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The advantages of partialling perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns: Critical issues and recommendations
Abstract
According to the two-factor theory of perfectionism (Stoeber & Otto, 2006), perfectionism comprises two superordinate dimensions—perfectionistic strivings (PS) and perfectionistic concerns (PC)—that show different, and often opposite, relations with psychological adjustment and maladjustment, particularly when their overlap is partialled out. Recently, Hill (2014) raised concerns about the interpretation of the relations that PS show after partialling. The present article aims to alleviate these concerns. First, we address the concern that partialling changes the conceptual meaning of PS. Second, we explain how the relations of residual PS (i.e., PS with PC partialled out) differ from those of PS, and how to interpret these differences. In this, we also discuss suppressor effects and how mutual suppression affects the relations of both PS and PC with outcomes. Furthermore, we provide recommendations of how to report and interpret findings of analyses partialling out the effects of PS and PC. We conclude that, if properly understood and reported, there is nothing to be concerned about when partialling PS and PC. On the contrary, partialling is essential if we want to understand the shared, unique, combined, and interactive relations of the different dimensions of perfectionism.
... The second type named "perfectionistic concerns (PC)" refers to a rather self-critical form of perfectionism that is usually accompanied by self-doubt, fears of being judged and of failing [20]. People who have PS are assumed to have relatively healthy adjustment patterns, whereas people who have PC are thought to have tendency for maladaptive adjustment [21,22]. It is suggested that perfectionistic people may show a tendency to dwell on thoughts about differences between their ideal and actual states [21,23]. ...
... People who have PS are assumed to have relatively healthy adjustment patterns, whereas people who have PC are thought to have tendency for maladaptive adjustment [21,22]. It is suggested that perfectionistic people may show a tendency to dwell on thoughts about differences between their ideal and actual states [21,23]. Taking into account that disappointment is a "negative emotion raised by the divergence between the expected and actual outcome" [24], it is presumed that perfectionism and disappointment may have overlapping aspects. ...
... For the SD and the PD subscales, these findings are in line with our expectations. They are also in agreement with the previous theories on perfectionism which state that there is an adaptive manner of determining and following standards in seeking perfection about one's performance [21]. It can be interpreted that students who have personal standards and who experience disappointment with themselves, or their performance are likely to display higher motivation and behavioral investment. ...
Background and aims
The research literature on academic disappointment and its relationship to student engagement is scarce. This article aims to present the results of a confirmatory factor analysis and the reliability analysis of the Consequences of Academic Disappointment Inventory. It also aims to provide information on the relationship between academic disappointment and other constructs (i.e., academic motivation, perfectionism, self-critical rumination, and negative emotions).
Methods
The current study is a correlational study with a cross-sectional design, and the data were collected via an online platform. A total of 512 Hungarian students participated in the study. Participants were asked to recall a situation in which they received negative feedback and consequently felt disappointed in the past few months of their academic life. They were then asked to complete a series of questionnaires.
Discussion
The results show that students experience disappointment with themselves, their performance, and the authority giving the feedback in different ways. Self- and performance-related disappointments are similar in terms of their revealed factor structures (i.e., motivation, lack of motivation, behavioral investment, and lack of behavioral investment). Whereas disappointment with the authority has a different factor structure. The current results also show that academic disappointment can be either an activating or a passivating emotion in terms of its effects on student engagement. Our results revealed a set of significant factors associated with students' engagement in the context of academic disappointment, including feelings of shame and hostility, perfectionism, self-critical rumination, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation for external regulation, and amotivation.
... Similar results were also observed for the relationship between both aspects of perfectionism and eating disorders (Stackpole et al. 2023). However, when the joint variance of personal standards and concerns/doubts is statistically controlled, the findings often change, which Stoeber and Gaudreau (2017) point to as a critical way to understand the impact of perfectionism on human functioning. ...
... Evidence that controlling for the common variance of high standards and concern/doubt is justified comes from significant individual differences in the level of these manifestations of perfectionism in people. High perfectionistic strivings and low concerns characterize some individuals, while in others, both aspects of perfectionism may be strongly developed (Smith, Saklofske, Yan, et al. 2016;Smith et al. 2022;Stoeber and Gaudreau 2017). For this reason, perfectionism can be a source of success and personal growth for some individuals and a source of suffering and developmental problems for others. ...
... The correlations we obtained between the two perfectionism dimensions and parental identity processes were consistent with previous studies (Negru-Subtirica et al. 2021;Piotrowski 2021b). However, Pearson's r (pairwise) correlations do not allow for controlling the shared variance of personal standards and concerns/doubts, which is crucial for revealing their specific impact on functioning (Stoeber and Gaudreau 2017). A full correlations table, including all relationships, is provided in the Supporting Information from OSF. ...
Introduction. Previous studies have revealed that perfectionism and identity development during adolescence are related. However, no longitudinal study has been conducted on the impact of perfectionism on identity development in adulthood. In the present study, we analyzed for the first time the longitudinal relationship between perfectionistic strivings and concerns and identity development in one of the most important yet least understood domains for adults, parental identity. Methods. This 1-year, three-wave longitudinal study investigated reciprocal relationships between perfectionism and parental identity among 1,275 parents (aged 18–30, M = 26.11; SD = 3.00). We analyzed the results using cross-lagged panel model analysis and random-intercept cross-lagged panel model analysis. Results. The results revealed that perfectionistic strivings were associated with a relative increase in seeking in-depth information about parenthood, and perfectionistic concerns were associated with a relative increase in disappointment and even parenthood regret. Parental identity was not reciprocally related to changes in perfectionism at the between-person level. However, we observed the effect of parental identity on the decrease in perfectionistic strivings at the within-person level. Conclusion. The results suggest mutual relationships between perfectionism and parental identity at the between-person and within-person levels.
... Similar results were also observed for the relationship between both aspects of perfectionism and eating disorders (Stackpole et al. 2023). However, when the joint variance of personal standards and concerns/doubts is statistically controlled, the findings often change, which Stoeber and Gaudreau (2017) point to as a critical way to understand the impact of perfectionism on human functioning. ...
... Evidence that controlling for the common variance of high standards and concern/doubt is justified comes from significant individual differences in the level of these manifestations of perfectionism in people. High perfectionistic strivings and low concerns characterize some individuals, while in others, both aspects of perfectionism may be strongly developed (Smith, Saklofske, Yan, et al. 2016;Smith et al. 2022;Stoeber and Gaudreau 2017). For this reason, perfectionism can be a source of success and personal growth for some individuals and a source of suffering and developmental problems for others. ...
... The correlations we obtained between the two perfectionism dimensions and parental identity processes were consistent with previous studies (Negru-Subtirica et al. 2021;Piotrowski 2021b). However, Pearson's r (pairwise) correlations do not allow for controlling the shared variance of personal standards and concerns/doubts, which is crucial for revealing their specific impact on functioning (Stoeber and Gaudreau 2017). A full correlations table, including all relationships, is provided in the Supporting Information from OSF. ...
Introduction
Previous studies have revealed that perfectionism and identity development during adolescence are related. However, no longitudinal study has been conducted on the impact of perfectionism on identity development in adulthood. In the present study, we analyzed for the first time the longitudinal relationship between personal standards, an indicator of perfectionistic strivings, and concern over mistakes and doubts about actions, indicators of perfectionist concerns, and identity development in one of the most important yet least understood domains for adults, parental identity.
Methods
This 1‐year, three‐wave longitudinal study investigated reciprocal relationships between perfectionism and parental identity among 1275 parents (aged 18–30, M = 26.11; SD = 3.00). We analyzed the results using cross‐lagged panel model analysis and random‐intercept cross‐lagged panel model analysis.
Results
The results revealed that personal standards were associated with a relative increase in seeking in‐depth information about parenthood, and doubts/concerns were associated with a relative increase in disappointment and parenthood regret. Parental identity was not reciprocally related to changes in perfectionism at the between‐person level. However, we observed the effect of parental identity on the decrease in personal standards at the within‐person level.
Conclusion
The results suggest mutual relationships between perfectionism and parental identity at the between‐person and within‐person levels.
... However, perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns often coexist within individuals, meaning that it is possible to strive for perfection while simultaneously experiencing a fear of failure and negative reactions to imperfection (Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010;Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). Importantly, the positive relationships between perfectionistic strivings and adaptive outcomes often only appear when the overlap with perfectionistic concerns is controlled for statistically (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017;Stoeber & Otto, 2006). ...
