al-Khat˘t˘˝b (13-
23/634-44), acquired by Mu÷awiya in the year 45/665-6 and another inscription in the same style stating that it was later
the property of the ¿Abbasid caliph H˝r¨n al- Rash^d (170-93/786-809). On the other side of the same blade is an ins-
cription is in the name of the Mamluk sultan Q˝itb˝y (872-901/1468-96) see also Zaki 1953-54 p. 378, no. 1
22 TKS inv. nos. 1/98,1/99 and 1/100
23 TKS 1/103.
24 T he e xc e pt io n i s a sa b e r bl a d e a ll e g e d to h a ve b e lo ng e d to t h e Pr op h e t T K S i n v . n o . 2 1 / 1 3 0 s e e Yü c e l ( 19 8 8: n o . 2) .
25 TKS inv. no. 21/129. Illustrated in Yücel (1988: no. 1) and Alexander (1999: fig. 6).
26 See below for a description of these swords and for the famous S˘ams˘˝m sword of al-Zubaid^.
DAVID ALEXANDER
200 Gladius XXI, 2001
WRITTEN SOURCES:
Most of our information on early Arab swords is from literature. During the time of the
Prophet several centers were important for the manufacture of sword blades. One chronicle
refers to Mashraf^ya swords, which apparently were produced in Mu÷tah near the Dead Sea.
These weapons were so highly regarded that in 8/629 Muh˘ammad ordered a raid on the city
to capture them. 27
In the case of other captured weapons we can be less sure about where they were pro-
duced. This is true of the weapons taken from the Jewish tribe known as the Ban¨ Qaynuq˝.
In his s^ra the Prophet’s biographer Ibn Ish˘˝q (85-150/704-67), recounts that during the
Prophet’s life-time this tribe were noted as arms manufacturers, or as possessing large stocks
of arms in Medina; it is possible that some of their arms were produced there28
Yemen was a major center of production in the pre-Islamic and early Islamic period, and
its swords were praised by poets, warriors and scholars. In a poem by Ta÷abbat˘a Sharr˝, for
example, a warrior’s Yemeni sword is described as «notched» a metaphor for a heroic wea-
pon marked by use in battle:
he rode Terror alone, accompanied only by a notched Yemeni sword29
The anthologist al-Tha¿˝lib^ (350-430/961-1038) quoting al-J˝h˘iz˘ says that the specialties
of the Yemen:
include swords, cloaks, monkeys and giraffes...It is said that when a sword is made (of steel) from
Qala’ in India and tempered in the Yemen, then beware of it.30
According to the scientist Y¨suf Ya¿q¨b b. Ish˘˝q al-Kind^ (ca. 185-252/801- 66) various
types of sword were forged in the Yemen, these included; a type he called «old» (in the sen-
se of noble) which were of the highest quality, and distinguished by a knot-like pattern zig-
zagged over the length of their blades. They came in four different lengths and he reported
that they:
have a white essence, green before throwing and red after.31
Another type were Qaljur^ swords, plain light weapons about three to four handspans
long.32 There were also broad swords, Sarand^b^ swords, and s˘ams˘˝m swords. Sarand^b^
swords were made from a mixture of iron imported from Sarand^b (Ceylon - Sri Lanka) and
Salm˝n^ iron from Iran.33 S˘ams˘˝m swords seem to have been relatively broad and in the pre-
Islamic period were distinguished by two holes at the end of the blade, and by two lines one
of which was carved and «looked like a river».34
————
27 Hitti (1977: 147); also Ibn Ish˘˝q (1982: 413, 531-40).
28 T he Ba n ¨ Qa y n uq ˝ ¿ we r e t r a d e r s a nd go ld smit h s. Wh e n the y we r e e xp e l l e d th e y le f t be h i nd the i r ar ms, the s e we r e
t he n di s tr ib u te d amo ng th e M u s l i m s . T h e P r o p he t r e c e i ve d a f i f t h sh a r e of the se We ns i nc k an d Pa r e y (1 97 8 : 82 4 - 2 5) . The
Mus li ms al so ca pt ur e d a c on si de r a b l e n u m b e r of w e a p on s, fr om th e Je w is h tr i be Q u r a yz ˝ s e e L e c k e r (1 99 5: 10 - 1 1 ) .
29 Jones (1999: 269), see especially Alexander (1999) for «notched» swords.
30 Tha¿˝lib^ (1968: 122-23).
31 This may mean they looked white after polishing (see above) and were greenish before tempering, or green until
a chemical compound was used to make the watering pattern.
