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The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity to process information
... human visual system relies on serial processing to solve this problem, iteratively directing attention to individual objects so as to avoid interference [28,33], and that binding errors arise when it is forced to rely on rapid, parallel visual processing [14,19,33]. For example, when human participants are not able to effectively deploy serial processing (e.g., because attention is overloaded, or because speeded judgments are required), they are susceptible to so-called illusory conjunctions (e.g., mistakenly identifying a red square in an image that contains a green square and a red circle) [32]. ...
... In this work, we test the hypothesis that the failures exhibited by VLMs on multi-object reasoning tasks are due to representational interference resulting from an inability to manage the binding problem. We first investigate two classic tasks from the cognitive science literature, visual search [33] and numerical estimation [14,19] (i.e., counting), finding that a wide range of VLMs (including 5 multimodal language models and 4 text-to-image models) exhibit stark capacity constraints similar to those displayed by human observers when forced to make speeded responses. Importantly, although these effects are more pronounced for scenes with more objects, they cannot be explained entirely as a function of the number of objects in a scene. ...
... Although human observers can precisely count a very large number of items when allowed to explicitly process those items one at a time, their ability to rapidly estimate the number of items in a display is subject to a severe capacity constraint. Studies have found that the number of objects that can be reliably estimated without explicit serial counting (sometimes referred to as "subitizing") is somewhere between 4 and 6 [14,17,19,27,34]. To determine whether VLMs are subject to similar constraints, we evaluated both multimodal language models (GPT-4v, GPT-4o, Gemini Ultra 1.5, Claude Sonnet 3.5, and Llava 1.5) and text-to-image models (Stable Diffusion Ultra, DALL-E 3, Google Parti, and Google Muse) on a numerical estimation task involving variations of both the number and type of objects. ...
Recent work has documented striking heterogeneity in the performance of state-of-the-art vision language models (VLMs), including both multimodal language models and text-to-image models. These models are able to describe and generate a diverse array of complex, naturalistic images, yet they exhibit surprising failures on basic multi-object reasoning tasks -- such as counting, localization, and simple forms of visual analogy -- that humans perform with near perfect accuracy. To better understand this puzzling pattern of successes and failures, we turn to theoretical accounts of the binding problem in cognitive science and neuroscience, a fundamental problem that arises when a shared set of representational resources must be used to represent distinct entities (e.g., to represent multiple objects in an image), necessitating the use of serial processing to avoid interference. We find that many of the puzzling failures of state-of-the-art VLMs can be explained as arising due to the binding problem, and that these failure modes are strikingly similar to the limitations exhibited by rapid, feedforward processing in the human brain.
... According to Rahmat (2020), the stored knowledge will be used to make sense of incoming knowledge. The framework of this study is adopted from Miller's (1956), three types of memory (sensory, short-term and long term memory) and also working memory by (Aben et al., 2012). (2012), in their explanation mention that sensory memory is truthful records of initiating stimuli, and can be technically defined as modality specific. ...
... A purposive sample of 135 participants responded to the survey. The Miller (1956), and Aben et al (2012), to reveal the variables in table 1 below. The survey has 4 sections. ...
... Section A has items on demographic profile. Section B has been divided into 4 sections of Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory, Long-Term Memory (Miller, 1956) and Working Memory (Aben, et.al, 2012). Table 1 Distribution of Items in the Survey Table 1 shows the reliability of the survey. ...
... One attractive idea is chunking, i.e., organizing several items into higher-level units [8][9][10][11][12][13]. Sometimes chunks are stored in long-term memory due to previous experience [14,15], e.g., when observing a stream of letters, a combination like "CIA" can be processed as a separate unit rather than simply a group of three letters. Another example is a familiar expression like "Oh my God" or "Easier said than done". ...
... Note that although here we model the chunking cues as slight pauses in-between the presentations, in general, chunking could be triggered by other cues, such as tonic variations and semantic meanings. The idea that chunking reduces the load on working memory was first introduced in the psychology literature [9,14,37]. Subsequently, neuroimaging studies observed that chunking reduces neural activity in upstream brain regions that process raw stimuli but increases activity in downstream regions associated with higher-level representations [18,38,39], which is consistent with our proposed mechanism. ...
... (1) defines a new capacity for working memory that accounts for hierarchical chunking. Thus, we refer to M * as the new magic number, in the original spirit of Miller [14]. Below we illustrate how the limited number of C clusters in the network constrains the total number of memory items that can be maintained and retrieved in WM. ...
The extremely limited working memory span, typically around four items, contrasts sharply with our everyday experience of processing much larger streams of sensory information concurrently. This disparity suggests that working memory can organize information into compact representations such as chunks, yet the underlying neural mechanisms remain largely unknown. Here, we propose a recurrent neural network model for chunking within the framework of the synaptic theory of working memory. We showed that by selectively suppressing groups of stimuli, the network can maintain and retrieve the stimuli in chunks, hence exceeding the basic capacity. Moreover, we show that our model can dynamically construct hierarchical representations within working memory through hierarchical chunking. A consequence of this proposed mechanism is a new limit on the number of items that can be stored and subsequently retrieved from working memory, depending only on the basic working memory capacity when chunking is not invoked. Predictions from our model were confirmed by analyzing single-unit responses in epileptic patients and memory experiments with verbal material. Our work provides a novel conceptual and analytical framework for understanding the on-the-fly organization of information in the brain that is crucial for cognition.
... We set these to one side initially for the sake of simplicity despite knowing the importance of P e e r R e v i e w V e r s i o n 9 chunking based on LTM in immediate recall (Miller, 1956) and the key role of order information in STM (Conrad, 1965). By good fortune, our interest in these matters was growing at a time of rapidly developing opportunities for simulating behaviour computationally, as artificial neural networks (e.g., Hinton & Anderson, 1981). ...
... This suggests some form of integrated storage, in this case drawing on LTM. Miller's (1956) importance of integrated representations in working memory. These considerations led to a major extension of the multicomponent model to include an episodic buffer, seen as a limited capacity store for integrated, multi-modal representations, accessed by conscious awareness (Baddeley, 2000). ...
We provide a broad overview of our original investigation of working memory, how the multicomponent model followed from our use of a dissociative methodology and our intention that it should be simple, robust, and applicable. We describe how subsequent development of the model has increased its scope, depth, and applications while at the same time retaining its core features. Comparisons with the growing number of alternative models suggest agreement on the basic phenomena to be explained and more similarities than differences. While differences between models attract interest, we caution that they do not necessarily reflect the most important issues for future research, which we suggest relate principally to the nature of executive control. The longevity of the multicomponent model reflects not only the importance of working memory in cognition but the usefulness of a simple, robust framework for further theoretical development and applications.
... Analogies can be drawn with decomposing a message into words (and other structuressyntax, semantic and pragmatic) and a measurement result in a set of units, as recounted below. The concept of "chunking" was introduced early by Miller (1956). Brillouin (1962) emphasized is that it is not simply the number of symbols, but rather the number of combinations of symbols that determines the amount of "useful" information (Section 2.3.6.2) in a message. ...
... Those authors continue by considering the concept of "chunking" (Miller, 1956): ...
... Drawing on principles of cognitive science (Newell, Simon et al. 1972;Anderson 2013), humans typically decompose a complex problem into multiple subproblems, addressing each individually. Each subproblem is treated as a memory "chunk," thereby reducing the cognitive load on working memory (Miller 1956). By focusing on the results of completed subproblems rather than their detailed execution, humans effectively manage cognitive resources and improve their efficiency in solving complex, long-horizon tasks. ...
... Employing subgoals to compartmentalize action-observation pairs can be conceptualized as a form of chunking methodology. In human cognition, chunking allows individuals to group related information into meaningful units, thereby overcoming working memory limitations (Miller 1956). Similarly, HIAGENT utilizes subgoals as cognitive chunks, encapsulating related actions and observations. ...