... However, perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns often coexist within individuals, meaning that it is possible to strive for perfection while simultaneously experiencing a fear of failure and negative reactions to imperfection (Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010;Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). Importantly, the positive relationships between perfectionistic strivings and adaptive outcomes often only appear when the overlap with perfectionistic concerns is controlled for statistically (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017;Stoeber & Otto, 2006). In the case of the basic psychological needs, while some studies controlled for the overlap between the two forms of perfectionism (e.g., Jowett et al., 2016) other studies did not (e.g., Nordin-Bates, 2020) and this might explain the inconsistent findings observed in terms of the relationship between perfectionistic strivings and needs satisfaction. ...
... In Model 1, the criterion variables competence, autonomy, and relatedness satisfaction and frustration were regressed onto the predictor variables perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. The two perfectionism variables were entered simultaneously into the regression model to control for their overlap, thus allowing for an examination of their independent relationships with the basic psychological needs (see Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). In Model 2, gender and age were added as control variables since perfectionism has been shown to decrease with age (Smith et al., 2019), while research suggests that individuals experience the three basic psychological needs differently depending on their age and gender (Butkovic et al., 2020;Henning et al., 2019). ...
Previous research into two forms of perfectionism known as perfectionistic concerns and perfectionistic strivings suggests that while perfectionistic concerns are associated with lower levels of self-esteem, perfectionistic strivings are associated with higher levels of self-esteem. However, the factors that explain why these two forms of perfectionism differ in their relationships to self-esteem remain unclear. The present research—involving two studies—used a self-determination theory perspective to investigate the possibility that three basic psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness explain the relationships between the two forms of perfectionism and self-esteem. In Study 1 (N = 255) perfectionistic strivings were associated with higher levels of needs satisfaction and lower levels of needs frustration, while perfectionistic concerns were associated with lower levels of needs satisfaction and higher levels of needs frustration. In Study 2 (N = 260) needs satisfaction mediated the positive association between perfectionistic strivings and self-esteem, and needs frustration mediated the negative association between perfectionistic concerns and self-esteem. Taken together, these findings suggest that the basic psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness play an important role in explaining why some forms of perfectionism are beneficial to self-esteem and some forms of perfectionism are harmful to self-esteem.
... By integrating dispositional PC and PS into one model, we aimed to investigate their unique effects on weekly variables (e.g., Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). However, in order to understand the unique and shared effects of PS and PC, it is informative to consider both their unique effects (by controlling for their overlap) and their total effects (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). ...
... By integrating dispositional PC and PS into one model, we aimed to investigate their unique effects on weekly variables (e.g., Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). However, in order to understand the unique and shared effects of PS and PC, it is informative to consider both their unique effects (by controlling for their overlap) and their total effects (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). Additionally, with regard to power, our model included a high number of parameters combined with a relatively low sample size at Level 2. Therefore, we additionally tested Hypotheses 3 to 7 in two separate random intercept random slope moderated mediation models with either dispositional PC or PS in each model. ...
... In addition, teachers who rated high on dispositional PS were also more likely to extend their weekly working time. This pattern of results indicates that it is mainly the shared variance of both dimensions of perfectionism that drives perfectionists to engage in self-endangering work behaviors (e.g., Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). That said, we need to acknowledge that the Level-2 sample size might have been too small to have sufficient power to detect the unique effects of dispositional PS and PC. ...
Extending and intensifying work are two self-endangering work strategies that have been shown to impair employee health and well-being. In this study, we investigate with a weekly design the mediating effect of extending and intensifying work in the interplay of time pressure and fatigue. In addition, we explore the role of dispositional perfectionism (perfectionistic strivings and concerns) in this relationship. A sample of 175 teachers responded to weekly surveys over 6 weeks. Multilevel moderated mediation models revealed that time pressure evokes fatigue on a weekly basis. This effect is mediated by weekly extending work, but not by weekly intensifying work. Teachers who rate high on dispositional perfectionistic concerns and strivings are more likely to engage in intensifying work on a weekly basis. In addition, those rating high on dispositional perfectionistic strivings are also more likely to extend their weekly working time. Interestingly, dispositional perfectionism does not affect teachers’ responses to time pressure. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
... For example, Garratt-Reed et al. (2018) found that students with perfectionistic concerns showed repetitive negative thinking, which leads to school burnout. On the other hand, perfectionistic strivings have a weaker but similar negative effect on mental health (Gotwals et al., 2012;Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). Empirical evidence demonstrates that perfectionistic strivings consist of characteristics similar to perfectionistic concerns such as the strong belief about the importance of perfection (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017), as well as unique characteristics such as self-oriented perfectionism. ...
... On the other hand, perfectionistic strivings have a weaker but similar negative effect on mental health (Gotwals et al., 2012;Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). Empirical evidence demonstrates that perfectionistic strivings consist of characteristics similar to perfectionistic concerns such as the strong belief about the importance of perfection (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017), as well as unique characteristics such as self-oriented perfectionism. These common characteristics with perfectionistic concerns lead to maladaptive outcomes including burnout (Gotwals et al., 2012;Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). ...
... Empirical evidence demonstrates that perfectionistic strivings consist of characteristics similar to perfectionistic concerns such as the strong belief about the importance of perfection (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017), as well as unique characteristics such as self-oriented perfectionism. These common characteristics with perfectionistic concerns lead to maladaptive outcomes including burnout (Gotwals et al., 2012;Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). Thus, perfectionistic strivings will show a weaker but significant effect on school burnout. ...
The current study investigated the relationship between regulatory focus, perfectionism, and school burnout. Regulatory focus theory posits two self-regulatory styles: promotion focus and prevention focus. Similarly, perfectionism also consists of two components: perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. Taken together, promotion focus and perfectionistic strivings commonly show an approach orientation, while prevention focus and perfectionistic concerns demonstrate an avoidance orientation. In school settings, a plethora of research has investigated the relationship between perfectionism and school burnout, while little research on the relationship between regulatory focus and school burnout has been conducted. Given that regulatory focus and perfectionism share a commonality, both concepts need to be examined together to predict school burnout. As such, the purpose of this paper was to extend current research by examining school burnout from both perspectives. The current study investigated the relationship between regulatory focus, perfectionism and school burnout (as measured by inadequacy, exhaustion, and cynicism). In this study, 200 undergraduate students answered a questionnaire. Then, correlation, hierarchical regression and moderation analyses were conducted. The results indicated that promotion focus negatively predicted inadequacy, while prevention focus positively predicted all three subscales of school burnout. Moreover, perfectionistic strivings positively predicted exhaustion and perfectionistic concerns positively predicted exhaustion, cynicism, and inadequacy. Limitations and future directions are discussed.
... They tend to hold themselves to extremely high personal standards and performance, as well as demand nothing less than perfection [43], [57], [58]. These individuals tend to portray self-oriented perfectionism, order, and high personal standards [59], [60]. Stoeber and Corr [61] described PSP as the less adaptive aspect of perfectionism which brings benefit to the individuals who possess it; it is also associated with positive psychological constructs [60], such as a better level of selfesteem, self-efficacy, satisfaction with life, and general psychological well-being [62], [63]. ...
... These individuals tend to portray self-oriented perfectionism, order, and high personal standards [59], [60]. Stoeber and Corr [61] described PSP as the less adaptive aspect of perfectionism which brings benefit to the individuals who possess it; it is also associated with positive psychological constructs [60], such as a better level of selfesteem, self-efficacy, satisfaction with life, and general psychological well-being [62], [63]. In workplace settings, individuals with higher PSP are likely to have a positive effect of workaholism, individual achievement, work enjoyment, work involvement, and work engagement [64]. ...
... Our finding that PSP is a positive significant predictor of mattering is in line with some previous studies, such as Lo and Abbott [65], Sirois et al. [58], as well as Stoeber and Gaudreu [60]. We confirmed that individuals with higher personal standard would like to have positive behavior towards others in their attempt to pursue their ideal self. ...
This study aimed to investigate whether a personality disposition called perfectionism plays a significant role in predicting the sense of mattering. The role of two major elements of perfectionism, namely evaluative concern perfectionism (ECP) and personal standard perfectionism (PSP) was investigated. ECP was considered as the predictor due to the nature of its contingency upon one’s perception of others’ standard of acceptance, while PSP was included as a moderator because the level of personal standard might determine how ECP predicts the sense of mattering. Participants were purposively recruited to make sure that they were members of Generation-Z (Gen-Z). As many as 130 undergraduate students aged 18 to 24 years old were asked to respond to the subscales of the Frost multidimensional perfectionism scale and the interpersonal mattering scale through an online survey. The data was analyzed with a help of the software of PROCESS Macro for bootstrapping method with 95% confidence interval and 5,000 samplings. The results revealed that when PSP is at its highest levels, the link between ECP and mattering is no longer significant. Thus, a perfectionist individual tends to feel they matter more when their concern about others’ opinions is higher, but not when they have higher levels of personal standards.