32 These may have been sabers, see below
33 The identity of this place name is uncertain, see Allan (1979: 83-84).
34 Zaki (1952).
SWORDS AND SABERS DURING THE EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD 201
Gladius XXI, 2001
One of the most famous swords of the early Islamic period, was of this latter type and
became known historically as «The s˘ams˘˝m sword». Traditionally it was said to have been
the sword of the pre-Islamic poet and warrior ¿Amr b. Ma¿d^karib al-Zubaid^, and its story
was related by the historian Ahmad b. Yah˘ya ˘al-Bal˝dhur^ (d. ca. 279/892)35 According to
his account one of the companions of the Prophet, Kh˝lid ibn Sa¿^d captured in battle the wi-
fe and some relations of ¿Amr, the latter promised to accept Islam if they were released and
later offered Kh˝lid his sword al-s˘ams˘˝m as a gift. When Kh˝lid was killed at the battle of
Marj al-S˘uffar in 14/635 the sword was taken as booty by Mu¿˝wiyah. Its possession was
disputed and the caliph ¿Uthman awarded it to S˝¿id b. al-¿AÚs˘i ibn Umaiyah. It passed down
through his family and eventually was sold to the caliph al-Mahd^ for 80,000 dirhams. Du-
ring the time of the caliph al-H˝d^ a poet described it as:
the best that a scabbard ever sheathed.
Green in color between the edges of which is a garment
of poison in which death is clad.
If one unsheathes it, its brilliance dazzles that of the sun...36
Like the Yemeni swords mentioned by al-Kind^ this famous sword also had a green co-
lor. By the time it came into the hands of the caliph al-W˝thiq-bill˝h it must have been dirty
or rusty, for the caliph ordered that it be polished and tempered and as a result the sword was
«changed».37
Al-Kind^ mentions a smith named Zayd, working in K¨fa, and comments that one of the
important types made in Kufa was the baid (white). He also noted that Bas˘ra was an impor-
tant center of production, swords produced there seem to have been renowned for the
strength of their steel:
Blades of Bas˘r˝ which loathe the scabbard; which grow not blunt nor buckle.38
Al-Kind^ recorded two types of Khur˝s˝n^ sword, The first was the muh˘arrar which was
covered with a small knot like pattern made by a chisel and then polished39. The second was
a Salman^ sword which had a tiny watering pattern and he notes two sizes long and thin, and
broad about four fingers wide and four handspans in length.40 In addition he lists a number of
other centers of production including; Khor˝s˝n, Damascus, Egypt, Rum (Europe and
Byzantium), Sri Lanka, and Qala^, probably Kedah in Malaya.41 The scholar and scientist
Abu÷l-Rah˘m˝n al-Bir¨n^ (362-ca 442/973-ca 1050) noted that Herat was famous for its high-
quality steel,42 and the historian Abu÷l H˘asan al-Mas¿¨d^ (d. 346/956) recorded that Zarikaran
in the Caucasus produced coats of mail, stirrups, bridles, and swords.43 In the western Islamic
world, Toledo was regarded as one of the major centers of production.44
The swords most praised in early poetry and geographies were from India. The geogra-
pher Ab¨ ¿Abdall˝h Muh˘ammad b. Muh˘ammad al-Idr^s^ (d. 560/1165) wrote of them:
————
35 Bal˝dhur^ traces the story to Hish˝m Ibn Muh˘ammad al-Kalb^ , tr. Hitti (1916: 183-85).
36 Hitti (1916: 185).
37 Hitti (1916: 185).
38 Ibn Ish˘˝q (1982: 421).
39 Allan p. 83.
40 Salman^ because the iron came from Salman
41 Zaki (1953-54: 368), for the trade between Arabia and South East Asia see Wink (1990 esp: pp. 78-86).
42 Zaki (1953-54: 372).
43 Minorsky (1958: 155).
44 Se e Br u h n de Ho f f me y e r ( 198 2: 3 6 - 3 7 ) . I t i s p o s s i b l e th a t th e s mi th Ah ˘ma d a l- gÚa r b^ w h o ma de th e swo r d i l lu st r a t e d
in fig. 6 was from Spain.
DAVID ALEXANDER
202 Gladius XXI, 2001
Fig. 5. Saif Bedaw^ ? so called «sword of ¿Umar», Mamluk ceremonial sword blade,
15th century Topkapı Saraı Museum, Istanbul. inv. no. 1/129; signed by
Muh˘ammad.
SWORDS AND SABERS DURING THE EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD 203
Gladius XXI, 2001
Fig. 6. Saif Bedaw^ ? Decorated Mamluk ceremonial sword blade, 15th century Topkapı
Saraı Museum, Istanbul. inv. no. 1/128, signed by Ah˘mad al-gÚarb^.
