Potential of the concoction of Champereia manillana and Psidium guajava shoot extracts as coagulant for drinking water treatment

Abstract

The use of alum-based coagulant in drinking water treatment process caused residues in drinking water treatment, which are eventually supplied to consumers. This poses possible risk to their health. Furthermore, alum-based coagulant is expensive. Due to the risk and cost of using alum-based coagulant, natural coagulants which are environmental friendly, safe and cost effective, are needed. A plant-derived coagulant was successfully extracted from Psidium guajava and Champereia manillana by using physical extraction method. This study was intended to explore the effectiveness and optimum dosages of the concoction of C. manillana and P. guajava needed for turbidity and heavy metals removal in surface water sources. Flavonoids and tannin are coagulating agent which are naturally present in C. manillana and P. guajava shoots and they are responsible for turbidity removal in water. Three level of turbidity were chosen for this study namely high turbid (500-700 NTU), moderate turbid (30-50 NTU) and low turbid (5-20 NTU) water samples. The experiment was performed with crude extracts of the concoction of C. manillana and P. guajava with different dosage (2.0 mg/L, 4.0 mg/L and 6.0 mg/L) and concoction ratio (P. guajava : C. manillana = 1:1, 1:0 and 0:1). Results demonstrated that the best and optimum turbidity removal is observed in low and moderate turbid water sample (5–50 NTU) up to 64.3 % at 2.0 mg/L 1:1 ratio of extract concoction of C. manillana and P. guajava shoots. It could be concluded that, the concoction of C. manillana and P. guajava shoots extract has the ability to remove suspended solid in water, hence it has a great potential to replace chemical coagulant in drinking water treatment.

Full text

Potential of the concoction of Champereia manillana and Psidium guajava
shoot extracts as coagulant for drinking water treatment
AWENG, E.R.1, JESSUTA, J.1, PRAWIT, K.2 and LIYANA, A.A.3
Abstract : The use of alum-based coagulant in drinking water treatment process
caused residues in drinking water treatment, which are eventually supplied to
consumers. This poses possible risk to their health. Furthermore, alum-based
coagulant is expensive. Due to the risk and cost of using alum-based coagulant,
natural coagulants which are environmental friendly, safe and cost effective, are
needed. A plant-derived coagulant was successfully extracted from Psidium guajava
and Champereia manillana by using physical extraction method. This study was
intended to explore the effectiveness and optimum dosages of the concoction of C.
manillana and P. guajava needed for turbidity and heavy metals removal in surface
water sources. Flavonoids and tannin are coagulating agent which are naturally
present in C. manillana and P. guajava shoots and they are responsible for turbidity
removal in water. Three level of turbidity were chosen for this study namely high
turbid (500-700 NTU), moderate turbid (30-50 NTU) and low turbid (5-20 NTU)
water samples. The experiment was performed with crude extracts of the concoction
of C. manillana and P. guajava with different dosage (2.0 mg/L, 4.0 mg/L and 6.0
mg/L) and concoction ratio (P. guajava : C. manillana = 1:1, 1:0 and 0:1). Results
demonstrated that the best and optimum turbidity removal is observed in low and
moderate turbid water sample (5–50 NTU) up to 64.3 % at 2.0 mg/L 1:1 ratio of
extract concoction of C. manillana and P. guajava shoots. It could be concluded
that, the concoction of C. manillana and P. guajava shoots extract has the ability to
remove suspended solid in water, hence it has a great potential to replace chemical
coagulant in drinking water treatment.
Key words: Champereia manillana , Psidium guajava, turbidity, ferum, cuprum,
manganese, coagulant, alum
INTRODUCTION
Apparently, aluminium and ferrous or ferric salts are used in drinking water
treatment as chemical coagulants to reduce the suspended solids and turbidity in raw
water. According to the Malaysia Drinking Water Quality Standard,
recommendations for aluminium levels in treated drinking water should not exceed
0.2 mg/L (Ministry of Health Malaysia, 2010) (Table 1). According to Driscoll and
Letterman (1988), about 11% of the aluminium (Al) input during treatment process
remains in the treated water as residual Al and distributed through piping system
without any significant loss. From there, another problem has attributed to increase
alum concentration where the products of alum hydrolysis are deposited on pipe
walls, which decreases its capacity. Recent studies have shown that the dose of Al
__________________________________________________________________
1Faculty of Earth Science, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Locked Bag No 100, 17600 Jeli,
Kelantan, Malaysia. Corresponding Author: E-mail: aweng@umk.edu.my
2Faculty of Science and Technology, Prince of Songkla University, Pattani, Thailand
3Centre for Language Studies and Generic Development, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan
Bachok Campus, Locked Bag No. 1, 16300 Bachok, Kelantan, Malaysia
419