Large Language Model (LLM)-based agents exhibit significant potential across various domains, operating as interactive systems that process environmental observations to generate executable actions for target tasks. The effectiveness of these agents is significantly influenced by their memory mechanism, which records historical experiences as sequences of action-observation pairs. We categorize memory into two types: cross-trial memory, accumulated across multiple attempts, and in-trial memory (working memory), accumulated within a single attempt. While considerable research has optimized performance through cross-trial memory, the enhancement of agent performance through improved working memory utilization remains underexplored. Instead, existing approaches often involve directly inputting entire historical action-observation pairs into LLMs, leading to redundancy in long-horizon tasks. Inspired by human problem-solving strategies, this paper introduces HiAgent, a framework that leverages subgoals as memory chunks to manage the working memory of LLM-based agents hierarchically. Specifically, HiAgent prompts LLMs to formulate subgoals before generating executable actions and enables LLMs to decide proactively to replace previous subgoals with summarized observations, retaining only the action-observation pairs relevant to the current subgoal. Experimental results across five long-horizon tasks demonstrate that HiAgent achieves a twofold increase in success rate and reduces the average number of steps required by 3.8. Additionally, our analysis shows that HiAgent consistently improves performance across various steps, highlighting its robustness and generalizability. Project Page: https://github.com/HiAgent2024/HiAgent .
... The 5, 7, and 10 point scale is more effective for regression, SEM and CFA as compare to other scales (Dawes, 2008). Using a fivepoint Likert scale approach stemmed from the recommendation of Miller (1956) that scale with fewer than 7 point is considered a good deal due to the proven inability of human reliably make more than seven distinction. To avoid concentration on midpoint (moderate), therefore 5 points Likert scale was chosen. ...
... The equal interval point scale was used as suggested by Myers and Warner (1968), Braunsberger and Gates (2009). The 5-point Likert scale 'strongly disagree' 'disagree' 'moderate' 'agree' and 'strongly agree' was adopted as recommended by Miller (1956) and Amin et al.(2014) respectively. ...
... Building on early empirical work in psychology, it has been suggested that cognitive capacity is limited regarding the amount of cognitive load that can be handled at a given moment. It is limited regarding the number of items (Miller, 1956(Miller, , 1994 and the duration (Peterson & Peterson, 1959) that one can simultaneously deal with in working memory: People selectively attend to seven plus or minus two cues in mind for roughly 20s and even less when these cues interact. ...
Today's technological advances hold great promise for managers, as they unleash unprecedented amounts of information. Whether and how managers will cope with the cognitive (over)load to effectively seize these opportunities remains underexplored. Extant organizational and management research has built on the assumption of managers' cognitive capacity limitations – a key aspect of their bounded rationality. Numerous studies have relied on this assumption and have contributed to our understanding of how individuals, groups, organizations, industries, and organizational fields cope with limited cognitive capacity. Based on a review of this research, this chapter uncovers how the organizational and management scholarship has applied and complemented the foundational work. It then sheds light on recent insights from parallel disciplines, and outlines avenues for future research to develop a broadened conceptualization of cognitive capacity and to further integrate the role of modern technologies in shaping cognitive capacity and in coping with cognitive (over)load in organizations.
... The Digit Span Task (DST), adapted by Orsini et al. (1987) from Miller's (1956) original design, was adopted in this study to determine the participant's verbal working memory performance. Participants recall a sequence of digits, with the longest correctly recalled sequence representing their digit span. ...
The widespread adoption of media multitasking among university students raises concerns about its underexplored effects on working memory. This study investigates the relationship between media multitasking habits and both verbal and visuospatial working memory performance. A correlational research was conducted with 40 undergraduate students from a local university, ensuring equal gender distribution and using convenience sampling. Media multitasking habits were measured with the Short Media Multitasking Measure (MMM-S), while both verbal and visuospatial working memory performances were assessed using the Digit Span Task (DST) and Corsi Block-Tapping Test, respectively. The results revealed a significant positive relationship between media multitasking habits and working memory performance, as indicated by greater recall accuracy but longer task completion times for participants with higher media multitasking scores.
... Learning content or representations that require numerous cognitive steps place a significant load on working memory, which is inherently limited in its capacity to process information effectively [52]. According to Miller, the human working memory can typically manage only a limited number of elements, often cited as 7 ± 2 at any given time [53]. Therefore, representations should be as comprehensive as possible while remaining simple to avoid cognitive overload and instead provide support to learners. ...
In quantum physics (QP) education, the use of representations such as diagrams and visual aids that connect to mathematical concepts is crucial. Research in representation theory indicates that combining symbolic-mathematical elements (e.g. formulae) with visual-graphical representations enhances conceptual understanding more effectively than representations that merely depict phenomena. However, common representations vary widely, and existing categorisation systems do not adequately distinguish between them in QP. To address this, we developed a new set of differentiation criteria based on insights from representation research, QP education, and specific aspects of the quantum sciences. We created a comprehensive category system for evaluating visual QP representations for educational use, grounded in Ainsworths (2006) DeFT Framework. Twenty-one experts from four countries evaluated this category system using four qubit representations: the Bloch sphere, Circle Notation, Quantum Bead, and the pie chart (Qake) model. This evaluation enabled us to assess the discriminative power of our criteria and the effectiveness of each representation in supporting the learning of QP concepts. It evaluated how well each representation conveyed quantum concepts such as quantum state, measurement, superposition, entanglement, and quantum technologies (X-, Z-, and H-gates) across 16 criteria. The results showed significant differences in the effectiveness of these representations, particularly in conveying key concepts like superposition and measurement. Additionally, expert ratings indicated notable variations in the potential of each representation to induce misconceptions, linked to differences in shape, measurement behaviour, and requirements for understanding entanglement. We also discuss considerations for developing new representations and suggest directions for future empirical studies.
... Traditional learning theories such as mastery learning (Bloom, 1968) and information processing (Miller, 1955) regard learning as a product and focus on the outcomes of the learning process, emphasizing the acquisition of knowledge, skills, or behaviours. "with a product curriculum, curriculum processes are seen as ways of bringing order, control and direction into language teaching and language course design" (Richards, 2017, p. 124). ...
The feeling of ownership and sense of control, often referred to as learner agency that students have over their learning, has recently garnered significant attention in English language teaching. Instructional strategies that empower learners have yielded promising results with regard to student engagement and academic outcomes. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of high-agency practices among English teachers in Moroccan secondary education. Quantitative data was collected using a questionnaire. The sample comprised 130 Moroccan English teachers working in public schools. The findings revealed a strong inclination among the surveyed teachers towards utilizing teaching practices that support learner agency. However, certain areas, such as providing self-access opportunities and embracing uncertainty, exhibited varying frequencies among respondents. Despite these differences, the study highlighted that Moroccan English teachers are at the frontiers of pedagogical innovation. This research pinpoints specific areas for further development to enrich the cultivation of learner agency in language education.
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... The concept of human information processing capacity gained increasing attention following the publication of Miller's seminal work in 1956 The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information [1]. This paper is regarded as a theoretical cornerstone of modern information processing psychology. ...
Sweller's cognitive load theory has profoundly influenced educational practices since the 1990s. This paper offers a concise introduction to cognitive load theory and presents an analysis of the current state of domestic research on this topic from 2013 to 2022, using the Web of Science Core Collection and the bibliometric software CiteSpace. Looking ahead, cognitive load theory holds the potential to underpin the design of instructional strategies in second language learning for Chinese English learners, thereby improving the efficiency of classroom teaching.
... Individuals having positive and higher attitude toward COs are more likely agreed upon that COs work has positive affect on society (Sargeant and Lee, 2001). According to Miller (1956), only five to nine reliance beliefs play role in defining their intention and attitude, which are gauged through different approaches. For example, seminal work of Ajzen (1991), is one of the most prevalent approaches for understanding human behaviour and rooted in social-psychology, namely, The theory of planned behaviour (TPB). ...
... Concerning the random attribute count, recognizing that individuals have a limited capacity to process simultaneous information, when the variety of message categories surpasses a certain threshold, individuals may opt to overlook certain information or even respond with uncertainty, potentially diminishing the significance of causal relationships (Krosnick 1991). As illustrated by Miller (1994) in a renowned article in psychology, individuals can effectively process only about nine messages concurrently. Hence, this study restricts the scale of experimental attributes to a total of eight sets, encompassing one set featuring candidate personal details (age and gender) in images, three sets of candidate personal details, and most importantly, four sets of candidate policy stances. ...