DAVID ALEXANDER
204 Gladius XXI, 2001
The Indians are very good at making various compounds of mixtures of substances with the help of
which they melt the malleable iron; it then turns into Indian iron, and is called after al-hind...their
craftsmen make excellent (swords) surpassing those made by other peoples. In the same way, the Sind^,
Sarand^b^ and the Bayn^man^ iron vie with one another for superiority as regards the climate of the place,
skill in industry, the method of melting and stamping and beauty in polishing and scouring. But no iron is
comparable to the Indian one in sharpness.45
Some of these Indian swords were noted for their wide blades, and they seem to have
been so highly esteemed that they were treasured heirlooms whose origins were ascribed to
the distant pre-Islamic period:
Men who smote the front ranks of the enemy with broad-bladed Indian swords.46
Every fine sharp Indian blade, inherited from the days of ¿AÚd and Jurhum.47
There is even some information in the early texts about armourers; In addition to the
smith mentioned above Ibn Ish˘˝q cites the names of at least two armourers: Khabb˝b b. al-
Aratt, an early companion of the Prophet and a swordsmith in Mecca, and a certain ¿Umayr,
a sword polisher.48 Polishing is often mentioned in the early chronicles and poetry and it
seems that highly polished swords were preferred:
I would smite his nape with a sharp sword, a blade white as salt from polishing.49
As noted above straight double edged swords were widely regarded as a typically Arab
weapon, perhaps because they had been traditionally used by the Arabs but perhaps also be-
cause this type of weapon was associated with the Prophet. These associations explain why
in later periods Arabs are almost always portrayed as using swords and wearing them sus-
pended from a baldaric, for this was how Muh˘ammad wore his.50 The use of sword and bal-
daric was consciously abandoned by the ¿Abbasid caliph al-Mutawakkil (r. 232-247/847-61)
in favor of the saber and belt.51 But the use of sword and baldric seems to have retained a
ceremonial and religious significance. For example, the Zang^d ruler N¨r al-D^n (r. 541-
69/1146-74) was anxious to demonstrate that he was a pious traditionalist, searching out the
old methods preferred by the Prophet52 consequently, among his reforms he re-adopted the
custom of wearing a sword suspended from a baldaric. His successor S˘ala al-D^n (533-
589/1138-1193), known in the west as Saladin did the same53 and it is noteworthy that he
was buried with his sword, «he took it with him to Paradise.»54 During the Mamluk period
the saber seems to have been the preferred weapon of the warrior elite but the most finely
decorated edged weapons were swords (Figs. 4,5,6) Swords were used in the most important
ceremonial events in the Mamluk period, that is, in the investiture of Mamluk sultans and
caliphs of the restored ¿Abbasid dynasty55 where the ruler was «girded» with the «Bedouin
————
45 Maqbul Ahmad (1960: 23).
46 Ibn Ish˘˝q (1982: 354).
47 Ibn Ish˘˝q (1982: 439).
48 Ibn Ish˘˝q (1982: 162, 356).
49 Ibn Ish˘˝q (1982: 369).
50 See Alexander (1999).
51 See Hitti (1977: 327). That is a belt around the waist often with pendant straps. see below, esp. note 81.
52 Conversation with Julian Raby and Caroline Alexander, November 1998.
53 Conv. Caroline Alexander, October 1998.
54 Quoted in Lane-Poole (1898: 66). Another sword said to be from the tomb inscribed with the name of Najm al-
D in Ayy u b an d sig ne d by the swo r ds mi t h Al ^ ibn Se li m is in th e A s k e r i M u s e u m , I s t a n b u l 2 3 5 5 , s e e Yü c e l ( 19 88 : no 34 ),
its pommel is missing but the short straight cross guard has sculpted and pierced quillons that are of the general type
represented as «Arab» in miniature painting of approximately this period.
55 Mayer (1952: 8-10).
SWORDS AND SABERS DURING THE EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD 205
Gladius XXI, 2001
sword» saif badaw^. There are no surviving descriptions of such swords but it can be su-
ggested as a hypothesis that the exquisitely decorated Mamluk sword blades now preserved
in Istanbul are in fact saif badaw^. The most important of these are the so called «sword of
¿Al^» (Fig. 4), another attributed to the caliph ¿Umar (Fig. 5) and a third signed by a swords-
mith from the Islamic west, perhaps from Spain (Fig. 6).
THE SABER DURING THE EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD
The saber was probably introduced into the central Islamic lands by Turkic warriors from
Central Asia who were employed as royal body-guards during the reign of the ¿Abbasid ca-
liph al-Mu¿tas˘im (r. 218-27/833-42), and it is noteworthy that al-Kind^ writing at approxi-
mately this time mentions a curved blade type56.
For some time before this the saber had been the favored edged weapon of the Central
Asian nomadic mounted warrior and its use by them has been extensively discussed by De-
nis Sinor and Helmut Nickel.57 It is however, unknown exactly where or when the saber was
first developed; but from as early as the seventh century A.D., there is evidence for its wi-
despread use from Hungary in the West to China and Japan in the East.58 It is even possible
that the gladius huniscus referred to by the Anglo-Saxon theologian and scholar Alcuin (117-
189/735-804), writing in 180/796, was in fact a saber, indicating that it may have been intro-
duced into Europe by the Huns.59
Some of the earliest surviving sabers are from China and Japan and include two seventh
century Chinese blades with ring pommels from imperial graves at Pei-chueu-shan near the
Eastern Tang dynasty capital of Luoyang in Honan Province (Fig. 7); and an 8th century Ja-
panese saber known as Kogarasumaru «little crow» (Fig. 8). The hilt of Kogarasumaru has
not been preserved but the blade is only very slightly curved and is sharpened along about
one-third of its back edge. Both Chinese weapons have retained their scabbards, albeit in a
very worn excavated condition and both have ring pommels sculpted with dragon heads.60
These sabers were intended to be worn, in typical saber style, slung from a belt around the
waist. This is indicated by the P-shaped scabbard mounts on one of the sabers. Thin leather
straps would have been attached to the top of each P-form and from thence to the warriors
belt. Because sabers were almost invariably worn slung from a belt around the waist their
scabbard mounts are therefore always on one side and are often P-shaped or semi-circular.