... One personal characteristic that is highly relevant for distinct components of self-control episodes is perfectionism. The diverse facets of the construct have been summarized by two dimensions (e.g., Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017) . The first is a critical evaluation of one's own behavior and concerns about the consequences of not living up to one's standards (perfectionistic concerns). ...
... The second is the setting of and striving for extremely high standards (perfectionistic strivings). This second dimension has shown more positive associations with psychological adjustment, especially when the overlap with dispositional perfectionistic concerns was controlled for (Hill et al., 2010;Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). From the definition of the dimensions of perfectionism, it is conceivable that they should be differentially associated with diverse self-control components, such as goal setting (both dimensions: high level and ascribed importance, but different motivational background) and vigilance toward possible temptations (due to focusing on potential shortcomings in perfectionistic concerns), and are thereby related to self-control effort and enactment probability. ...
Self-control is an important resource that helps us keep track of goal achievement even in the face of alternative behavioral impulses. This might be especially relevant for the pursuit of daily life goals in a personally relevant achievement context. We investigated the role of daily perfectionistic cognitions in daily self-control episodes. Leaning on the Integrative Self-Control Theory, we investigated components of daily self-control episodes, including goal setting, conflicting desires (temptations), recruitment of self-control (resistance), and self-control failure and success (temptation enactment, procrastination, goal achievement). We used a measurement burst ambulatory assessment design to follow 183 preservice teachers for 9 months, during phases in which they repeatedly prepared for personally relevant achievement situations (demonstration lessons). The results of our three-level analyses (Level 1: day; Level 2: phase; Level 3: person) were consistent with theoretical considerations and previous empirical evidence. They revealed more negative outcomes for unique daily perfectionistic concerns cognitions (PCC) and more positive outcomes for unique daily perfectionistic strivings cognitions (PSC) in associations with conflicting desires and self-control failure and success on the day level and partially on the levels of between-phase and between-person differences. Unexpectedly, both PSC and PCC were associated with more recruitment of self-control. The theoretical implications for the understanding of the role of perfectionistic cognitions in daily self-control episodes are discussed.
... Parallel mediation analyses were conducted using the Hayes PROCESS macro (Model 4; Hayes, 2022) for SPSS Version 4.1, a computational tool for estimating the indirect effects of a predictor (i.e., perfectionism dimension) on a criterion (i.e., social the confidence intervals of the indirect effects included zeros indicating that the relationships were not significant. On the advice of an anonymous peer-reviewer, the PS analyses were re-run controlling for the original perfectionistic concerns (PC) scale of the FMPS as there is evidence (e.g., Stoeber & Otto, 2006;Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017) that overlap between PC and PS may contaminate the unique effect of PS. In this model, the total effect of PS on social anxiety was significant (b = -0.11, ...
... Evaluative fears did not significantly account for the relationship between these variables, likely due to the non-significant bivariate correlation found between perfectionistic standards and social anxiety ( Table 2). When analyses were re-run controlling for perfectionistic concerns (see Stoeber & Otto, 2006;Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017), the relationship between perfectionistic standards and social anxiety became marginally significant, although no evidence of mediation via positive or negative evaluation concerns was observed. Previous studies have demonstrated both a non-significant relationship between personal standards and social anxiety (Alden et al., 2002;Shumaker & Rodebaugh, 2009) and a positive relationship (Juster et al., 1996) although these findings were made prior to the recommendation of controlling for perfectionistic concerns when assessing personal standards. ...
Perfectionism is widely associated with social anxiety, yet the relationship is rarely explored with consideration to the multidimensionality of perfectionism. This study investigates the potential mediating effects of the bivalent fear of evaluation (BFOE) model on the relationship between perfectionism dimensions and social anxiety, a construct that proposes the importance of both fear of negative evaluation and fear of positive evaluation in social anxiety. Our research involved 435 university students who completed a large battery of measures as part of a prior study. The results demonstrated that irrespective of valence, fear of evaluation partially mediated a positive relationship between perfectionistic concerns over mistakes and doubts about action and social anxiety, and parental pressures and social anxiety. Additionally, in line with the BFOE model, both valences of fear of evaluation partially mediated a negative indirect effect between perfectionistic order and social anxiety. In contrast, perfectionistic personal standards demonstrated a non-significant bivariate relationship with social anxiety. The study supports the BFOE model and contributes to a deeper understanding of the association between dimensions of perfectionism and social anxiety.
... On the other hand, it is critical to recognize that perfectionistic traits are positively related to each other, however, they differ in their relationship with various affective attributes (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). This indicates an ambivalent complexity of the roles of perfectionism in the relationship with emotional well-being even in adolescents (Levine et al., 2017). ...
... Therefore, it is more appropriate to analyze these variables through a network of partial relationships, which control the shared variance of the study variables (Brett, 2004;Epskamp & Fried, 2018) and refer to the independent contribution of one variable toward another (independent conditional relationships). This perspective has been useful in previous work to better understand the nature of perfectionism, given that adaptive aspects that promote psychological well-being have been found; and others that reflect greater risk of developing physical and mental health problems (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). ...
Few studies have examined common patterns between perfectionist traits, depressive symptomatology and anxiety in adolescents. We analyzed these simultaneous associations and identified the most influential measures through network analysis. A total of 533 high school Peruvian students (48.97% female) participated from two educational institutions. Adapted Oros’ Perfectionism, Reynolds Depression Scale and a single item school anxiety measure for adolescents were used. Spinglass algorithm found a solution of three domains of perfectionism: self-demands, distress-worry and reactions to failure, as well as one cluster of depressive symptoms. When analyzing the interconnections between these dimensions, it was found that worry-distress perfectionism (WDP) and reactions to failure perfectionism (RFP) played a central role in activating other variables in the network. In particular, RFP had the strongest connection with depression, while WDP was related to school anxiety. On the other hand, self-demands perfectionism was the only dimension that showed a negative relationship with depressive symptoms. These findings suggest that perfectionist reactions focused on anticipating and responding to errors may share common patterns that should be addressed to reduce depression and school anxiety in adolescents.
... Prior studies differentiate perfectionistic strivings (PS) and perfectionistic concerns (PC; Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). While PS captures "those aspects associated with self-oriented striving for perfection and setting exceedingly high personal standards of performance" (p. ...
... Differentiating PS and PC has proven fruitful as the dimensions often exert distinct effects on performance despite overlap and correlations of up to r = 0.70 (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). PS positively predicts performance in various domains such as academic performance, music competitions, sports performance, or cognitive laboratory tasks (Stoeber, 2012). ...
Psychological science remains unclear about how individuals' trait perfectionism impacts their performance—is more perfectionism linearly better or does too perfect backfire? The present study investigates a potentially non-linear relationship and its underlying mediators. Based on the two-dimensional model of perfectionism that distinguishes perfectionistic concerns (PC) versus strivings (PS), we investigate the (non-)linear relationships of perfectionism and performance in the letter detection task. Additionally, we experimentally examined whether time pressure would moderate these findings. Our study results (N = 229) establish non-linearity: a quadratic function in the form of an inverted U-shape best explains the relationship between perfectionistic concerns and performance. Contrary to our hypothesis, perfectionistic strivings predicted task performance linearly but negatively. Upon further examination, we also found empirical support for a combinatory effect of both dimensions: Only individuals high in PC showed the negative effect of PS on task performance. Although performance differed in the timed versus untimed task, time pressure did not moderate the (non-)linear relationships of PS or PC on performance. Multiple mediation analyses revealed that perceived distress, rumination, and effort mediated the quadratic relationships of perfectionistic concerns. Overall, our results question the strict disentanglement of perfectionistic dimensions and emphasise the usefulness of a more holistic approach.
... Perfectionistic strivings include setting and pursuing high standards (Stoeber & Otto, 2006), while perfectionistic concerns include concern over mistakes, fear of negative evaluation by others if not perfect, doubts about own actions, feelings of discrepancy between one's high standards and actual performance and negative reactions to imperfection (Stoeber & Otto, 2006). Differentiating perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns is important because these two dimensions of perfectionism show different relations with indicators of psychological adjustment and maladjustment (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). Perfectionistic strivings could be considered as a less maladaptive form of perfectionism since it has mixed associations with both negative and positive health outcomes (Flett et al., 2009;Fry & Debats, 2009;Molnar et al., 2006). ...