This study investigates how personal attributes of political candidates influence voter preferences in Taiwan's regional legislative elections using Conjoint Survey Experiments. The findings highlight that voters prefer candidates with certain attributes, such as youthful appearance, higher educational background, and specific professions. Additionally, the study reveals that policy stances on national defense and security play a significant role due to Taiwan's unique political context. The research also notes variations in attribute preferences among different demographic subgroups, offering insights into voter behavior in East Asia and emerging democracies.
... An early study by Miller [15] suggested that people could remember about seven chunks in Short Term Memory (STM). Subsequent research indicated a more precise capacity limit of three to five chunks. ...
Navigating through a new indoor environment can be stressful. Recently, many places have deployed robots to assist visitors. One of the features of such robots is escorting the visitors to their desired destination within the environment, but this is neither scalable nor necessary for every visitor. Instead, a robot assistant could be deployed at a strategic location to provide wayfinding instructions. This not only increases the user experience but can be helpful in many time-critical scenarios e.g., escorting someone to their boarding gate at an airport. However, delivering route descriptions verbally poses a challenge. If the description is too verbose, people may struggle to recall all the information, while overly brief descriptions may be simply unhelpful. This article focuses on studying the optimal length of verbal route descriptions that are effective for reaching the destination and easy for people to recall. This work proposes a theoretical framework that links route segments to chunks in working memory. Based on this framework, an experiment is designed and conducted to examine the effects of route descriptions of different lengths on navigational performance. The results revealed intriguing patterns suggesting an ideal length of four route segments. This study lays a foundation for future research exploring the relationship between route description lengths, working memory capacity, and navigational performance in indoor environments.
... Respondents can indicate how much they agree or disagree with certain assertions using this psychological measuring instrument, which ranges from "Strongly Agree" to "Strongly Disagree" [17]. Because it avoids binary nature and offers a more nuanced degree of response, the Likert scale offers increased flexibility in evaluating emotions or views [18]. Likert scales offer for the flexibility to record different degrees of ideas or sentiments by allowing responses to be given in more depth [19]. ...
... The Delphi technique uses designed tools to elicit experts' opinions, assessments, and consensus (Dalkey & Rourke, 1972). Miller (1994) describes the Delphi technique as a qualitative and systematic procedure for predicting that entails raising a series of questions to the experts. The Delphi method used by Tee et al. (2022) demonstrates its adaptability and suitability, particularly when improving comprehension of problems, opportunities, solutions, or projections is the goal (Skulmoski et al., 2007). ...
... This scale is used as a reference to convert decision makers' verbal 177 judgments into numerical judgments. The nine-point scale was based on Miller's psychological experiments (Miller, 1956). Saaty argued that decision-making robustness is superior when using the 179 nine-point scale (Saaty, 1995 ...
... Na przykład w latach 50. ubiegłego wieku Miller (1955) wykazał eksperymentalnie, że ludzi cechuje ograniczona zdolność zapamiętywania informacji, gdyż w pamięci krótkotrwałej można jednocześnie przechowywać 7±2 elementy. W latach 70. ...
Od lat 70. poprzedniego stulecia zjawiskiem wypalenia zawodowego interesuje się coraz większa grupa badaczy na całym świecie. Istnieje wiele empirycznych dowodów na to, że wypalenie zawodowe stanowi poważne zagrożenie dla zdrowia psychicznego pracowników i ich zdolności do pracy. Celem przeprowadzonych badań była odpowiedź na pytania, czy istnieje związek pomiędzy stratami i zyskami w zasobach osobistych a wypaleniem zawodowym, a także które ze strat i zysków w zasobach osobistych są predyktorami wypalenia zawodowego. Próbę badawczą stanowiło 90 nauczycieli szkół podstawowych i gimnazjalnych z województw warmińsko-mazurskiego, kujawsko-pomorskiego i pomorskiego. W badaniu zastosowano następujące narzędzia badawcze: Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI-ES) i Kwestionariusz Samooceny Zysków i Strat (na podstawie teorii Stevana Hobfolla). Analiza danych wykazała relację strat zasobów hedonistycznych i witalnych oraz władzy i prestiżu z wyczerpaniem, a także zysków zasobów hedonistycznych i witalnych z wyczerpaniem i poczuciem osiągnięć, jak również zysków zasobów rodzinnych z wyczerpaniem. Nie potwierdzono związku strat i zysków zasobów z depersonalizacją oraz strat i zysków zasobów wewnętrznych i duchowych, ekonomiczno-politycznych z wypaleniem. Ujawniono również, że zasoby hedonistyczne i witalne są najistotniejszym predyktorem wypalenia zawodowego.
Słowa kluczowe: wypalenie zawodowe, dobrostan, straty i zyski zasobów osobistych, profilaktyka, zdrowie.
... • Short-Term Memory (STM): Information is temporarily held in an accessible state, typically lasting from seconds to minutes [18]. STM relies on transient changes in neuronal activity and is limited in capacity, often described by the "7 ± 2" rule (i.e., the ability to hold approximately seven items simultaneously) [20]. ...
Artificial intelligence has been transformed by Generative Adver-sarial Networks (GANs) that can create naturalistic data in multiple domains. This paper surveys the use of GANs as cloud storage systems to provide a more secure and efficient alternative to conventional methods. By establishing theoretical relationships between GANs and human brain memory mechanisms, we hope to reveal potential advancements in AI memory systems. The generators and discriminators form GANs, which generate data indistinguishable from accurate data. This power also improves security in data storage processes such as retrieval. The human brain's memory system represents these AI systems in its complex encoding, storage, and retrieval processes. Our theory reveals that neuroscience contributes to the design of GAN-based storage solutions, which could lead to hybrid models combining the strengths of the two systems. This study reviews existing literature on the subject, including case studies and practical implementations , to support our conjectures. This theory is important in the context of cloud storage but has wider implications for Artificial Intelligence and cognitive computing. If similarities between GANs and brain memory are understood, more advanced and efficient data storage solutions can be designed.
... These characteristics include natural shapes and patterns such as fractals, spirals, and detailed textures and patterns that echo natural complexity. They also include cognitively legible patterns such as small groups of elements, repeating motifs, and [36,37]. ...
It is widely recognized that rapid urbanization and urban change are defining traits of the contemporary era, bringing both daunting challenges and hopeful opportunities. It is therefore critical that we have a clear and actionable model of the nature of urban space and the dynamics of its functions and dysfunctions to guide policy and practice. Yet the field today includes a range of definitions that are often inconsistent and often conflating very different properties of urban land, often expressed in some version of the conflated characterization, “over half of humanity now lives in cities.” In the last several decades, more articulated theoretical models have been advanced, with notable differences and discrepancies as well as partial commonalities. Here we assess the various models, and we formulate a consolidated and “consilient” theoretical model that may help guide policy and practice through an era of increasingly daunting urban challenges. In particular, the model focuses upon the cellular network structure of public and private spaces, and the dynamics of their evolution under human control – a theoretical model we refer to as Place Network Theory.
... Subpersonal-level attributions of cognitive states, however, are a relatively recent scientific development. These arose during the cognitive revolution, when psychologists such as Miller (1956) and Broadbent (1958) started to model the brain as unconsciously storing, retrieving, and transforming information in the manner of a physical computer. ...
... Table III presents the existence for each label field across various regulations. In the design of GAI privacy label format, we meticulously considered the limitations of human cognitive psychology, particularly the concept of information chunking as proposed by Miller [61,62]. Fig. 1.D illustrates an example of our proposed GAI privacy label. ...