Furthermore because they were worn at the waist they were called by the Japanese tachi or
slung sword.61 Another early Chinese saber, probably dating to about 750 A.D. is preserved
in the Shosoin Treasury in Japan (Fig. 9). This weapon has a hilt slightly inclined away from
the principal cutting edge of the blade and has a scabbard with P-shaped mounts, like most
sabers it has a sharpened back-edge. The saber is one of thirteen similar weapons taken from
the Treasury during a revolt in 764 A.D. Its fittings are not completely original as they were
restored in 1897-98.62
————
56 See footnote 76 below
57 Nickel (1973) and Sinor (1981), Sinor p. 141 for example quotes from the Russian Primary Chronicle where a
turkic Khazar is reported to have contrasted the Khazars use of the saber with the Slavs dependence on the sword
58 See, for example, Arendt (1935).
59 «...Dirigere studuimus unum balteum et unum gladium huniscum et duo pallia sirica.» See Schlosser, Schrif-
tquellen zur Geschichte der Kunst, 1892, p. 19, quoted in Hampel (1897-99: vol. 1, 99).
60 Ring pommels also occur on Western swords of the late Roman period see Schwietering (1930: 240-243) and
Riyadh (1996: vol 2, cat. no. 51, 56-57).
61 For these sabers see Grancsay (1986: 69-71) and Nickel (1973) for a discussion of P-shaped scabbard mounts.
62 Catalogue of the Shosoin (1932: vol. IV) and Shirakihara (1978).
DAVID ALEXANDER
206 Gladius XXI, 2001
Fig. 7. Two 7th century Chinese blades from imperial graves at Pei-chueu-
shan, MMA, acc. nos. 1930.30.65.2 gift of Clarence H. Mackay and
1930. 30. 65.1 gift of George D. Pratt.
SWORDS AND SABERS DURING THE EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD 207
Gladius XXI, 2001
Fig. 8. Kogarasumaru «little crow», Japanese 8th century.
DAVID ALEXANDER
208 Gladius XXI, 2001
Fig. 9. Chinese saber from the Shosoin Treasury in Japan 8th century.
SWORDS AND SABERS DURING THE EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD 209
Gladius XXI, 2001
Fig. 10. Turkic saber from Srotzki in the Altai, Bilsk Museum, Russia.
A large group of early sabers have been recovered from various archaeological sites in
southern Russia and the Altai and westwards into Hungary. These are remarkably similar to
the far-Eastern examples and are a further indication that the type was the preferred weapon
of the steppe nomads, and that it was their influence that led to introduction into such diverse
geo-political regions. A dateable example is a saber found at Koban in the northern Cauca-
sus. T he g r a v e a l s o c o nt a in e d Uma y ya d a nd ¿A bb a s i d c o i ns d a t i ng t o b e t we e n 74 0 a nd 7 9 9
A .D . a n d c on s e q ue nt l y th e g r a ve is d a te a b le to t h e la te e i gh t h or e a r l y n in th c e nt ur y A .D .63.
A r e nd t w ho p u bl is he d t hi s s a b e r a l so li st s f ou r t e e n o th e r s o f t he s a me g e ne r a l t yp e . An ot he r
d a t e a bl e e xa mpl e wa s f ou n d in t h e gr a ve o f a T ur k ic c hi e f t a i n a t Sr o tz ki in t he Al ta i ( Fi g. 1 0) .64
————
63 Arendt (1935: p. 49, no. 3).
64 Arendt (1935: pl. XXXI).
DAVID ALEXANDER
210 Gladius XXI, 2001
Fig. 11. Turkic saber, Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna.
SWORDS AND SABERS DURING THE EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD 211
Gladius XXI, 2001
Fig. 12. «Saber of Charlemagne» Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.
DAVID ALEXANDER
212 Gladius XXI, 2001
The grave also contained Tang dynasty coinage of the 10th century.65 The hilt and sca-
bbard fittings are of gilt bronze decorated with lions and palmettes and although most of the
grip is missing several of the thorn like studs used to form the finger indentations have been
preserved. Also found in the grave were a number of small pendants two of which are in the
form of mounted warriors.66
The construction of the grips on sabers of this type is clearly illustrated in an example
now in the Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna (Fig. 11). The hilt and the semi-circular sca-
bbard mounts of the Vienna saber are decorated with a tiny ovular floral forms. Its rounded
pommel cap is riveted to either side of the tang and the grip is slightly inclined away from
the cutting edge of the blade; there are four studs along the inside of the grip. The grip would
have been bound with leather leaving slight indentations for the fingers. The slight inclina-
tion of the hilt and the finger rests are features almost invariably found on saber hilts and
function together to give greater force to a slashing cut.