... In our sample of patients with EDs, associations between metacognitive beliefs, repetitive thinking and perfectionisms were of greater magnitude for the more maladaptive aspects of perfectionism, that is, 'perfectionistic concerns', rather than for 'perfectionistic strivings', which are generally considered less problematic. These findings are consistent with previous studies reporting that these two dimensions of perfectionism show different relations with indicators of psychological adjustment and maladjustment (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). ...
Introduction: Using the Self‐Regulatory Executive Function model as a basis, this study explored whether, in patients with eating disorders (EDs), metacognitions and repetitive negative thinking are associated with higher levels of perfectionisms.
Methods: One hundred twenty‐three outpatients with EDs were recruited. Perfectionism, metacognitive beliefs, worry, rumination, anger rumination, affective and eating symptoms were assessed. Correlation and hierarchal regression analyses were run.
Results: Higher endorsement of positive beliefs about worry was associated with higher levels of ‘personal standards perfectionism’. Higher endorsement of positive beliefs about worry, need to control thoughts, worry and rumination was associated with higher levels of ‘concern over mistakes perfectionism’.
Conclusions: Among patients with EDs, perfectionism appears to be associated with the endorsement of dysfunctional metacognitive beliefs, worry and rumination. Dysfunctional metacognitive beliefs and repetitive negative thinking could be suitable therapeutic targets to reduce the levels of perfectionism among patients with EDs.
... In contrast, SPP follows the belief that others have high expectations and that one will be highly criticized if failing to meet these expectations. SOP and SPP are considered key indicators of perfectionistic strivings and concerns (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017), given that SOP and SPP are, at their core, also characterized by the striving toward extraordinarily high standards and fear of failure and negative evaluations by significant others, respectively. Further, the specific dimensions show the same, but sometimes opposite, patterns of relationships with various outcomes as the superordinate factors (Stoeber & Otto, 2006). ...
... The item was rated on a 6-point scale ranging from not at all (1) to very strongly (6) and was included as a control variable for time pressure, detachment, and sleep quality. To determine the unique contribution of SOP and SPP, we controlled for the overlap with the respective other dimension (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). In order not to overcontrol our model and to provide a parsimonious solution (Van Laethem et al., 2016), we controlled sleep quality for age (in years) and gender (0 = female, 1 = male) because sleep problems increase with age (Ohayon, 2002) and are more common among women (Zhang & Wing, 2006). ...
Socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP) but not self-oriented perfectionism (SOP) makes individuals vulnerable for impaired sleep quality. However, the mechanisms that link multidimensional perfectionism to varying sleep remain unclear, especially in applied settings, such as the workplace. Integrating the cognitive–affective personality system theory and the stressor–detachment model (SDM), we proposed time pressure and detachment as relevant mechanisms. We expected SPP to have a negative indirect effect on daily sleep quality through detachment and a serial mediation of time pressure and detachment. Further, we expected SOP to show ambivalent effects, displaying a negative indirect effect on daily sleep quality through detachment, but also a positive indirect effect through serial mediation. We tested our hypotheses with data from 70 employees that participated in a diary study over 5 consecutive days (day level N = 233). Results from multilevel path analyses provided support for the expected serial mediation linking SPP to impaired sleep quality. Additional exploratory analyses confirmed this serial mediation for all four components of sleep quality. Further, a direct positive effect of SOP on sleep quality was found. Our findings highlight the conjoint role of mechanisms in the work and nonwork area, that is, time pressure and subsequent detachment, for the association between SPP and sleep quality. Thus, the results suggest an active role of individuals in contributing to job stressors. We discuss personality as an additional predictor in the SDM and how organizations may include individual and organizational sources of stress in comprehensive intervention approaches.
... Some researchers (Hill 2014) have noted that the aforementioned situation may lead to undesirable consequences such as the loss of the meaning of the conceptual perfectionistic strivings and false/uninterpretable relationships to be formed. Some researchers (Stoeber and Gaudreau 2017) stated that perfectionistic strivings can be seen without perfectionistic concerns as much as it can be seen with perfectionistic concerns, and that perfectionistic strivings can be achieved even after statistical control of perfectionistic concerns. In other words, they suggested that statistical control of perfectionistic concerns would not cause to the loss of the meaning of conceptual perfectionistic concerns. ...
... In other words, they suggested that statistical control of perfectionistic concerns would not cause to the loss of the meaning of conceptual perfectionistic concerns. Thirdly, the problem of common variance/overlap between perfectionistic concerns and strivings raises questions about the meaning of factor structure and dimensions of perfectionism (Stoeber and Gaudreau 2017). Direct modeling of shared and unshared variance between the two factors can help to better understand the common and unique components of perfectionism (Howell et al. 2020). ...
The term perfectionism is often characterized by insisting that everything should be perfect and flawless, believing in only one truth, and having difficulty transforming perspectives and thoughts. Although perfectionism is not a newly introduced concept in the literature, it has recently become one frequently aired both in research and daily life. The popularity of the concept in empirical studies stems from both its dual nature and its alleged roles in the origin, emergence, retention, and treatment of various psychological disorders. Indeed, despite the abundance of evidence that perfectionism is multifaceted within two major dimensions (perfectionist strivings and perfectionist concerns), it is still debated that the dimensions in different numbers better represent the construct. In addition, the relevant literature hosts diverse views and criticisms about which sub-dimensions the two higher-order dimensions will consist of, whether the conceptual content of a combination of these sub-dimensions is positive or negative, and how to calculate the total impact of the sub-dimensions. On the other hand, previous research consistently addressed the relationship of perfectionism with different psychopathologies and comorbidities. In this respect, it is also deemed important to discuss perfectionism in psychotherapy because even settling perfectionist traits may bring about improvements in more than one disorder associated with perfectionism. Thus, the Cognitive Behavioral Approach (CBT) conceptualized perfectionism (clinical perfectionism) and presented techniques for therapy. Moreover, the evidence is also proliferating for the efficiency of CBT for perfectionism. Therefore, in this article, the current literature on the structure, transdiagnostic nature and cognitive behavioral therapy of perfectionism has been reviewed.
... Drawing extensively from Gaudreau's MEP (Gaudreau, 2019) and by using the state-of-art latent profile analysis (LPA) and person-centred approach (Meyer and Morin, 2016), our study makes multiple contributions to the perfectionism-workaholism research discourse. First, this research contributes to perfectionism research by showing empirical evidence for the core definitional features of perfectionism and excellencism by distinguishing between perfectionistic concerns and strivings (Stoeber and Gaudreau, 2017). ...
Purpose
This research investigates whether excellence-seeking is better than perfection-seeking for reducing workaholism. Accordingly, this study examines the effects of perfectionism and excellencism on workaholism’s components: working excessively and compulsively. Although the prior research has shown the positive impact of perfectionism on workaholism, this is the first study to have examined the effects of perfectionism, conceptualized as personal standards perfectionism, in Gaudreau (2019) model of excellencism and perfectionism, on workaholism’s components: working excessively and compulsively.
Design/methodology/approach
This study used person-centered analysis to investigate the perfectionism/excellencism–workaholism relationship. Two studies were conducted on corporate and academic samples of 360 and 694, respectively. Latent profile analysis was employed to test the hypotheses.
Findings
The results of the person-centered analysis showed that excellence-seekers experience a reduction in excessive and compulsive work tendencies. In contrast, perfection-seekers experience strengthened workaholism.
Originality/value
This research’s novelty stems from its five contributions to the perfectionism–workaholism research discourse: excellence-seeking as the reference point for comparison with perfection-seeking, verifying the application of the law of diminishing marginal return (increasing marginal risks) to the effects of perfectionism on workaholism, validating the conceptual distinction between perfectionism and excellencism and their effects on workaholism’s components, demonstrating the unique results of the person-centered analysis and providing empirical evidence for the psycho-dimensionality of workaholism.
... However, perfectionistic concerns yield larger and more consistent cross-sectional effects across multiple disorders, whereas perfectionistic strivings are most strongly related with eating disorders Limburg et al., 2017;Lunn et al., 2023). Given the two dimensions of perfectionism appear differentially related to psychopathology, their respective effects should be investigated separately (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). In addition, the concept of "clinical perfectionism" may be used to measure a central emphasis on the reliance of one's self-worth on the achievement of high standards despite adverse effects (Shafran et al., 2002. ...