The rapid development and widespread adoption of Generative Artificial Intelligence-based (GAI) applications have greatly enriched our daily lives, benefiting people by enhancing creativity, personalizing experiences, improving accessibility, and fostering innovation and efficiency across various domains. However, along with the development of GAI applications, concerns have been raised about transparency in their privacy practices. Traditional privacy policies often fail to effectively communicate essential privacy information due to their complexity and length, and open-source community developers often neglect privacy practices even more. Only 12.2% of examined open-source GAI apps provide a privacy policy. To address this, we propose a regulation-driven GAI Privacy Label and introduce Repo2Label, a novel framework for automatically generating these labels based on code repositories. Our user study indicates a common endorsement of the proposed GAI privacy label format. Additionally, Repo2Label achieves a precision of 0.81, recall of 0.88, and F1-score of 0.84 based on the benchmark dataset, significantly outperforming the developer self-declared privacy notices. We also discuss the common regulatory (in)compliance of open-source GAI apps, comparison with other privacy notices, and broader impacts to different stakeholders. Our findings suggest that Repo2Label could serve as a significant tool for bolstering the privacy transparency of GAI apps and make them more practical and responsible.
... As many theories of consciousness are untested and untestable [9], the plausibility of generic acceptance of any or more is food for thought. George Miller (1962), who introduced the concept of the magical number seven plus or minus two in 1956 [10] and shaped the study of memory in psychology, noted, "Consciousness is a word worn smooth by a million tongues." Intriguingly, consciousness is what everyone possesses, but without knowing precisely what it is. ...
... The three components are (1) the Central executive, which is capable of focusing attention, storing information, and making decisions, and two active slave systems, namely (2) the Visuospatial Sketchpad, which holds and manipulates visuospatial information, and (3) the Phonological Loop, which keeps speech-based information. The original model of working memory by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) received a great deal of attention from other researchers in the field as it primarily emphasizes the active manipulation of information rather than passive storage, which distinguishes it from earlier short-term memory models (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1971;Miller, 1956). This model was adopted by many researchers studying span and loop capacity and its influence on language (Daneman & Carpenter, 1980;Daneman & Green, 1986;Just & Carpenter, 1992;Just et al., 1996). ...
This study investigated the relationship between working memory capacity (WMC) and L2 oral fluency and explored the maintenance of newly presented information in L2 speaking production. When performing speech production tasks, knowledge from long-term memory is at frequent use and hence involves the operation of the episodic buffer, one component of the working memory system, where information is retrieved from long-term memory and stored in chunks as we speak in chunks. In this study, we measured WMC by assessing chunk capacity and chunk size held in and retrieved from the episodic buffer. Chunk capacity was measured by Pair-word Speaking Task; chunk size was measured by Procedure Description Task; and oral fluency was measured by speech rate and mean length of run using an IELTS speaking task. Twenty-nine English-major students participated in this study. The results showed a strong positive correlation between chunk capacity and the two measures of fluency while chunk size negatively correlated with fluency. Data from the recall interviews revealed that participants employed various strategies for the maintenance of the presented information which involved different types of information binding.
... In the context of consumer behavior analysis in the age of Big Data, this theory is relevant because it provides insights into how consumers make decisions based on the vast amount of information available to them. By understanding the cognitive processes underlying consumer decision-making, marketers can optimize the presentation of information in their marketing strategies to influence consumer behavior effectively (Miller, 1956). ...
Purpose: The aim of the study was to examine the consumer behavior analysis in the age of big data for effective marketing strategies. Methodology: This study adopted a desk methodology. A desk study research design is commonly known as secondary data collection. This is basically collecting data from existing resources preferably because of its low cost advantage as compared to a field research. Our current study looked into already published studies and reports as the data was easily accessed through online journals and libraries. Findings: The study found that consumer behavior analysis in the age of big data presents a transformative opportunity for businesses to enhance their marketing strategies and better understand their target audiences. The studies discussed demonstrate the effectiveness of leveraging Big Data analytics in various domains such as social media sentiment analysis, personalized marketing, predictive analytics, customer segmentation, location-based marketing, and real-time personalization. These strategies enable businesses to tailor their marketing efforts more precisely, leading to increased consumer interest, improved engagement, and higher conversion rates. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: Social Identity Theory, Information Processing Theory & Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) may be used to anchor future studies on Consumer Behavior Analysis in the Age of Big Data for Effective Marketing Strategies. Promote the adoption of advanced data analytics tools and techniques by businesses to enhance their marketing strategies. Companies should invest in robust data infrastructure, analytics platforms, and talent to effectively collect, analyze, and interpret consumer data. By leveraging predictive analytics, sentiment analysis, customer segmentation, and real-time personalization, businesses can tailor their marketing efforts to individual consumer preferences and behaviors, leading to improved engagement, customer satisfaction, and ultimately, increased sales and profitability. Advocate for the development of regulatory frameworks that balance consumer privacy rights with the benefits of data-driven marketing. Policymakers should collaborate with industry stakeholders to establish guidelines and standards for ethical data collection, usage, and storage.
... This capacity is lost when dealing with more than seven variables. 4 The "black box" factor makes it impossible to understand how an ML model came to a particular conclusion. In addition, intensivists cannot precisely compute how they arrive at a final decision. ...
... Thus, numbers constitute in arithmology an independent level mathematical fancies such as pyramidology, etc. See a critical study by an eminent mathematician: Dudley 1997. 5 As, e. g., Burkert 1972, 466 n. 2;Kalvesmaki 2013, 5. 6 Runia 2001 In a famous paper the cognitive psychologist George A. Miller explained the ubiquity of seven by the capacity of human memory (Miller 1956). See also Zvi 1988. ...
... For example, classifying data into two classes does not convey much useful information, while using 10 class bins might make the map incomprehensible by having very similar symbols which can no longer be easily distinguished. Previous research (Miller, 1956;Mersey, 1990;Cromley, 1995) suggested using five to seven classes for static maps. Most thematic maps show data with seven or less classes (Linfang & Liqiu, 2014). ...
Even though the web is a platform that provides lots of features, interactivity, and a high degree of customizability for creating web maps, web-based thematic maps still require expertise to visualize geospatial data in a way that highlights spatial differences and is cartographically comprehensive. The popular open-source web mapping library Leaflet lacks a straightforward approach to create thematic maps with basic principles they should adhere to (data classification, automatic symbology and legend generation). Although various tutorials and workarounds exist, those are hard-coded, only solve some principles thematic maps require and are complex to accomplish, requiring programming experience. The paper focuses on finding a way to overcome shortcomings of Leaflet in terms of thematic maps, that supports a simple, self-explanatory method of producing thematic web maps using the library. As a solution, this paper introduces an easy-to-use, open-source plugin for Leaflet, developed by the authors, which combines all processes required for creating a thematic map from a GeoJSON dataset, in one single step. For symbology, it supports graduated symbol colours and sizes, and colour and hatch pattern fills for polygons. It supports well-known classification methods for quantitative data and puts emphasis on providing numerous options for all underlying processes, to fine-tune the visualization (data normalization, rounding class boundary values, legend templating etc.). This highly customizable extension intends to help people who do not have experience with map design and are not familiar with scripting to an extent to be able to code visually pleasing thematic maps for websites.
... According to the Information Processing Theory, human thinking is like a computer or information processor, rather than behaviorism that assumes people simply react to stimuli. Long-term memory can be stored and retrieved for future use after appropriate encoding, in contrast to sensory memory and working memory (short-term memory) that are fleeting and easily forgotten [25]. Craik and Lockhart emphasized that the extent to which information is processed or elaborated in various ways (perception, attention, labeling, and meaning) can greatly affect the ability to access information later. ...
This paper examines how English proficiency and international perspective, as indicators of international adaptation, influence the economic income of urban residents in China, and how this varies by education, profession, and occupation. Using data from the 2018 China General Social Survey (CGSS2018) and a multiple linear regression model, this paper analyzes the overall and heterogeneous effects of these variables on income. The results show that English proficiency and international perspective have a positive and significant impact on income, which increases with education level. Moreover, this paper finds significant differences in the impact of these variables across professions and occupations. Science, engineering and non-governmental workers benefit more, while liberal arts and domestically oriented service workers benefit less. In the conclusion and discussion section, the paper compares the results with existing literature and offers a new perspective for understanding the determinants and disparities of urban income.
... Local Contrast Learning is an approach used to learn a parameterized model to identify objects in a local context by contrasting objects one by one. Recognition is always carried out in a local context that must be a small scenario only with a few objects (the number of objects is usually less than seven) [45]. LCL draws on two key ideas from human cognitive behavior: (1) local context-recognition must be based on a local context, and only depend on the local context. ...