One of the earliest surviving sabers is also one of the most famous. This is the so-called
«saber of Charlemagne» part of the regalia of the Holy Roman Emperors and now preserved
in the Schatzkammer of the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna67 (Fig. 12). Traditionally, it
is said to have been found in 391/1000 by the emperor Otto III in the tomb of Charlemagne
(125-199/742-814). Two other stories have at one time or another been accepted about its
origin.; according to one tradition it is said to have been captured by Charlemagne during his
war against the Avars; and in another it is said to be one of the gifts sent by the ¿Abbasid ca-
liph H˝r¨n al-Rash^d (170-193/786-809) to Charlemagne.68
The «saber of Charlemagne» has a hilt of gold, silver gilt and ray-skin a round pommel
with elongated sides through which a rivet secures it to the tang and is decorated with an
arabesque strap-work and palmette design. The short and stumpy quillons are slightly down-
curved with rounded tips. The slightly curved single-edged blade is sharpened along its back
edge and is inlaid with a metal strip engraved with a design of stylized dragons in combat.69
The scabbard has mounts decorated en-suite with the hilt. There is nothing specifically «Is-
lamic» about this saber, indeed its form and design have more in common with Avar and
Turkic workmanship of the eighth century, and it is comparable with many of the surviving
early sabers; including especially one found at Geszteréd in Hungary (Fig. 13).70 The Geszte-
réd s a b e r i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h e o f « s a b e r o f Ch a r l e ma g n e » i n i t s s h a p e a n d e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e
strap-work and palmette decoration on its hilt and scabbard fittings.71 The saber from Koban
is also of this same general type and as noted above it was found in conjunction with ¿Abba-
sid coins of dates which roughly correspond to the reigns of Charlemagne and H˝r¨n al-
Rash^d.72 Given that the «saber of Charlemagne» is of this period and even allowing that it is
probably of Avar or Turkic workmanship it remains possible that the traditional story is true
and that it was included amongst the exotic gifts sent by H˝r¨n.73
————
65 Zakharow (1935: 28).
66 The saber is now in the Bilsk Museum
67 See Filitz (1971: cat no. 162). The saber has been published many times, some of the most important publica-
tions include Arendt (1935) and Kirpic¡nikov (1972).
68 Charlemagne sent two embassies to H˝r¨n al-Rash^d and was sent in return a number of precious gifts including
an elephant and an Indian chess set; see Sourdel (1978: 118).
69 A similar strip was excavated in Kiev in 1310/1892 and is tentatively dated by Korzuchina to the 11th century,
Korzuchina (1959: 82-84, ills. 4,5,6),
70 Also similar is a saber found in an Alanic grave at Zmeyskaya in the Caucasus see Kuznetzov (1961: pl. 7).
71 Jósa András Museum, Nyíregyháza, inv. no. 61.201.9, see especially Dienes (1972: 16-17, pl. 13). Other sabers
of this type and from approximately the same period include a Chinese example of about 133/750 in the Shosoin Treasu-
ry in Japan, see Shirakihara (1978) and Sh˛s˛in (1932).
72 Arendt (1935); coins found in other sword burials include Tang coinage of the 7th to 10th century found at Bilsk;
¿Abbasid and Samanid coins found at Saltovo 8th and 9th, Zakharow (1935).
73 Hitti (1977: 298); account from Pertzii and Kurze (1895: vol. 43, 114, 123-24).
SWORDS AND SABERS DURING THE EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD 213
Gladius XXI, 2001
Fig. 13. Hunnic saber from Gesztered in Hungary, National Museum, Budapest.
A distinguishing feature of the «saber of Charlemagne», indeed of many of these early
sabers, is the way the hilt is bent or crooked just below the pommel. This kind of bend oc-
curs on a number of the other early sabers, and is partly a result of the way the pommel is
riveted to the tang and partly, and more importantly, a functional feature intended to increase
the ability of the mounted warrior to swing his weapon at an opponent. Much later, and
perhaps by direct descent, this kind of crooked hilt became a hall-mark of Tartar sabers da-
teable to the sixteenth century and later.
DAVID ALEXANDER
214 Gladius XXI, 2001
The earliest surviving Islamic saber was unearthed at N^sh˝p¨r in Iran, and clearly shows
that this type of weapon was used in an Islamic context by the ninth century.74 (Fig. 14). The
N^sh˝p¨r saber probably belonged to a Turkic slave warrior of the S˝m˝nid dynasty founded
by Nas˘r ibn-Ah˘mad which ruled in N^sh˝p¨r from 261-390/874-999. Its hilt, in excavated
condition and now fragmentary, consists only of a pommel and guard, each of the elements
retaining fragments of the original wooden (and probably leather-covered) grip. The pommel
of flattened oval section is formed of two identical plates of cast and gilt bronze seamed
along the edges; the sides are straight, the end of flattened ogee shape. Each face is decorated
with raised trefoils facing inward. The guard is also of gilt bronze, formed of two identical
halves, presumably once riveted together, that fit around the tang of the blade (a portion of
which projects above the guard). The quillons are straight, of rectangular section, and taper
toward the cinquefoil palmette-shaped tips. The faces of the guard have raised edges, with
raised leaf forms in the center and within the tips. The heavily corroded iron blade, appa-
rently straight and single-edged, is now obscured by the remains of the wooden scabbard li-
ning that cling to it; the blade is broken into six pieces, but although it is very corroded traces
of a sharpened back edged section remain. Portions of the two upper scabbard mounts re-
main, each consisting of two gilt-bronze sections with raised cutout trefoil decoration around
their inner edges. The band at the mouth of the scabbard is shaped to accommodate the
pointed quillon block and has riveted along its back edge a double-ogival bracket with
matching trefoil decoration. Of the lower mount only a small portion remains attached to the
blade, while a larger section, including the riveted-on bracket, is now broken away. Found
with the sword was a ring held by a plate raised as a (gorgon’s?) face, which may have ser-
ved as a mount at the end of the grip to secure a wrist strap.