contained in drinking water is high, which is 0.5 mg/L and proven that high dosage
of Al in drinking water could pose health risk in some cases, whereas in some worse
cases, evidence points out that Al could increase the risk of Alzheimer’s disease
(McLachlan et al. 1996). Crapper and Boni (1980) made an observation on the
relationship between Al and both Alzheimer’s disease and dialysis encephalopathy
in humans and it was proven that kidney dialysis patients suffer from dementia due
to Al concentration of 80 microgram per litre contained in their dialysis fluid
(Srinivasan et al. 1999).
The level of Al intake from drinking water varies with Al level in raw water
and dose of Al coagulants used in water treatment process. Various
physicochemical and mineralogical factors can also significantly affect the
concentration of Al in natural water. Intake of Al via food and water is unavoidable
yet 5% of the total intake is from drinking water and the major part (5mg/day) of
total intake comes from food and its additives (Tomperi et al. 2013). Hence, it is
important to minimize the amount of residual aluminium in drinking water to ensure
safe drinking water for locals. The urge to replace Al salts with sources from natural
products have been raised in order to minimize the effect of the A1 remaining in the
treated water which results in high accumulation of turbidity and some health
effects on consumers. In order to facilitate this problem, this study was proposed to
determine the potential of the concoction of C. manillana and P. guajava shoots
(Figures 1 & 2) extracts to be used as coagulant to remove suspended solids and
some heavy metals in drinking water treatment.
C. manillana (Opiliaceae) is well known in local folklore for their medicinal
value. The treelet is easily propagated via seeds or stem cuttings. Locally it is called
"Cemperai", "Makmor" and "Dok dek". In medical aspect, C. manillana is used to
cure headaches, ulcer, splenomegaly, rheumatism, abscess, fever and inflamed gums.
Apart from that, the young shoots and leaves of C. manillana were used in
preparation of vegetable soups and other traditional cooking as culinary among
Malaysian folks (Arbain, 2008). On the other hand, P. guajava is a tropical and
semitropical plant and is well known for its edible fruits, which is commonly found
in backyards. This plant belongs to Myrtaceae and it has numerous common names
such as "Jambu burung", "Jambu padang", "Jambu batu", "Jambu biji" etc. The
extracts of roots, bark and leaves are used or consumed to treat gastroenteritis,
vomiting, diarrhoea, dysentery, wounds, ulcers, toothache, coughs, sore throat and
inflamed gums. The leaves of guava contain an essential oil rich in cineol,
triterpenic acids and flavonoids besides resin, fat, cellulose, tannin, volatile oil,
chlorophyll and mineral salts. Its bark contains 12-30% of tannin, resin and crystals
of calcium oxalate whereas the roots are also rich in tannin, and contained high
proportions of carbohydrates and salts. Tannin seems to be common in root, stem,
bark, and leaves in large percentage. Apart from that, the extracts of the leaf has the
capability to stimulate vasoconstriction and platelet aggregation therefore inhibit
blood coagulation (Dweck, 1987).
Concerning these practices, the extract of this plant as coagulant is believed
to have high potential in drinking water treatment to replace the current
conventional coagulants due to its ability in removing toxins and absorbing excess
water during diarrhoea. Moreover, this method seems to be inexpensive,
environmental friendly as well as an effective agent in drinking water treatment,
especially in removing heavy metal and suspended solids (Yap, 2013).
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Table 1. Drinking Water Quality Standard by Ministry of Health Malaysia, 2010
Parameter