Learning a deep model from small data is an opening and challenging problem. In high-dimensional spaces, few samples only occupy an extremely small portion of the space, often exhibiting sparsity issues. Classifying in this globally sparse sample space poses significant challenges. However, by using a single sample category as a reference object for comparing and recognizing other samples, it is possible to construct a local space. Conducting contrastive learning in this local space can overcome the sparsity issue of a few samples. Based on this insight, we proposed a novel deep learning approach named Local Contrast Learning (LCL). This is analogous to a key insight into human cognitive behavior, where humans identify the objects in a specific context by contrasting them with the objects in that context or from their memory. LCL is used to train a deep model that can contrast the recognized sample with a couple of contrastive samples that are randomly drawn and shuffled. On a one-shot classification task on Omniglot, the deep model-based LCL with 86 layers and 1.94 million parameters, which was trained on a tiny dataset with only 60 classes and 20 samples per class, achieved an accuracy of 98.95%. Furthermore, it achieved an accuracy of 99.24% at 156 classes and 20 samples per class. LCL is a fundamental idea that can be applied to alleviate the parametric model’s overfitting resulting from a lack of training samples.
... It is worth noting that the seven-valued logic is interesting from a cognitive psychology perspective. According to the seminal article by Miller [14], entitled 'The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information', it appears that individuals can effectively handle approximately seven stimuli simultaneously. This limit applies to both one-dimensional absolute judgment and short-term memory. ...
The seven-valued logic considered in this paper naturally arises within the rough set framework, allowing to distinguish vagueness due to imprecision from ambiguity due to coarseness. Recently, we discussed its utility for reasoning about data describing multi-attribute classification of objects. We also showed that this logic contains, as a particular case, the celebrated Belnap four-valued logic. Here, we present how the seven-valued logic, as well as the other logics that derive from it, can be used to represent preferences in the domain of Multiple Criteria Decision Aiding (MCDA). In particular, we propose new forms of outranking and value function preference models that aggregate multiple criteria taking into account imperfect preference information. We demonstrate that our approach effectively addresses common challenges in preference modeling for MCDA, such as uncertainty, imprecision, and ill-determination of performances and preferences. To this end, we present a specific procedure to construct a seven-valued preference relation and use it to define recommendations that consider robustness concerns by utilizing multiple outranking or value functions representing the decision maker s preferences. Moreover, we discuss the main properties of the proposed seven-valued preference structure and compare it with current approaches in MCDA, such as ordinal regression, robust ordinal regression, stochastic multiattribute acceptability analysis, stochastic ordinal regression, and so on. We illustrate and discuss the application of our approach using a didactic example. Finally, we propose directions for future research and potential applications of the proposed methodology.
... The study revealed that the sample population's acceptance on increasing the number of relevant HRQoL attributes in the EQ-5D-5L. However, unassisted respondents could face difficulty in information processing and engagement if the instrument is too complex, and the ideal length for self-reported instruments was previously recommended as seven attributes [47]. Though support could be further provided if necessary [48], the final number of attributes in a HRQoL instrument should be carefully considered. ...
Purpose
The introduction of bolt-on dimensions in EQ-5D instruments is growing common, but most bolt-on studies have targeted the diseased population and obtained bolt-on from other existing Health-related Quality of Life (HRQoL) instruments. As the qualitative approach offers important evidence to support the consistency and design of the potential bolt-on items, this paper studies the Hong Kong SAR community’s perception of the current EQ-5D-5 L instrument and identifies potential bolt-on via a qualitative approach.
Methods
A representative sample mix was recruited based on the age group, gender, and education level composition of the Hong Kong SAR community by quota sampling. Semi-structured interviews were conducted and the interviews were transcribed and coded to identify emergent and recurrent themes.
Results
Thirty interviews were conducted and the majority of the interviewees considered the EQ-5D-5 L insufficiently comprehensive to illustrate their HRQoL. While some key HRQoL aspects included in the EQ-5D matched with the community’s HRQoL perception, respondents showed concern about the potential overlap of the existing HRQoL dimension, the optimal number or attributes, and the appropriateness of the EQ-VAS. Among the potential bolt-on dimensions that emerged, ‘Sleep’, ‘Interpersonal Relationship’, and ‘Satisfaction’ were the key potential bolt-on dimensions identified and emphasized in the interviews.
Conclusions
The qualitative findings of the study illustrate the possible gap between EQ-5D-5 L measurements and community HRQoL perception, while the findings support the development of EQ-5D bolt-on dimensions in the target community with content and face validity.
... To illustrate, in their task, participants are presented with twelve-word strings that they are asked to recall. Some strings require participants to hold a set of unrelated words in memory, much like previous memory tasks (e.g. years got don't to game have she mean to them far is); retrieval of strings in these baseline items poses a notable challenge, given that they far exceed the common span of about seven items (Miller, 1956). However, the task also contains target items that are made up of recognizable high-frequency three-word phrases that can be chunked, or compressed, into trigrams (have to eat good to know don't like them is really nice); the target items make the task easier, and they tend to elicit significantly higher rates of accurate recall. ...
The traditional ontological division between the lexicon and grammar has often resulted in a reductionist view of the lexicon and lexical competence as composed of individual words in isolation. This narrow view of the lexicon has transcended disciplinary boundaries and is apparent in the focus on single words of widely used psycholinguistic measures of language (e.g. picture naming, verbal fluency, lexical decision) and cognitive ability alike (e.g. Stroop, recall in working memory span). This article argues that such an approach has imposed limitations on the questions that can be examined by researchers and on the generalizability of some results. Here I propose that, rather than assigning multiword units their own ‘niche’ in psycholinguistic studies, they should be viewed as part of the way core lexical competence is measured and conceptualized, both in monolingual and bilingual speakers. I also review promising advances in recent years brought about by a surge in the number of studies focused on multiword units and by new tasks of individual cognitive skill (e.g. multiword-based chunking ability). These hold the potential to allow for a cross-disciplinary shift in the examination of lexical competence as grounded in community-based norms and in line with current usage-based approaches.
The objective of this paper is to provide a tool of practical significance for HR managers and firm executives. This tool, which is called Extrinsic Motivation Index (EMI), is meant to measure the extrinsic motivation of employees. By measuring employees' extrinsic motivation, managers are able to track job satisfaction and, subsequently, implement measures aiming both to raise job satisfaction and to improve organizational commitment. In order to test the validity of the model, we apply the EMI to Faculty members at Spanish and German universities. We also carry out simulation experiments in order to to address all possible situations an organization most probably will have to deal with. The results point out significant differences in the level of motivation and commitment of Faculty members. Additionally, the analysis shows several ways in which an organization may manage job satisfaction issues according to on its level of resources.
Bu bölümün amacı, eğitim psikolojisi alanının günümüz eğitim sisteminde ve öğretim süreçlerinde oynadığı kritik rolü anlamak için kapsamlı bir içerik sunmaktır. İlk olarak, günümüzde okul sistemi, öğrenme ve öğretim konularını ele alarak, çeşitlilik, teknoloji entegrasyonu, öz-yeterlik inançları ve eğitimdeki beklentiler üzerinde durulmaktadır. İkinci olarak, iyi öğretim ve öğretmenlik kavramları incelenerek, etkili öğretim modelleri ve öğretmenlerin rolü tartışılmaktadır. Üçüncü olarak, eğitim psikolojisi alanının önemi ve bu alanın öğrenci gelişimi ve öğretim stratejilerine katkısı vurgulanmaktadır. Son olarak, eğitim psikolojisinde kullanılan araştırma yöntemleri açıklanarak, bu yöntemlerin öğretim ve öğrenme süreçlerini nasıl desteklediği incelenmektedir. Bu bölüm, eğitimcilere, politika yapıcılara ve diğer eğitim paydaşlarına, daha kapsayıcı, etkili ve sürdürülebilir bir eğitim sistemi oluşturma konusunda rehberlik eden önemli bilgiler sunmaktadır.