A wall painting unearthed at N^sh˝p¨r depicts a saber of this type and shows how a fully
armed warrior of this period may have looked, This fresco represents a mounted falconer
whose high rank is underlined by a belt with six pendant straps. He was perhaps one of the
Turkic slave warriors of the S˝m˝nids, and is girded in the Hunnic fashion with two blades,
one a saber and the other a long, thin straight sword (Fig. 15).75 The saber is short and sligh-
tly curved, and the sword long and thin with a rounded pommel. This could be a qarachur76 a
type of long sword that the Salj¨q vizier Niz˘˝m al-Mulk (408-85/1018-92) said was given to
Turkic slave warriors in their third year of training.77 A thirteenth-century account by Fakhr-i
Mudabbir indicates that the ability to use both weapons was a highly regarded skill.78 In
addition to the N^sh˝p¨r fresco which definitely shows the warrior equipped with weapons
fgfg
————
74 Fou nd dur ing The Me tr opolit a n Mus e um’ s exc a va tions of 193 9, MMA . 40.1 70.168 ; se e Ha use r a nd W ilkins on ( 19 42) .
75 In the tenth-century version of the Germanic epic Waltharius, the hero Walther «arms himself in the Hunnish
fashion . . . with a double-edged long sword, spatha, belted to his left hip . . . and a single-edged half-sword, semispatha,
at his right.» see Nickel (1973: 138).
76 Two possibly related words were often used to describe early swords and sabers, these are qarachur and qaljuri.
According to al-Kindi qaljuri was a sword made in the Yemen that is light in weight and about three handspans long.
Allan (1979: 86 and 137) calls it a long curved sword. Al-Kindi’s use of the word in unclear as in the surviving manus-
cripts of his work it is variously called uri, quyuri, unuri and qubuzi, all of which were rendered by Zaki (1952: 17, note
8) and described as curved. Qarachur is defined by Niz˘˝m al-Mulk as a long sword given to a Turkish slave warrior at
the S˝m˝nid court after his third year of service. However this might possibly refer to the belt from which the sword was
suspended i.e., the black belt, and was therefore a reference to a form of investiture. Fakhr-i Mudabbir describes it as a
long curved sword Allan (1979: 89). Allan thinks this may be the long sword represented in miniature painting. He does
not regard it as the same as the qaljuri. See also Doerfer (1975: 433, no. 1442).
77 Niz˘˝ m al - M u l k w r o t e th a t in th e i r fir st ye a r th e tr a in e e s se r ve d on fo o t an d we r e not pe r mit te d to mou nt a ho r s e ; in
t h e i r s e c o nd ye a r a th e y w e r e g i v e n a T u r k i s h h o r s e a n d p l a i n ha r ne s s; in the ir th ir d ye a r a lon g s wo r d ca ll e d a q ar ac hu r ; in
t h e i r f o u r t h y e a r a be tt e r sa d d l e , cl ot hi ng an d a ma c e ; an d in th e i r fif t h ye a r pa r a d e dr e s s , se e Ba r t h o l d ( 1 9 5 8 : 2 2 7 ) .
78 Allan (1979: p. 90). Fakhr-i Mudabbir reported that Sultan Mah˘m¨d of Ghazna fought with both sword and qa-
lachuri Although there is some disagreement as to whether a qarachur was in reality a sword or saber there is no doubt
that the early reports refer to two distinct types of weapon.
SWORDS AND SABERS DURING THE EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD 215
Gladius XXI, 2001
Fig. 14. Saber from N^sh˝p¨r, MMA. acc. no. 40.170.168
DAVID ALEXANDER
216 Gladius XXI, 2001
Fig. 15. 9th century wall painting from N^sh˝p¨r; National Museum, Teheran
of both types, similar long swords or sabers appear with regularity in Salj¨q miniature pain-
ting of the thirteenth century.79
————
79 See Riyadh (1996: cat. no. 58), Although no early long, thin swords survive, numerous examples remain from
the Mamluk and Ottoman periods, when these stiff, thrusting blades seem to have been forged with three or four sides.