Raw water
(mg/L)
Treated Water
(mg/L)
Min
Max
Min
Max
Turbidity
0
1000
0
5
Ferum/Iron
0.00000
1.00000
0.00000
0.30000
Manganese
0.00000
0.20000
0.00000
0.10000
Cuprum/
Copper
0.00000
1.00000
0.00000
1.00000
Figure 1. The shoots and fruits of C. manillana
Figure 2. The shoots and fruits of P. guajava
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The use of natural plants as natural coagulants in clearing turbidity of water has
been a common practice since ancient times. Some of the common phytochemical
compounds found in plants, for instance tannins, flavonoids, oil and protein are
responsible for coagulation mechanism involved in water cleansing. Direct
coagulation of the concoction of C. manillana and P. guajava as a coagulant
appeared to be effective in clarifying turbidity and coagulating suspended solids.
Flavonoids are an important group of polyphenols, widely distributed among the
plants. These compounds function as antioxidants or free radicle scavenger. The
common types of flavonoid present in nearly 70% of plants are quercetin, and
kaempferol. There might be other group of flavonoids appear to be plants
phytochemical compound such that flavones, dihydroflavons, flavans, flavanols,
anthocyanidins, proanthocyanidins, calchones and catechin and leucoanthocyanidins
(Doughari, 2009).
Other than that, tannins also play a major role in coagulation mechanism
because they have a feature to turn or to convert substances into leather. The
properties of tannins are such as good solubility in water and alcohol, phenolic
compounds of high molecular weight and found abundantly in the root, bark, stem,
and outer layers of plant tissue. They are acidic in reaction and this acidic reaction is
attributed to the presence of carboxylic group. They do form complexes with
proteins, carbohydrates, gelatine and alkaloids, which are associated to formation of
agglomeration, resulting in coagulation.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Good quality shoots of C. manillana and P. guajava shoots were collected randomly
from Tanah Merah, Kelantan, Malaysia. The shoots of C. manillana and P. guajava
were thoroughly washed using distilled water before drying. After drying in oven
for two days at temperature of 50ºC, the leaves were grounded using grinder in the
laboratory. The grounded material was sieved through 0.4 mm size sieve and the
particles smaller than 0.4 mm size sieve was used for crude extraction process. For
the preparation of crude extract part, 1.0 g of C. manillana was added into 1000 ml
of distilled water and then stirred by using magnetic stirrer for 60 minutes and the
mixture was left for 20 minutes to settle down and after that 0.95 mm filter paper
was used to filter the mixture so as to remove solid particles. The same method was
repeated to extract P. guajava crude.
Jar-test was performed in four (4) cleaned Biological Oxygen Demand
(BOD) bottles. Each bottle was added with 300mL synthesize turbid water samples
by using kaoline, laboratory grade (K7375, particle size 0.1-4 µm, Sigma-Aldrich)
and then different concentrations of the concoction of C. manillana and P. guajava
crude extract; 0.0mL, 2.0mL, 4.0mL and 6.0mL were added. The standard
procedure implies 3 minutes of rapid mixing (200 rpm) in the incubator shaker at
21oC temperature followed by 30 minutes of slow mixing (50 rpm) for flocculation.
The treated water was allowed to settle for 20 minutes and 100 ml of the sample
was taken from the top of each BOD bottle to be measured and analysed for
turbidity. Jar-test was conducted by adding different dosage of concoction of the
two crude plant extracts to the 250ml of prepared water samples. The test was done
to determine optimum dosage and proportion needed to prepare the efficient
coagulant in removing turbidity. The water samples with certain level of turbidity
422