Eğitim psikolojisi, bireylerin öğrenme ve gelişim süreçlerini derinleme-sine anlamayı ve bu süreçleri desteklemeyi amaçlayan bir disiplindir. Bu alan, eğitim bilimleriyle psikoloji bilimlerinin kesişim noktasında yer alır ve bu iki disiplinin teorik ve pratik bilgilerini birleştirerek bireylerin çok yönlü gelişimlerini (örn. bilişsel, duygusal ve sosyal gelişim) desteklemeyi hedefler. Ayrıca bu alan, öğrencilerin öğrenme ve gelişim süreçlerini anlamak ve bu bilgileri etkili öğretim stratejileri geliştirmek için kullanmak üzere sistematik araştırmalar yapar. Eğitim psikolojisi öğretmenlerin, diğer eğitimcilerin ve eğitim paydaşlarının öğrencilerin farklı öğrenme ihtiyaçlarını ve potansiyellerini tanımalarına yardımcı olur. Ayrıca öğrenci başarısının artırılması, motivasyonun sağlanması ve öğrenme engellerinin aşılması gibi önemli konularda rehberlik eder. Böylece eğitim ortamlarını daha kapsayıcı ve verimli hale getirir.
Eğitim psikolojisi öğrenme teorileri, bilişsel gelişim, motivasyon, öğrenme ortamlarının tasarımı ve yönetimi ile değerlendirme gibi alanları kapsar ve bu süreçleri bilimsel temellere dayandırarak iyileştirmeyi amaçlar. Pavlov, Piaget, Kohlberg, Freud, Binet, Gardner, Vygotsky, Erikson, Bandura, Bronfenbrenner gibi önemli kuramcıların çalışmaları, eğitim psikolojisinin temelini oluşturur ve öğretim yöntemlerinin gelişimine katkı sağlar. Bu kuramlar, öğretmenlere öğrencilerin zihinsel, sosyal, ahlaki, duygusal ve davranış gelişimlerini daha iyi anlama imkânı sunar. Böylece öğretim süreçlerinin bireyselleştirilmesine ve etkinleştirilmesine olanak tanır. Ayrıca davranışçılık, bilişselcilik ve yapılandırmacılık gibi farklı yaklaşımlar, eğitim psikolojisi sayesinde daha anlaşılır ve uygulanabilir hale gelmiştir.
Bu kuramların çağdaş yorumları eğitimde kapsayıcılık, yapılandırmacılık, motivasyon, teknoloji ve aile katılımı gibi güncel akımları şekillendirmiştir. Kapsayıcılık, eğitimde adalet ve fırsat eşitliği idealini taşır, her öğrencinin potansiyelini gerçekleştirmeyi hedefler. Yapılandırmacılık, öğrenmenin aktif bir süreç olduğunu ve öğrencilerin kendi bilgilerini oluşturduklarını vurgular. Motivasyon teorileri, öğrencilerin içsel ve dışsal motivasyon kaynaklarını anlamaya ve bu kaynakları eğitsel amaçlar doğrultusunda kullanmaya odaklanır. Teknolojinin eğitimdeki rolü öğrenme ortamlarını zenginleştirirken öğretmenlere etkileşimli ve destekleyici öğretim yöntemleri geliştirme fırsatı sunar. Aile katılımı ise öğrencilerin akademik ve sosyal gelişimine katkıda bulunan önemli bir unsurdur. Bu akımlar, eğitim psikolojisinin evrensel ilkelerini çağdaş eğitim uygulamalarına entegre etmeye yönelik önemli bir çaba olarak değerlendirilir.
Günümüzde okullarda ve sınıflarda karşılaşılan akademik başarısızlık, davranış sorunları, düşük öğrenci motivasyonu ve aidiyet duygusundaki yetersizlikler gibi konular eğitim psikolojisi alanının önemini daha da artırmaktadır. Okulda yaşanan bu tür sorunlarla başa çıkılabilmesi için eğitim psikolojisinin sağladığı bilgi ve teknikler büyük önem taşır. Eğitim psikolojisi alanında çalışan uzmanlar, öğrenci davranışlarını anlamak ve bu davranışların ardındaki psikolojik süreçleri analiz etmek için çeşitli araştırma ve değerlendirme yöntemleri kullanır. Bu sayede öğrencilere bireysel destek sağlamak, onların başarı ve motivasyonlarını artırmak ve sınıf içi dinamikleri iyileştirmek mümkün olur. Eğitim psikolojisi öğretmenlerin öğrencilerle daha etkili iletişim kurmalarını, onların ihtiyaçlarına uygun stratejiler geliştirmelerini ve pozitif bir öğrenme ortamı oluşturmalarını sağlar. Böylece öğrenci aidiyeti ve motivasyonu artırılarak eğitim süreçleri daha verimli ve tatmin edici hale getirilir.
Eğitim psikolojisi, eğitim ve öğrenme süreçlerini anlamak ve geliştirmek için vazgeçilmez bir alandır. Bu alan eğitim sisteminin merkezinde yer alarak öğretim ve öğrenme süreçlerinin daha bilimsel, etkili ve bireyselleştirilmiş olmasını sağlar. Öğrencilerin gelişim ve öğrenme süreçlerini anlayarak öğretim yöntemlerini bu bilgiye göre uyarlayan eğitim psikolojisi alanı, aynı zamanda etkili öğretim, sınıf yönetimi ve değerlendirme gibi alanlarda da rehberlik eder. Bu alan öğretmenlerin, öğrencilerin farklı öğrenme ihtiyaçlarını karşılamalarına ve onların potansiyellerini en üst düzeye çıkarmalarına yardımcı olur. Eğitim psikolojisinin sağladığı bu kapsamlı bakış açısı ve bilimsel temeller, eğitim sisteminin daha etkili, kapsayıcı ve yenilikçi olmasını sağlar. Böylece her öğrenciye eşit ve kaliteli eğitim fırsatları sunulabilir.
Hazırlanan bu Eğitim Psikolojisi kitabı, hem klasik akımların derinlemesine incelenmesi hem de güncel tartışmaların ele alınmasıyla zengin bir içerik sunmaktadır. Kitap, alanındaki temel kuramları ve güncel yaklaşımları bir araya getirerek eğitimciler, öğretmenler, öğrenci ve araştırmacılar için kapsamlı bir rehber olma niteliği taşımaktadır. Kitabın her bölümü, alanında uzman akademisyenler tarafından kaleme alınmış olup okuyuculara teorik bilgilerin yanısıra pratik uygulamalar sunmaktadır. Bölümler arasında Piaget ve Vygotsky gibi önemli kuramcıların bilişsel gelişim kuramları, Freud’un psikoseksüel gelişim aşamaları, Erikson’un psikososyal gelişim dönemleri, Bandura’nın sosyal bilişsel teorisi gibi klasik yaklaşımlar detaylı bir şekilde incelenmiştir. Aynı zamanda yapılandırmacı yöntemler, öğrenci merkezli öğretim, bilişsel öğrenme stratejileri, öğrenci çeşitliliği ve kapsayıcılık, aile katılımı, öğretim teknolojileri ve ölçme ve değerlendirme stratejileri gibi güncel ve modern yaklaşımlar da kapsamlı bir biçimde ele alınmıştır. Kitap, bu kapsamda hem klasik akımları hem de güncel tartışmaları bir araya getirerek okuyuculara kapsamlı ve uygulamalı bir rehber sunmaktadır.
Örnek olaylar, tartışma soruları ve uygulayıcılara notlar, kitabın dikkat çekici özellikleri arasındadır. Her bölümde yer alan gerçek hayattan alınmış örnekler, okuyucuların teorik bilgileri pratikle ilişkilendirmelerine olanak tanımaktadır. Tartışma soruları ise okuyucuların konuları daha derinlemesine düşünmelerini ve eleştirel bir bakış açısıyla değerlendirmelerini sağlamaktadır. Ayrıca kitabın her bölümünde uygulayıcıya notlar yer almakta olup bu notlar öğretmenler ve eğitimciler için pratik öneriler sunmaktadır. Bu öneriler sınıf içi ve dışındaki uygulamalarda karşılaşılan sorunlara çözüm getirmekte ve öğretim süreçlerinin daha etkili hale getirilmesine katkıda bulunmaktadır. Bu sayede eğitim psikolojisinin sadece teorik bir bilgi birikimi olarak kalmayıp aynı zamanda uygulamalı bir bilim dalı olduğu vurgulanmaktadır.