Perfectionism has been suggested as a risk factor relevant to multiple psychological disorders, including obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and eating disorders (ED). However, it remains unclear how perfectionism contributes to general and specific psychopathology. Disorder-specific processes (e.g. body dissatisfaction, responsibility) between perfectionism and subsequent symptoms may offer an explanation. The current study examined longitudinal associations between perfectionism, body dissatisfaction or responsibility, and symptoms of ED or OCD. A community sample of 499 women (18–30) completed a three-wave online study, assessing perfectionism, ED and OCD symptoms, body dissatisfaction, and responsibility/threat overestimation. Temporal relations between perfectionism and symptoms were analyzed using a structural equation model. Effects of body dissatisfaction and responsibility/threat overestimation were analyzed using multiple hierarchical regressions. Results showed that perfectionism predicted subsequent OCD symptoms, but not ED symptoms. ED symptoms, but not OCD symptoms, predicted subsequent perfectionism. No interaction effects between perfectionism and the disorder-specific processes were found. Instead, body dissatisfaction independently contributed to both ED and OCD symptoms, whereas inflated responsibility/threat overestimation predicted specifically OCD symptoms. To conclude, perfectionism appears to increase the risk of psychological symptoms. However, in this sample this was specific to OCD symptoms. Given ED symptoms predicted later perfectionism, bidirectional effects need to be considered.
... For instance, although SOP shows nonsignificant to weak associations with interpersonal problems compared to SPP (Stoeber et al., 2021), studies have shown that it may not be purely adaptive, notably due to its link with indicators of psychological distress, such as anxiety or depression (Callaghan et al., 2024;Klibert et al., 2005). Yet, some authors have argued that when the overlap with SPP is controlled for, SOP is mostly adaptive, as per its positive association with psychological adjustment outcomes (Klibert et al., 2005;Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). As for OOP, associations were found with antisocial and narcissist personality traits (Stoeber, 2015;Stoeber et al., 2021), such that authors have proposed that projecting one's expectations onto others could act as a protective shield against perfectionistic thoughts about the self (Stoeber et al., 2013). ...
The multidimensional model of perfectionism includes three dimensions: Self-oriented perfectionism (SOP), other-oriented perfectionism (OOP), and socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP). Although previous research has identified significant cross-sectional associations between perfectionism and sexual function, these studies predominantly focused on women without examining the links between the different dimensions of perfectionism and various indicators of sexual difficulties among both members of a couple. This study aimed to address this gap by examining the dyadic associations between perfectionism dimensions, sexual function, partner-focused sexual desire, and sexual distress, both cross-sectionally (T1) and longitudinally (T2) over one year. The secondary aim of the study was to explore the moderating role of gender on these associations. A sample of 308 cohabiting adult couples completed online questionnaires assessing participants’ three dimensions of perfectionism, partner-focused sexual desire, sexual function and sexual distress. Path analyses using the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM) revealed that SOP was positively associated with individuals’ own partner-focused sexual desire at T1 and T2. In contrast, SPP was negatively associated with individuals’ own sexual function at T1 and positively associated with their own sexual distress at T1 and T2. A moderation analysis revealed that men’s SPP was related to their partner’s higher sexual distress at T1. The results underscore the importance of considering perfectionism dimensions in clinical assessments and interventions for couples experiencing sexual difficulties and problematic perfectionist behaviors.
... tion Concerns Perfectionism, ECP) [17] ...
... Lastly, given the multidimensional nature of perfectionism, the two dimensions' relations with their psychological outcomes can only be uncovered and interpreted with a multivariate statistical approach (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). Despite the two dimensions being consistently correlated, previous studies did not control for the effects on one another, where the unique effects of each dimension could not be studied closely. ...
Perfectionism as a personality trait can be seen as having both adaptive and maladaptive dimensions. Nevertheless, their relationships with psychological distress remain mixed in the current literature. Previous studies were also limited by the use of impure measurements and the failure to statistically control for the effects of the other dimension. By addressing these major limitations and exploring the mediating and moderating roles of self-esteem and self- compassion, the current study provides an in-depth examination of the relationships between bidimensional perfectionism and psychological distress. In a community sample of 503 adults, results supported a bidimensional view of perfectionism, with maladaptive perfectionism positively predicting psychological distress and adaptive perfectionism being unrelated to psychological distress. Self-esteem was found to mediate the relationships between both dimensions of perfectionism and psychological distress. Self-compassion was only found to moderate the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and self-esteem. Whilst the maladaptive nature of maladaptive perfectionism was supported in this study, findings suggested that adaptive perfectionism remains a more complicated construct. Future studies should aim at clarifying the nature and psychological outcomes of adaptive perfectionism.
... In terms of psychopathology, meta-analytic evidence revealed that PS show small to moderate positive bivariate correlations with symptoms of psychological disorders (Limburg et al., 2017). However, when PC are statistically controlled for, higher PS are typically associated with higher well-being (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017;Stoeber & Otto, 2006) and show only small positive or even negative relationships with symptoms of psychological disorders (Limburg et al., 2017). In these partial correlation analyses, PC may have suppressed "detrimental variance" in PS, resulting in PS having more positive relationships with positive characteristics and more negative relationships with negative characteristics (for a structurally similar discussion of the functionality of attention to feelings for well-being, see Lischetzke & Eid, 2003). ...
Objective
Researchers have called for an approach that examines the conditions under which perfectionistic strivings (PS) may be beneficial or detrimental to psychological functioning. We adopted a self‐regulation perspective and tested whether individual differences in self‐regulation (procrastination, emotion regulation) moderate PS's relationships with achievement and well‐being in an academic/work‐related achievement context.
Method
A sample of 183 preservice teachers participated in a study that combined “traditional” longitudinal assessment (six performance situations over a 9‐month period) with repeated ambulatory assessment (measuring well‐being, procrastination, and emotion regulation during a total of 910 preparation phases that preceded performance situations).
Results
Mean levels of achievement, well‐being, and emotion regulation were found to be stable over time, whereas procrastination decreased on average across preparation phases. Results from latent variable interaction models indicated that individual differences in intraindividual change in procrastination over time moderated the relationship between PS and well‐being (but not achievement) in the expected direction: The less individuals decreased in procrastination over time, the more negative the relationship between PS and well‐being was. Contrary to expectations, we found no evidence of a moderating effect of emotion regulation.
Conclusion
The study contributes to a nuanced perspective on the adaptiveness of PS.
... Like others (e.g., Pratt et al., 2022), we think that this finding is reflective of statistical suppression (the direction of an effect changes when controlling for the overlap with other variables); as we find negative bivariate correlations between Time 1 perfectionistic self-promotion and Time 2 Instagram intrusion. This phenomenon is common in perfectionism research more broadly (see Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017), and, as such, this finding should be considered tentative at this stage, and re-examined in future work in this area. It is, however, important to consider theoretical explanations of this unexpected finding. ...
Perfectionistic self-presentation (the desire to appear perfect to others) is related to decreased body satisfaction and intrusive (e.g., addictive or problematic) social media use in young women. Instagram, a highly visual social media platform, may serve as a medium for heightened body image concerns among this population. Exploring perfectionistic self-presentation on Instagram, by examining the extent to which women promote a perfect image on Instagram (perfectionistic self-promotion) and avoid presenting an imperfect image on Instagram (non-display of imperfection and non-disclosure of imperfection), may help to further understand its role in these issues. To test this idea, we recruited two non-clinical samples of young women (Sample 1: cross-sectional, N = 392; Sample 2: two-wave longitudinal, N = 176) to examine the relationships between perfectionistic self-presentation on Instagram, Instagram intrusion and body satisfaction. Findings revealed that dimensions of perfectionistic self-presentation on Instagram were negatively associated with body satisfaction, both cross-sectionally and over time and positively associated with Instagram intrusion, cross-sectionally. Non-display of imperfection appeared to be the most important dimension. Overall, our findings offer initial support for examining perfectionistic self-presentation on Instagram, and its utility in understanding the body satisfaction of young women.
... Moreover, the results of the current study showed that personal standard perfectionism was not significant associated with emotion dysregulation and problematic eating difficulties. A possible explanation for this result may lie with literature suggesting that perfectionistic strivings could be considered as a less maladaptive form of perfectionism (Malivoire, Kuo, and Antony 2019;Stoeber and Gaudreau 2017). ...
Introduction
This study explored the possible mediating role of emotion dysregulation in the association between perfectionism and eating psychopathology symptoms.