The English traveler, Sir John Smithe, writing in about 1000/1591, described such weapons «tocks very conveniently
worne after the Hongarian and Turkie manner under their thighs which tocks are long narrow stiffe swords onlie for the
thrust» Quoted in Norman (1980: 23). In modern Turkish these weapons are called Mec, and in other parts of Europe
they are variously known as Tuck, Estoc, Panzerstecher or Hegyestor
SWORDS AND SABERS DURING THE EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD 217
Gladius XXI, 2001
A painted shield of about 104/722 found at a castle on Mount Mugh near Samarqand80
shows that the saber was used in this area by the eighth century. A little later the ¿Abbasid
caliph al-Mu¿tas˘im employed Turkic warriors from Transoxiana and it is logical to assume
that at this time they introduced the saber into the heartland of the Islamic world. Both pain-
tings and literary accounts of the period support this supposition. A ninth-century painting
from S˝marr˝ shows a warrior wearing a pendant belt around his waist with a sling suspen-
sion of the type designed to support a saber.81
The history of Nishapur, like that of many other Central Asian states was turbulent. It
was founded by the Sasanians and later after the Arab conquest became successively a capi-
tal f or t he T˘˝ hi r id d yn a st y u nd e r ‘ A bd ul l ˝ h i bn T˘˝ hi r ; th e n f o r t he s ho r t li v e d Sa f f ˝ r id dy na st y
a nd t he n f or th e S˝ m˝ n id ’ s. T hi s I r a n ia n c l a n de f e a te d t he Sa f f ˝ r id s a nd f o un de d a n e mp ir e
e xt e n di n g f r o m I r a q to I n di a . T h e i r c a p it a l s w e r e a t Sa ma r qa n d a n d Buk ha r a bu t N is ha p ur w a s
o ne o f t he ir ma jo r c omme r c i a l c e nt e r s . Th e S˝ m˝ n i d’ s we r e so o n r e pl a c e d b y a su c c e ss i on o f
min or d y na st i e s a nd th e n in 6 18 / 12 21 Ni sh a p u r wa s d e s tr o ye d b y th e Mon g ol s.
DAVID ALEXANDER
Puycesi. France
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ALEXANDER, D. G. (1984): Dhu L-Fakar, Ph.d. dissertation, 2 vols, University of Michigan mi-
crofilms.
A
L E X A N D E R, D . ( 1 9 9 9 ) : « D h u ÷ l fa q ˝ r a n d th e L e g a c y o f t h e P r o p h e t» , i n G l a d iu s , X I X : 1 5 7 -
1 8 7 .
ALEXANDER, D: KALUS, L. and TECZAN, T. (Forthcoming): Catalogue des armes des mains de la
collection du palais du Topkapi à Istanbul, I,épees et armes apparentes.
ALLAN, J. W. (1979): Persian Metal Technology, 700-1300 AD, London.
ALLAN, J. W. (1982): Nishapur: Metalwork of the Early Islamic Period, New York.
ARENDT, Wsewolod W. (1935): «Türkische Säbel aus den VIII.-IX. Jahrhunderten.» in A. A.
Zakharov and W.W. Arendt, Studia Levedica: Archaeologischer Beitrag zur Geschichte der Altun-
garn im IX. Jh., Archaeologica Hungarica, Budapest, 48-86.
BA RT H O LD W . ( 1928 ) : Tur kestan , down to th e Mong ol I nv asion, tr . H .A .R. G ibb, 2n d ed., L ondon .
BASS, G. (1978): «Glass Treasure from the Aegean». National Geographic: vol. 153, no. 6, June
1978, pp. 768-93.
BLAIR, Sheila S. (1992): «What is the date of the Dome of the Rock?». Oxford Studies in Islamic
Art: IX, 59-87.
BLAIR, Sheila S. (1995): A Compendium of Chronicles, Rashid al-Din’s Illustrated History of the
World, London
————
80 Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, inv. no. CA-9093, illustrated in Vienna 1996, cat. no. 162, p. 296.
81 Herzfeld (1927: vol. 3, LXVI). Medieval Islamic belts generally consist of a buckle and clasp with long decora-
ted ends and a series of spacers attached to the leather or fabric waist. Several fine examples have survived including
one probably from Greater Syria now in the Furusiyya Art Foundation, Vaduz, decorated with a waq-waq tree motif, an
Artukid belt British Museum in Istanbul 1983, no. D.127; and two Ayyubid belts. One of the latter is of gold and inscri-
bed with the name of the Ayyubid prince and patron of the arts Abu ÷l Fid˝÷ Ism˝¿^l (672-732/1273-1331). L.A. Mayer
Collection, Jerusalem, see Hasson (1987: no. 127); the other Ayyubid example is in the Benaki Museum, Athens; see
London (1976: no. 653). Belts in this style were widely popular and were even introduced into Europe, perhaps by re-
turning Crusaders. An example can be seen on a statue dateable to about 648-659/1250-60 of Margrave Eckhard in
Naumberg Cathedral; and several complete belts found in the Judengasse in Salzburg, see Svol (1980).
DAVID ALEXANDER
218 Gladius XXI, 2001
DIENES, I. (1972): The Hungarians Cross the Carpathians, Budapest.
DOERFER, G. (1975): Türkische und Mongolische Elemente im Neupersischen, vol. 4, Wiesbaden.
FILLITZ, H., (1971): Katalog der Weltlichen und Geistlichen Schatzkammer, Kunsthistorisches
Museum, Wien, Vienna.