were analysed before and after the jar-test. Turbidimeter Hanna Model 2100P was
used to identify the turbidity.
The difference in concentration of turbidity before and after treatment was
used to indicate the effectiveness of the concoction of C. manillana and P. guajava
in reducing turbidity level in raw water. Turbidity reduction were presented in
percentage (%), according to Yap (2013):
Biosorbent removal (%) = [(Ci-Ca) / (Ci)] × 100
Where: Ci – initial concentration of heavy metals before treatment (mg/L)
Ca- concentration of heavy metals after treatment (mg/L)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
PG represents P. guajava crude extract whereas CM represents C. manillana crude
extract and PC indicates concoction. For the high turbidity model turbid water
(691.5 NTU), the lowest level of turbidity residual recorded as 689.5 NTU at 2
mg/L dosage for the proportion of PG: CM= 1:0, after which there is gradual
increase of residual turbidity as dosage of P. guajava crude extract increased but not
significant. This is believed to be due to the turbidity level of water is too high
which cannot be coped by P. guajava dosage greater than 2 mg/L. As for C.
manillana crude extract, PG: CM= 0:1, is recorded that the residual turbidity
continue to decrease slightly to 690.7 NTU when compared to PG: CM=1:0 at 2
mg/L, and eventually increased at 4 mg/L and stabilized at 6.0 mg/L with increasing
dosage of CM. However, for the concoction of C. manillana and P. guajava crude
extracts at 1:1 ratio which was indicated as PC, there was gradual decrease in
turbidity which differs in small scale from dosage applied varied from 2 mg/L to 6
mg/L. From the results obtained, a removal up to 0.29% was observed for highest
turbidity water level using P. guajava crude extract as coagulant at 2 mg/L, which is
ineffective. It can be concluded that 2.0 mg/L, 4 mg/L and 6 mg/L of PG: CM = 1:1,
1:0, and 0:1 have no significant difference in turbidity removal for the highest
turbidity level of water (P>0.05) (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Concentration of turbidity with initial turbidity 691.5 NTU treated with
different dosages of P. guajava and C. manillana crude extracts
680
682
684
686
688
690
692
694
696
698
700
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0
Residual turbidity (NTU)
Crude Extract Dosage (mg/L)
P.G
C.M
P.C
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Figure 4 shows the results of turbidity removal on moderate turbidity level of water
with initial turbidity of 48.8 NTU using P. guajava and C. manillana crude extracts
and also its concoction as a coagulant. Based on the results obtained, the
concoction of PG and CM in proportion of 1:1 shows rapid reduction in residual
turbidity to 14.50 NTU at 6.0 mg/L with increasing dosage of removal up to 70.3 %
of turbidity removal efficiency (P < 0.05) but the optimum dosage is 2 mg/L with
removal rate of 54.3%.
Figure 4. Concentration of turbidity with initial turbidity 48.8 NTU treated with
different dosages of P. guajava and C. manillana crude extracts
Figure 5. shows the results of residual turbidity of lowest level of turbidity with
initial turbidity of 14.7 NTU using P. guajava and C. manillana crude extracts at
proportion of PG:CM = 1:0, 0:1 and 1:1 with varied concentration as stated. It was
observed that for the three different proportion of crude extracts with increasing
dosage resulted in drastic decrease in residual turbidity up to 2 mg/L dosage when
the residual turbidity started to drop further until the dosage reached 6 mg/L. The
turbidity removal rate for 1:1 ratios are 64.3% for 2 mg/L dosage and 74.3% for 6
mg/L dosage.
Figure 5. Concentration of turbidity with initial turbidity 14.7 NTU treated with
different dosages of P. guajava and C. manillana crude extracts
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
Residual turbidity (NTU)
Crude Extract Dosage (mg/L)
P.G
C.
M
0
5
10
15
20
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
Residual Turbidity (NTU)
Crude Extract Dosage (mg/L)
P.
G
424

Overall results show that, the concoction of P. guajava and C. manillana
crude extracts with 1:1 ratio is able to remove turbidity in low and medium turbidity
level of water up to 64.3% for 2 mg/L dosage and up to 74.3% for 6 mg/L dosage
but the optimum dosage of concoction for optimum turbidity removal is 2 mg/L and
this ratio will be recommended to be used for coagulant agent in drinking water
treatment. However, the percentage of reduction is slightly lower as compared to
Cassia alata leaves (Aweng et al. 2012) and Opuntia spp. (Miller et al. 2008),
where the percentage of reduction is 93.33% and 95%, respectively.
CONCLUSION
It could be concluded that the concoction of C. manillana and P. guajava shoot
extract has a good potential to be used as natural coagulant to replace chemical
coagulant in removing suspended solids in water.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the management of the Faculty of Earth Science,
Universiti Malaysia Kelantan and the Faculty of Science and Technology, Prince of
Songkla University, Pattani, Thailand for their support in providing laboratory
facilities for this project. This project would not be completed without the help and
support from the management of both faculties.
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