Method
One hundred forty‐two outpatients with eating disorders (EDs) were enrolled. Perfectionism, emotion dysregulation, ED psychopathology, anxious and depressive symptoms were assessed. Correlation, mediation and 95% bias corrected and accelerated (BCa CI) bootstrapped analyses were run.
Results
Emotion dysregulation was found to mediate the association between concern over mistakes perfectionism and restraint (indirect effect: 0.093, BCa CI: 0.001–0.02, adjusted R ² = 0.3324, p < 0.001), shape concern (indirect effect: 0.0130, BCa CI: 0.004–0.03, adjusted R ² = p < 0.001) and weight concern (indirect effect: 0.0142, BCa CI: 0.004–0.03, adjusted R ² = 0.2986, p < 0.001).
Conclusion
Among ED outpatients, emotion dysregulation may be involved in the association between concern over mistakes perfectionism and persistence of eating psychopathology symptoms. Emotion dysregulation could be considered as possible therapeutic target to reduce the persistence, and severity, of eating psychopathology symptoms among ED patients with concern over mistakes perfectionism.
... This is referred to as perfectionism, defined as "the overdependence of self-evaluation on the determined pursuit of personally demanding, self-imposed standards in at least one highly salient domain, despite adverse consequences" (Shafran et al., 2002, p. 778). It features two higher-order dimensions known as perfectionistic strivings, i.e. imposing far-reaching goals and basing your sense of value on attainment, and perfectionistic concerns, i.e. being overly concerned about making mistakes, doubting your own capacities, and criticizing yourself when standards are not being met (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). Included in these dimensions are the interpersonal facets of perfectionism, as proposed by Hewitt and Flett (1991), which differentiates between self-oriented perfectionism (i.e. ...
Perfectionism can be problematic when your self-worth is dependent on achievements and leads to inflexible standards, cognitive biases, and rigid behaviors. Cognitive behavior therapy for perfectionism is shown to be effective, including for targeting psychiatric symptoms and when delivered via the Internet (iCBT-P). However, few studies have compared it to an active comparator. The current study randomly assigned 138 participants seeking help for perfectionism to iCBT-P or Internet-based Unified Protocol (iUP). Both treatments provided guidance on demand from a therapist and were eight weeks in duration. The results indicated large within-group effects of Cohen's d 2.03 (iCBT) and 2.51 (iUP) on the Clinical Perfectionism Questionnaire at post-treatment, and maintained effects at 6- and 12-month follow-up, but no between-group difference (β = 0.02, SE = 1.04, p = .98). Secondary outcomes of depression, anxiety, quality of life, self-compassion, procrastination, and stress ranged from small to large, with no differences between the conditions. Both treatments were deemed credible, relevant, of high quality, and well-adhered by the participants. Further research needs to be conducted, but the findings could indicate a lack of specificity, perhaps suggesting there is no need to differentiate between different treatments that are transdiagnostic in nature.
... Generally, in the measurement of perfectionism, these two scales and two higher-order factors [perfectionistic concerns (PC) and perfectionistic strivings (PS); (Stoeber & Otto, 2006;Stoeber et al. 2020)] obtained from the combination of the sub-dimensions of these scales are used. However, the use of different combinations (see Limburg et al., 2017;Stoeber & Damian, 2016) can lead to uncertainty for researchers on the measurement of PC and PS, especially how to interpret the total perfectionism score (see Stoeber et al., 2020), moreover, overlapping between PC and PS makes it difficult to interpret the connections between PC, PS, and psychological adjustment/distress (Hill et al., 2010;Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). In this sense, Smith et al. (2016), who comprehensively reviewed perfectionism measures, developed the Big Three Perfectionism Scale (BTPS-45) by identifying the three higher-order global factors of perfectionism: Rigid perfectionism (RP), narcissistic perfectionism (NP), and self-critical perfectionism (SCP). ...
The relationship among perfectionism, intolerance of uncertainty (IoU), and
psychopathology symptoms are well documented in literature. However, studies
examining the relationship between perfectionism and IoU (which are transdiagnostic
factors) and more than one psychopathology are scarce. In addition, research
exploring the relationship between psychopathology symptoms and the big three
perfectionism scale (BTPS), which bring a new breath to perfectionism measures, is
also rare. This study investigated the relationships between perfectionism
conceptualized as the big three factor (Self-critical, rigid, and narcissistic
perfectionism as facets) and anxiety, depression, and obsessive–compulsive disorder
(OCD) symptoms. In addition, a structural equation model for the indirect effect of
perfectionism on the relationship between anxiety, depression, and OCD symptoms
through IoU was tested. A sample of 377 adults (Mage = 25.29, SD = 7.81) completed
the relevant scales. The results of the structural equation model demonstrated that
perfectionism statistically predicted depression, anxiety, and OCD symptoms
mediated by IoU. Perfectionism was positively associated with IoU, which in turn
contributed to higher depression, anxiety, and OCD symptoms. This model yields
important implications for understanding the comorbidity of these three disorders.
... A few years ago, there was a similar debate in another area of personality research about how to test the then-emerging model with four distinct subtypes, namely the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism (Gaudreau, , 2013Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010;Stoeber, 2012). Finally, a statistical method was agreed upon that has since become the gold standard in perfectionism research (Gaudreau, 2013;Stoeber, 2012Stoeber, , 2014Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). Although developed for perfectionism, it has been pointed out that the approach can be applied to other areas where dualistic dimensions of personality are examined . ...
The 2 × 2 model of shyness and sociability is a widely accepted theoretical framework, but to date has not been examined using both adequate measures and appropriate statistical approaches. Therefore, we first review existing literature on the model, outline limitations of previous approaches, and present methodological suggestions on how to adequately test it. Second, by means of an example study with 206 adolescents, we provide support for a revised measure assessing social approach and social avoidance motivation as the two main dimensions of the model. Moreover, when testing the model with hierarchical regression analyses, we could partially replicate previous findings, but also found conflicting results. For instance, when compared to the avoidant-shy subtype (AS; i.e., the combination of low approach and high avoidance), the sociable subtype (SO; i. e., high approach and low avoidance) turned out to be more adaptive in all outcomes (i.e., positive and negative affect, emotional problems, peer problems, conduct problems, oral participation) except for prosocial behavior and nonverbal attentiveness. Furthermore, the comparison of SO to the conflicted-shy subtype (CS; i.e., both high approach and avoidance) and unsociable subtype (UN; i.e., both low approach and avoidance) illustrates that which subtype is more adaptive depends on the outcome.
... Self-oriented perfectionism or perfectionistic strivings include demanding perfection of the self and high personal standards. Perfectionistic concerns encompass self-criticism, concern over mistakes and negative reactions to imperfection (Kawamoto et al., 2018;Smith et al., 2016;Snell et al. (2005); Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). These different forms can show different relations with adjustment and maladjustment in parental role. ...
Modern parenting is characterized by numerous changes which make the parental role not only fulfilling but also very demanding and stressful. In the process of adjustment to the parental role, some personality characteristics of parents can function as protective or risk factors for subjective parental adjustment (parental burnout and competence) and for parental behavior. Therefore, the aim of this research was to test the mediating role of parental burnout and competence in the relationship between personality characteristics of parents (neuroticism and tendency towards parenting perfectionism) and parental neglect of children and violence towards children, while controlling for some sociodemographic variables. A total of 1025 parents from Croatia (90% mothers) participated in the research. Using SEM, two competing models (“i.e.,”, partial vs. full mediation) were tested. The obtained results clearly indicated better fit of the partial mediation model to the data. It was determined that parental burnout and competence had a partial mediating role in the relationship between personality characteristics of parents and their tendency towards child neglect and violence. Higher levels of neuroticism and parenting perfectionistic concerns contribute to increased parental burnout. Furthermore, a higher level of parental burnout contributes to a higher level of parent reported violence and neglect towards the child. Also, parents who are more emotionally stable and have higher standards regarding oneself as parent (self-oriented parenting perfectionism) and a lower tendency to be self-critical in one’s parenting role (perfectionistic concerns), with greater perceived parental competence, are less susceptible to being violent against their children.
... He hypothesizes two broad factors. The first refers to intrapersonal perfec-when their overlap is partialized out (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). Perfectionistic strivings consist of personal standards and self-oriented perfectionism, while perfectionistic concerns consist of socially prescribed perfectionism, concern about mistakes, and doubts about action (Dunkley, Blankstein, Halsall, Williams, & Winkworth, 2000). ...