On dört bölüm içeren bu kitaptaki her bölüm alanında uzman akademisyenler tarafından yazılmış olup teorik bilgilerin yanı sıra pratik uygulamaları da içermektedir.
1. Bölüm: Öğrenme ve Gelişimin Temeli Olarak Eğitim Psikolojisi adlı bölümde günümüz okul sistemlerinin yapısı, öğrenme ve öğretim süreçleri ele alınmaktadır. Eğitim psikolojisinin rolü, araştırma yöntemleri ve etkili öğretim teknikleri gibi temel konulara odaklanılmaktadır. Prof. Dr. Halis SAKIZ tarafından yazılan bu bölüm, öğretmenlerin ve eğitimcilerin, öğrencilerin öğrenme süreçlerini daha iyi anlamalarına ve geliştirmelerine yardımcı ol-mayı amaçlamaktadır.
2. Bölüm: Bilişsel Gelişim ve Dil Gelişimi adlı bölümde bilişsel gelişim ve dil gelişimi konuları ele alınmaktadır. Piaget’nin bilişsel gelişim kuramı ve Vygotsky’nin sosyokültürel bakış açısı detaylı bir şekilde incelenmektedir. Ayrıca bu kuramların öğretim ve öğrenme süreçlerine etkileri de tartışılmaktadır. Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Nizamettin KOÇ tarafından kaleme alınan bölüm, öğrencilerin bilişsel ve dil gelişimlerini anlamak isteyen eğitimcilere yönelik kapsamlı bilgiler sunmaktadır.
3. Bölüm: Bireylerde Fiziksel, Psikoseksüel, Sosyal, Duygusal ve Ahlaki Ge-lişim adlı bölüm Dr. Lutfi ÖZTÜRK tarafından hazırlanmıştır. Bölümde Bronfenbrenner’in gelişimin sosyal bağlamı, Erikson’un psikososyal gelişim dönemleri, benlik algısı ve fiziksel gelişim gibi konular ele alınmıştır. Ayrıca çocukluk ve ergenlik döneminde sosyo-duygusal gelişim, Freud’un psikoseksüel gelişim kuramı ve Kohlberg’in ahlak gelişimi kuramı gibi önemli teoriler de kapsamlı bir şekilde incelenmektedir.
4. Bölüm: Öğrenmede Davranışçı Kuramlar adlı bölümde Pavlov ve Skinner gibi önemli isimlerin davranışçı öğrenme kuramları detaylandırılmaktadır. Bölümde klasik ve edimsel koşullanma, uygulamalı davranış analizi ve öğretimde davranışçı teknikler gibi konulara odaklanılmaktadır. Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Suna ÖZCAN’ın yazdığı bu bölüm, davranışsal yaklaşımların eğitimde nasıl uygulanabileceğine dair pratik bilgiler sunmaktadır.
5. Bölüm: Öğrenmede Bilişsel Kuramlar ve Bilgi İşleme Yaklaşımı adlı bölüm bilişsel öğrenme kuramları ve bilgi işlem süreci üzerine odaklanmakta, bilişsel bakış açısının unsurlarını ve davranışçılıkla olan farklılıklarını açıklamaktadır. Hafıza, uzun süreli bellek, bilişsel öğrenme stratejileri, problem çözme ve yaratıcı düşünme gibi konular Doç. Dr. Serap YILMAZ ÖZELÇİ tarafından detaylı bir şekilde ele alınmaktadır.
6. Bölüm: Öğrenci Merkezli ve Yapılandırmacı Yaklaşımlar adlı bölüm, yapılandırmacı bakış açısının tanımını ve yapılandırmacı yöntemleri açıklamaktadır. Doç. Dr. Sultan Selen KULA tarafından yazılan bu bölümde öğrenci merkezli öğretim, iş birliğine dayalı öğrenme, keşfederek öğrenme ve aktif öğrenme gibi konular kapsamlı bir şekilde incelenmektedir.
7. Bölüm: Öğrenmede Sosyal Bilişsel Görüşler adlı bölümde Bandura’nın sosyal bilişsel teorisi ve bu teorinin eğitimde uygulanışı ele alınmaktadır. Öz düzenlemeli öğrenme ve öz yeterlik gibi konular bölüm yazarı Doç. Dr. Arzu BUYRUK GENÇ tarafından detaylı bir şekilde incelenmektedir. Bu bölüm, sosyal bilişsel yaklaşımların öğrenme süreçlerine olan etkisini anlamak iste-yen eğitimcilere yönelik bilgiler sunmaktadır.
8. Bölüm: Öğrenme ve Öğretimde Motivasyon adlı bölüm Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Fatima Zehra ALLAHVERDİ tarafından yazılmıştır. Bölümde motivasyon kavramı ve motivasyon kuramları kapsamı bir şekilde açıklanmakta; öğrencilerin öğrenme motivasyonlarını artırma yolları, ihtiyaçlar, hedef yönelimleri, inanç ve benlik algıları gibi konular detaylı bir şekilde ele alınmaktadır.
9. Bölüm: Öğrenme Ortamlarının Yapılandırılması ve Etkili Ders adlı bölümde öğrenme ortamlarının nasıl yapılandırılacağı ve etkili derslerin unsurları ele alınmaktadır. Örgütleme, olumlu öğrenme ortamı oluşturma, disiplin problemleriyle başa çıkma ve okulda iletişim gibi konular Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Zeynel AMAÇ tarafından kapsamlı bir şekilde açıklanmaktadır.
10. Bölüm: Öğrenme Farklılıkları ve Öğrenme İhtiyacı adlı bölüm Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Kıvanç UZUN tarafından yazılmış ve bölümde zekânın klasik ve değişen tanımları, çoklu zekâ kuramı, öğrenme ve düşünme stilleri gibi konular ele alınmıştır. Ayrıca kültür, sosyoekonomik durum, etnik köken, dil farklılıkları ve cinsiyetin öğrenme ve öğretme üzerindeki rolü de bu bölüm-de detaylı bir şekilde incelenmektedir.
11. Bölüm: Özel Gereksinimli Bireyler ve Kapsayıcı Eğitim adlı bölümde eğitimde özel gereksinimlerin tanımı, desteklenmesi ve kapsayıcı eğitim başlıkları Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Oğuzhan HAZIR tarafından ele alınmaktadır. Engellilik, etiketleme, ayrıştırma ve öğrenme için evrensel tasarım gibi konular kapsamlı bir şekilde incelenmektedir. Bu bölüm, öğrenci çeşitliliğini dikkate alarak tüm öğrencilerine nitelikli eğitim vermek isteyen eğitimcilerin yanı sıra özel gereksinimli bireylerle çalışacak eğitimcilere yönelik önemli bilgiler sunmaktadır.
12. Bölüm: Öğrenme ve Gelişimde Aile Katılımı ve Desteği adlı bölüm Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Betül TANACIOĞLU AYDIN tarafından yazılmış ve aile katı-lımının eğitimdeki rolünü ve önemini ele almıştır. Bölümde okulların aile-lerle nasıl iş birliği yapması gerektiği, aile katılımı modelleri ve bu katılımın önündeki engeller gibi konular bu bölümde detaylı bir şekilde ele alınmaktadır.
13. Bölüm: Eğitim Psikolojisi ve Öğretim Teknolojileri adlı bölüm öğretim teknolojileri ve önemi, öğretim tasarımı, eğitimde teknoloji entegrasyonu, yenilikçi yaklaşımlar ve dijital ortamlar üzerinde durulmaktadır. Doç. Dr. İdris GÖKSU tarafından yazılan bölümde etkili öğrenme ortamları tasarlama sürecinde öğretim teknolojilerinin rolü, paydaşlara düşen görevlere ilişkin bilgilerin yanı sıra eğitim ortamlarını doğrudan ve dolaylı olarak etkileyen faktörler de pratik örneklerle kapsamlı bir şekilde ele alınmaktadır.