HAUSER, W. and WILKINSON, Ch. K. (1942): «The Museum’s Excavations at Nishapur.» Metro-
politan Museum of Art Bulletin: 37, 83-119.
HAMPEL, J., (1899): «Der sogenannte Säbel Karls des Großen.» Zeitschrift Für Historische Waffe-
Und Kostümkunde, 1, no. 2: 45-49.
HARPER, P. O. and MEYERS, P. (1981): Silver Vessels of the Sasanian Period, I: Royal Imagery,
New York.
HASSON, R. (1987): Early Islamic Jewellery, Jerusalem.
HERZFELD, E. (1927): «Die Malereien von Samarra.» Forschungen zur islamischen Kunst, Die
Ausgrabungen von Samarra, 3, Berlin.
HITTI, P, (1916): The Origins of the Islamic State, New York.
Hitti, P. (1977): History of the Arabs, New York.
BRUHN DE HOFFMEYER, Ada (1982): «Arms and Armour in Spain II.» Gladius. Madrid.
ISTANBUL (1983): Topkapi Sarayi Müze. The Anatolian Civilizations. vol. 3, Seljuk/Ottoman, exh.
cat. Filiz Cagman et al.
JONES, A. (1992): Early Arabic Poetry, vol. 1, Oxford.
KIRPI≈NIKOV, A. N. (1972): «Der Sogenannte Säbel Karls Des Grossen.» Gladius, 10: 69-80.
KORZUCHINA, G. H. (1950): «Ancient weapons of the 11th century», Sovetskaja Archeologija,
XIII: 63-91.
Kuznetzov, V. A. (1961): «Alanskie plemena Severnogo Kavkaz.» Materialy i issledovaniia po
arkeologii S.S.S.R.: no. 106.
LANE-POOLE, S. (1898): Saladin and the Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, London.
LECKER, M. (1995): Muslims, Jews & Pagans, Studies on Early Islamic Medina, Leiden.
LONDON (1976): Hayward Gallery, The Arts of Islam, exh. cat., London.
MAQBUL, A. S. (1960): India and the Neighbouring Territories in the Kit˝b Nuzhat al-Musht˝q f^
÷Khtir˝q al ÷AÚf˝q of al-Shar^f al-Idr^s^, Leiden.
MAYER, L. A. (1952): Mamluk Costume, Geneva.
MINORSKY, V. (1958): A History of Shervan and Darband, Cambridge.
NICKEL, H. (1973): «About the Sword of the Huns and the ‘Urepos’ of the Steppes.» Metropolitan
Museum Journal, 7: 131-42.
NICOLLE D. and MCBRIDE, A. (1982): The Armies of Islam 7th-11th Centuries, London.
NORMAN, A. V. B., (1980): The Rapier and the Small Sword 1460-1820, London.
SCHWIETERING, J., (1930): «Schwerter mit Ringknauf» Zeitschrift Für Historische Waffe-Und
Kostümkunde: Vol. 8.
SHIRAKIHARA, Kazumi, (1978): «The Origin of the Sword Mounted with Gold and Silver in the
Shosoin Treasuries.» Orient, 14: 35-53.
SH˛S˛IN (1932): Imperial Household Museum, Catalogue of the Imperial Treasures in the
Sh˛s˛in, Tokyo.
SINOR, D. (1981): «The Inner Asian Warriors» Journal of the American Oriental Society: vol.
101, no. 2, 133-44.
SVOL, C. (1980): «Der Schatzfund aus der Judengasse.» Weltkunst: 50, 23, 352-54?
THA¿AÚLABI Ú (1968): Abu Mans˘¨r ¿Abd al-Malik b. Muh˘ammad b. Ism˝¿^l al-Tha¿˝lab^, Lat˘˝÷if al-
Ma¿˝rif, tr. C.E. Bosworth, Edinburgh.
SWORDS AND SABERS DURING THE EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD 219
Gladius XXI, 2001
VIENNA (1996): Kunsthistorisches Museum, Weihrauch und Seide, intro. Wilfried Seipel, Vienna.
WELLESZ, E. (1965): An Islamic Book of Constellations, Oxford.
W
EN SIN CK , A . J., and PA RE T, R. ( 197 8) : «K ˘aynuk˘˝ » in E nc lyclop aedia of I slam , N ew E dition, p. 824 .
YÜCEL, Ünsal, (1988): al sayf fi al-Islam, Kuwait.
ZAKHAROW, A. A., (1935): «Beiträge Zur Frage Der Türkischen Kultur Der Völkerwanderung-
szeit.» Studia Levetica Archäologischer Beitrag zur Geschichte der Altungarn im IX. Jh., Archae-
ologica Hungarica: 16, 6-47.
ZAKY, Abdul Rahman, (1952): «Swords and their Kinds» Bulletin of the Faculty of Arts, (Cairo):
XIV/2, 1-36.
ZAKY, Abdul Rahman, (1953-54): «Islamic Swords in Middle Ages.» in Bulletin de l’Institut
d’Egypte 36, fasc. 2, 365-79.
ZAKI, Abdul Rahman, (1979): «Medieval Arab Arms» R. Elgood (ed), Islamic Arms and Armour,
London, pp. 202-12.