The main goal of the research was to examine the correlation between personality traits (conscientiousness and neuroticism), perfectionistic strivings and concerns, and achievement motives (hope of success and fear of failure). In this research, 348 respondents (111 women, 237 men) from Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, aged 16 to 54 years, filled out the questionnaires. Personality traits were measured by the Big Five plus 2 (VP + 2) questionnaire. The Sport Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale 2 (Sport-MPS 2) and the Multidimensional Inventory of Perfectionism in Sports (MIPS) were used for measuring perfectionism, while the revised version of the Achievement Motivation Scale (AMS-R) was used for motivational strategies determination. The relations were investigated with the method of structural equations. The theoretical model showed satisfactory concordance with the empirical data (RMSEA = .021, SRMR = .019, CFI = .999, TLI = .996). The model predicts the mediating effect of perfectionistic strivings on the relationship between conscientiousness and hope of success, as well as neuroticism and hope of success, and the mediating effect of perfectionistic concerns on the relationship between neuroticism and fear of failure.
... The two dimensions have shown divergent patterns of association with relevant outcomes. Perfectionistic Concerns is consistently related to various indicators of psychological maladjustment (e.g., anxiety, depression, obsessive-compulsive symptoms; Limburg, Watson, Hagger, & Egan, 2017), while Perfectionistic Strivings has shown beneficial effects in several studies, including positive affect (Frost, Heimberg, Holt, Mattia, & Neubauer, 1993), academic achievement (Park, Heo, Kim, Rice, & Kim, 2020), and athletic performance (Gotwals, Stoeber, Dunn, & Stoll, 2012), particularly when controlling for the overlap with Perfectionistic Concerns (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). Focusing on this broad level of analysis, rather than on a wider set of narrower facets, might help to shed further light on the relationship between narcissism and perfectionism. ...
A long tradition of research has focused on the association between narcissism and perfectionism. The current research investigates this association by differentiating between assertive and antagonistic aspects of grandiose narcissism, as described in the Narcissistic Admiration and Rivalry Concept. Participants (n = 402) completed the Narcissistic Admiration and Rivalry Questionnaire as well as two widely used measures of perfectionism. Results showed that the pattern of correlations that Admiration and Rivalry exhibited with several aspects and dimensions of perfectionism can be efficiently summarized by embracing the distinction between the overarching factors of Perfectionistic Strivings and Concerns. Admiration correlated primarily with Perfectionistic Strivings, an individual's tendency to set high standards of performance that may encompass adaptive features. Rivalry, by contrast, was mostly related to Perfectionistic Concerns, which predominantly reflects maladaptive aspects (e.g., concern over others' expectations, self-doubts, and negative reactions to perceived failure). This pattern holds even after controlling for outwardly directed forms of perfectionism, such as the tendency to set unrealistically high standards for others and harshly devaluate their imperfections. Findings from this study provide novel insight into how different manifestations of grandiose narcissism (i.e., aggrandizing oneself and devaluating others) are related to distinct aspects of perfectionism.
... Self-oriented perfectionism is characterized by having high standards for the self that are not necessarily required by the environment or the situation [31]. It has two components: perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns [32,33]. The former is the tendency to have high personal standards and to have a personal quest for perfection, while the latter is the fear of making mistakes and to be negatively perceived by others [33]. ...
Background: Past research has shown that perfectionistic strivings (PS) and perfectionistic concerns (PC) in the parenting domain are associated with an increase in parental burnout (PB), and that PB causally increases violence towards one’s offspring. One may therefore wonder whether parenting perfectionism may ironically increase violence towards one’s offspring. Objective: To the best of our knowledge, no study has ever investigated whether perfectionism (PS and PC) predicts violence towards one’s offspring, or whether PB could explain this link. In the current pre-registered cross-lagged study, we hypothesized that an increase in PS and PC would lead to an increase in violence via an increase in PB. Method: 228 participants responded to a longitudinal online survey, with three measurement occasions spaced 2 months apart. Results: Contrary to expectations, cross-lagged path models revealed that violence towards the offspring prospectively predicted an increase in PS and PC. Mediation models showed that PB was not a significant mediator. Results of all models did not change when controlling for social desirability. Conclusion: The present study shows that violence towards the offspring increases the risk of PS and PC in parents. Results are discussed in light of the feeling of guilt experienced by parents. Implications: Current worries that parenting perfectionism may paradoxically increase violence appear to be unwarranted at this stage. Moreover, correlation is not causation; thus, emphasizing caution before coming to clinically and societally relevant conclusions in cross-sectional studies. Thus, the PB and child maltreatment literature should slowly shift to using more longitudinal and causal designs.
... The pursuit of perfection, unrealistic high-performance standards and critical self-evaluations are all included in the definitions of perfectionism . Perfectionism is a multidimensional trait that includes two well established dimensions: perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). Although the first can be moderately related to positive outcomes, such as academic achievement (Madigan, 2019), recent meta-analytical research has shown that, overall, perfectionism is typically maladaptive and rarely adaptive (Hill et al., 2021). ...
... Notes 1. We added the paths from perfectionistic strivings to procrastination and self-blaming and from perfectionistic concerns to planning to our model to examine the unique relationships of perfectionistic strivings and concerns, respectively (see Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). This approach is in line with previous research proposing and finding support for different processes and outcomes associated with perfectionistic strivings and concerns (see Flaxman et al., 2018;Mohr et al., 2022). ...
Work-related perfectionism is widespread among employees. Nevertheless, it is largely unclear how perfectionism might impact employees in their daily work. In line with whole trait theory, we took a dynamic perspective to investigate how daily fluctuations in both dimensions of work-related perfectionism (i.e., perfectionistic strivings and concerns) relate to an employee’s daily planning, procrastination, and self-blaming at work. We also examined relationships between these cognitions and behaviours and employees’ work-related self-efficacy and feelings of shame and guilt. During two workweeks, 78 employees completed daily surveys that assessed perfectionistic strivings and concerns as well as planning, procrastination, and self-blaming during work, and work-related self-efficacy, shame, and guilt at the end of the workday. Multilevel path modelling of data from 514 workdays showed that daily work-related perfectionistic strivings related positively to planning and daily work-related perfectionistic concerns related positively to self-blaming. Self-blaming served as a mechanism linking perfectionistic concerns with shame and guilt. Our findings show that both perfectionism dimensions relate differently to employees’ cognitions, behaviours, and emotions in their daily work. Thereby, our study helps to better understand why perfectionism can be both beneficial and detrimental for employees.
... They are typically referred to as perfectionistic strivings, which refers to aspects such as setting high performance standards; and perfectionistic concerns, meaning aspects such as the fear of negative evaluation and concern over mistakes (see Stoeber & Otto, 2006, for a comprehensive review). SOP is seen as a key indicator of perfectionistic strivings, whereas SPP is seen as a key indicator of perfectionistic concerns (Stoeber & Damian, 2016;Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). OOP is considered as an 'other form' of perfectionism as findings challenge its assignment to these superordinate factors (Ocampo et al., 2020). ...
Why do dimensions of perfectionism have different effects on employees' engagement, exhaustion, and job satisfaction? Combining the perfectionism literature and self-determination theory, we expected self-oriented perfectionism (SOP) and socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP) to be differently related to employee well-being through the fulfilment or lack of autonomy, competence, and relatedness satisfaction. We attributed a unique role to autonomy satisfaction in fostering work engagement. Data were collected at 2 time points, with a 3-month interval, in an online study. Several results from path analyses including data from 328 (T1) and 138 (T2) employees were consistent with our expectations. SPP was negatively related to work engagement and job satisfaction via a lack of autonomy satisfaction and positively related to exhaustion via a lack of relatedness satisfaction. Additionally, SOP and SPP showed different associations with competence satisfaction. Overall, our findings highlight the motivational differences inherent in perfectionism that translate into well-being via need satisfaction and unique effects of the three needs.
... Both interpretations are accurate but nonetheless deserve further clarifications. This effect is not the effect of perfectionism for everyone at the population level; it is a partial effect or the effect of perfectionistic standards when perfectionistic concerns are held constant (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). Holding constant provides an estimate of a local, residual, or partial effect of perfectionistic standards for people who have the same amount of perfectionistic concerns (Wysocki et al., 2022; see middle panel of their Table 2). ...