14. Bölüm: Sınıf İçi Ölçme, Değerlendirme ve Standart Testler adlı bölümde ölçme ve değerlendirmenin temel özellikleri, sınıf içi değerlendirme araçları ve standart testler ele alınmaktadır. Not verme ve çağdaş değerlendirme araçları gibi konular, Dr. İsmail ÇUHADAR tarafından detaylı bir şekilde incelenmektedir. Bu bölüm, eğitimcilerin değerlendirme süreçlerini daha etkili bir şekilde yürütmelerine yardımcı olmayı amaçlamaktadır.
Bu kitabın hazırlanmasında emeği geçen tüm yazarlarımıza teşekkürlerimi sunuyorum. Her bir yazarımız, alanındaki derin bilgi ve deneyimlerini bu kitapta okuyucularla paylaşmış ve kitabın zengin içeriğine büyük katkı sağlamıştır. Eğitim psikolojisi alanında hem teori hem de pratiği bir araya getiren bu eserin tüm okuyucularımız için faydalı olmasını diliyorum.
Sevgi ve saygılarımla,
Prof. Dr. Halis SAKIZ
Editör
Machines need data and metadata to be machine-actionable and FAIR (findable, accessible, interoperable, reusable) to manage increasing data volumes. Knowledge graphs and ontologies are key to this, but their use is hampered by high access barriers due to required prior knowledge in semantics and data modelling. The Rosetta Statement approach proposes modeling English natural language statements instead of a mind-independent reality. We propose a metamodel for creating semantic schema patterns for simple statement types. The approach supports versioning of statements and provides a detailed editing history. Each Rosetta Statement pattern has a dynamic label for displaying statements as natural language sentences. Implemented in the Open Research Knowledge Graph (ORKG) as a use case, this approach allows domain experts to define data schema patterns without needing semantic knowledge. Future plans include combining Rosetta Statements with semantic units to organize ORKG into meaningful subgraphs, improving usability. A search interface for querying statements without needing SPARQL or Cypher knowledge is also planned, along with tools for data entry and display using Large Language Models and NLP. The Rosetta Statement metamodel supports a two-step knowledge graph construction procedure. Domain experts can model semantic content without support from ontology engineers, lowering entry barriers and increasing cognitive interoperability. The second level involves developing semantic graph patterns for reasoning, requiring collaboration with ontology engineers.
Human Factors, Cognitive Engineering, and Human-Automation Interaction (HAI) form a trifecta, where users and technological systems of ever increasing autonomous control occupy a centre position. But with great autonomy comes great responsibility. It is in this context that we propose metrics and a benchmark framework based on known regimes in Artificial Intelligence (AI). A benchmark is a set of tests and metrics or measurements conducted on those tests or tasks. We hypothesise about possible tasks designed to assess operator-system interactions and both the front-end and back-end components of HAI applications. Here, front-end pertains to the user interface and direct interactions the user has with a system, while the back-end is composed of the underlying processes and mechanisms that support the front-end experience. By evaluating HAI systems through the proposed metrics, based on Cognitive Engineering studies of judgment and prediction, we attempt to unify many known taxonomies and design guidelines for HAI systems in a benchmark. This is facilitated by providing a structured approach to quantifying the efficacy and reliability of these systems in a formal way, thus, designing a testable benchmark capable of reproducible results.
Memory is a complex and essential component of human cognition. It enables the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information over time. Without memory, language, social relationships, and personal identity could not develop. Understanding how memory functions as an information processing system is crucial to understanding the role that memory plays in our experience and behavior. Sensory memory plays an important role in our ability to perceive and process information from the environment. By storing information from the sensory organs for a short time, it provides the necessary basis for further processing and storage in short-term and long-term memory. Short-term memory enables us to handle many everyday tasks. Although its capacity is limited, we can apply techniques such as “chunking” to improve our ability to remember important information. Working memory is an important cognitive system that enables the storage and manipulation of information in memory and supports higher-order cognitive functions such as thinking, problem-solving, decision-making, and behavior control. It consists of several subcomponents, including the central executive, the phonological loop, the episodic buffer, and the visuospatial sketchpad, each of which has its own function. Finally, long-term memory is a complex system that allows us to store and retrieve information over longer periods of time, it is divided into declarative and non-declarative or procedural memory.
In the article, the concepts of nature, ecology and health are interpreted as interrelated concepts. Undoubtedly, health itself is closely related to environmental problems. The issue of environmental health has developed from a national level to an international level and has become a subject of constant attention by the United Nations. According to Galen’s doctrine, the exhaustion of the reserves of the human body is described as the “third state”, which could be observed in nature as the depletion of resources. To be more specific, as a person ages, that is, as a result of an old age, there is a violation of the normal functioning of the human body. The “third state” noted by Galen is directly related to the concepts of health and disease. Health is a constant indicator that is always changing in a living organism. If we think about the duration of life, then the indicator of health characterizes the state of the body's reserves, which provides for the determination of the likelihood of not getting sick and not dying for a specific period of time. To increase health reserves, it is necessary to know the effective methods of factors affecting it. To understand and study health, the human body must be viewed as a complex system. According to Maslow, a person is imagined on the basis of a pyramidal principle consisting of three levels: lower (body), middle (spiritual) and higher (mental).
It is known that nowadays, in linguistics, the science of "cognitive linguistics" has already been used widely. This science is considered one of the most relevant areas of linguistics, which occupies a prominent place in modern linguistics. The study enumerates that cognitive linguistics is associated with various fields such as psycholinguistics, anthropological linguistics, ethnolinguistics, and sociolinguistics. Various meanings, and directions of the word Cognitive science, in foreign linguistics a lot of research carried out by George Lakoff, Johnson, Johnson-Laird, Gilles Fauconnier, Ronald Wayne Langacker, W. von Humboldt, Heymann Steinthal, A.A. Potebnya, F. de Saussure, E. Benveniste, and other scholars have given one-on-one emphasis. As the representatives of this direction in Uzbek linguistics, Sh.S. Safarov, D. U. Ashurova, A. E. Mamatov, and G.M. Hoshimov also presented a description of the subject. The task of cognitive linguistics is to acquire and preserve knowledge using language, practice, and transmit language, in general, is a deep scientific study, linking the language system and composition as a perception in the human brain, and is based on theoretical facts in the article.
Usability evaluation has posed a complex challenge for several decades. Given its significance, there is a pressing need for fundamental theoretical advancements. This paper introduces a novel approach by formulating an information-theory-based methodology for the quantitative and more direct evaluation of user interface (UI) design and usability. The new methodologies fall under the umbrella of the new theoretical framework of Networked Two-way Communication Channels (NTCC). This framework can be seen as an extension of Claude Shannon’s original one-directional communication channel model, incorporating the user's active involvement in the interaction process. The NTCC model holds promise for mathematically modeling the mechanisms of user-to-UI interactions and providing more direct assessments of UI usability.
Neuro-fuzzy techniques have been widely used in many applications due to their ability to generate interpretable fuzzy rules. Ensemble learning, on the other hand, is an emerging paradigm in artificial intelligence used to improve performance results by combining multiple single learners. This paper aims to develop and evaluate a set of homogeneous ensembles over four medical datasets using hyperparameter tuning of four neuro-fuzzy systems: adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS), Dynamic evolving neuro-fuzzy system (DENFIS), Hybrid fuzzy inference system (HyFIS), and neuro-fuzzy classifier (NEFCLASS). To address the interpretability challenges and to reduce the complexity of high-dimensional data, the information gain filter was used to identify the most relevant features. After that, the performance of the neuro-fuzzy single learners and ensembles was evaluated using four performance metrics: accuracy, precision, recall, and f1 score. To decide which single learners/ensembles perform better, the Scott-Knott and Borda count techniques were used. The Scott-Knott first groups the models based on the accuracy to find the classifiers appearing in the best cluster, while the Borda count ranks the models based on all the four performance metrics without favoring any of the metrics. Results showed that: (1) The number of the combined single learners positively impacts the performance of the ensembles, (2) Single neuro-fuzzy classifiers demonstrate better or similar performance to the ensembles, but the ensembles still provide better stability of predictions, and (3) Among the ensembles of different models, ANFIS provided the best ensemble results.
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