... Originally defined as a form of irrational belief, perfectionism (i.e., setting excessively high standards for performance with overly critical evaluations of one's behavior) [18], has recently been redefined to adapt to a more multidimensional interpretation that better matches the sport's complexity [19]. This multidimensionality in perfectionism implies the split of (1) perfectionistic strivings, as a self-oriented effort toward excellence, organization, and setting high standards and (2) perfectionistic concerns, referring to worry about previous mistakes, a mismatch between one's expectations and performance, and a fear of social evaluation [20]. A social perspective of perfectionism has also suggested an alternative dimensionality of the phenomenon, where socially prescribed perfectionism would refer to the conception that striving for perfection and being perfect are important to others, compared with self-oriented perfectionism, which would reference striving for perfection as personally important [21,22]. ...
This study aimed to longitudinally evaluate talented athletes’ levels of perfectionism, irrational beliefs, and motivations with regard to their athletic careers. A total of 390 athletes from U14, U16, and junior categories (MageT1 = 15.42) answered shortened versions of the Sport-MPS2, iPBI, and BRSQ during two consecutive seasons, along with questions referring to their current and predicted prioritization of sports and education. Participants reported high levels of perfectionistic strivings and medium to low levels of socially prescribed perfectionism and concern over mistakes decreasing from T1 to T2. A decrease was also found for demandingness and awfulizing, but increased levels were found for depreciation in T2. Participants report very high intrinsic motivation with low levels of external regulation and amotivation, but intrinsic motivation decreased from season to season. This general profile varied depending upon future expectancies toward dedication to sports and education. Those who foresaw a prioritized dedication to sports presented significantly higher levels of socially prescribed perfectionism, perfectionistic strivings, and intrinsic motivation, while those who considered that sports would not be prioritized in the following 5 years reported higher levels of demandingness, awfulizing, depreciation, and amotivation. Additionally, while current levels of motivation (T2) seemed to be predicted mainly by previous motivation levels (T1), significant predictive capacity was also detected for socially prescribed perfectionism positively predicting external regulations and amotivation, perfectionistic strivings negatively predicting amotivation, and depreciation negatively predicting intrinsic motivation and positively predicting both extrinsic regulation and amotivation. We discuss the potential perils of developing extremely demanding environments, as they could potentially result in poor motivational profiles of athletes in their talent development stage during the junior to senior transition.
... The pursuit of perfection, unrealistic high-performance standards and critical self-evaluations are all included in the definitions of perfectionism . Perfectionism is a multidimensional trait that includes two well established dimensions: perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). Although the first can be moderately related to positive outcomes, such as academic achievement (Madigan, 2019), recent meta-analytical research has shown that, overall, perfectionism is typically maladaptive and rarely adaptive (Hill et al., 2021). ...
... Nous observons un coefficient de corrélation plus faible (étude 1) et non-significatif (étude 2) pour cette relation alors que la régression dans les modèles montre des valeurs plus élevées, positives et significatives. Il se peut donc que ces valeurs aient été plus élevées, car en incluant la relation entre les comportements interpersonnels de frustration et la motivation contrôlée pour le travail dans les modèles, la variance de la motivation contrôlée pour le travail (qui est attribuable aux comportements interpersonnels de frustration) serait en partie retirée (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). Deuxièmement, il est possible de participer à une activité pour une combinaison de raisons, certaines autonomes, d'autres contrôlées (Van den Broeck et al., 2021). ...
Le mentorat est un moyen efficace d’aider les employés à améliorer leurs compétences, à resserrer les liens entre eux et à favoriser l’apprentissage dans le milieu de travail. L’approche des mentors peut notamment mener à ces répercussions positives. Par contre, des études indiquent que le mentorat peut aussi être nuisible ou inefficace pour certains mentorés, et ce, en raison des comportements interpersonnels des mentors. Deux études avec des modèles complémentaires ont été menées : une étude avec une approche transversale (N = 226) et une seconde avec une approche prospective (N = 278). Elles visaient à répondre à l’objectif d’examiner l’effet des comportements interpersonnels des mentors (selon la perspective des mentorés) sur différentes conséquences en milieu de travail des mentorés (intention de quitter le travail, engagement au travail, bien-être, qualité de la relation de mentorat) par l’entremise de deux types de motivation contextuelle (travail et mentorat). Les résultats suggèrent, en général, que les comportements interpersonnels de soutien émis par les mentors contribuent à une motivation autonome au travail et dans la relation de mentorat, ce qui est lié à un meilleur fonctionnement des mentorés. À l’inverse, quand les comportements interpersonnels des mentors sont contraignants, ils favorisent une motivation contrôlée et peuvent avoir des effets négatifs sur l’engagement au travail, le bien-être au travail et la qualité de la relation de mentorat, et des effets positifs sur l’intention de quitter le travail.
... Over time, the terminology has evolved from discussion of 'CBT for clinical perfectionism' to 'CBT for perfectionism' which can map onto the broader literature regarding perfectionistic concerns and striving (e. g., Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017) but the focus on the common type of perfectionism seen in clinical practice remains. The cognitive behavioural model of maintaining processes (Shafran et al., 2002), has guided the development of CBT for perfectionism (see Egan, Wade, Shafran, & Antony, 2014;Shafran et al., 2010;, of which individualised cognitive behavioural formulation of the maintaining processes of clinical perfectionism is an integral component (Shafran et al., 2010;). ...
It has been 21 years since the publication of the cognitive behavioural model of clinical perfectionism that underpins cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) for perfectionism. The notion of clinical perfectionism and CBT for perfectionism has been controversial. Despite 15 randomised controlled trials which have demonstrated the efficacy of CBT for perfectionism in reducing perfectionism and symptoms of anxiety, depression and eating disorders, strong responses to this work continue to appear in the literature. In this article, we examine the evolution and controversy surrounding clinical perfectionism, the efficacy of CBT for perfectionism, and future directions for the concept of perfectionism and its treatment. Future research should aim to provide independent evaluations of treatment efficacy, compare CBT for perfectionism to active treatments, conduct dismantling trials to examine the effective components of treatment, and examine the causal processes involved in perfectionism. We provide recommendations for future pathways to support innovation in theory, understanding, and treatment of perfectionism with a view towards improving clinical outcomes.
... We also reported partial correlations, controlling for the overlap among perfectionistic dimensions. This represents an appropriate approach for addressing the complex nature of multidimensional perfectionism and of its relationships with relevant criteria (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). The correlation analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS version 26. ...
The current study investigates the longitudinal association between grandiose narcissism and multidimensional perfectionism over 2 years in adolescence. We adopted the Narcissistic Admiration and Rivalry Concept, which differentiates between two aspects of grandiose narcissism. We also considered multiple dimensions of perfectionism, including Socially Prescribed Perfectionism (SPP) and two forms of Self-Oriented Perfectionism (SOP), namely the tendencies to set high standards of performance (SOP-Striving) and to engage in overly critical self-evaluations (SOP-Critical). The study was conducted in a sample of Italian high school students (n = 331). Concurrent correlations indicated that Admiration was positively related to SOP-Striving and, to a lesser extent, to SOP-Critical and SPP. Rivalry was also positively related to the three perfectionistic dimensions, although correlations were smaller in size than those found for Admiration. Prospective associations between narcissism and perfectionism were analysed using a Random-Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Model. Results showed that the predominant direction of effects was from narcissism to perfectionism, particularly from Admiration to SOP-Striving and SPP. Findings were discussed in terms of their implications for the understanding of the narcissism-perfectionism link.
... Some researchers consider perfectionism to be always detrimental (Hewitt et al., 2017;Smith, 2018). Conversely, other lines of research have suggested that controlling for the overlapping variance between dimensions (by partialling out overlapping variance or creating profiles) allows the emergence of a dimension of perfectionism that is more strongly associated with positive outcomes (Stoeber and Otto, 2006;Gaudreau and Thompson, 2010;Hill et al., 2010;Gotwals et al., 2012;Stoeber and Gaudreau, 2017). Yet, this position has been criticized on the grounds of theoretical and measurement concerns (Hill, 2014(Hill, , 2017Smith and Saklofske, 2017). ...
Perfectionism has been the object of many disputes. One such debate pertains to the nature of perfectionistic strivings. Whereas perfectionistic concerns (PC) have been shown to correlate with negative outcomes, perfectionistic strivings (PS) have been associated with mixed outcomes. This view of perfectionism assumes a motivational perspective; however, commonly used questionnaires assess motivation only implicitly. To create a more explicit measure of motivation as regard perfectionism, we aimed to assess perfectionism in post-secondary education based on Deci and Ryan’s self-determination continuum. We posit that introjected motivation represents the variance common to both dimensions of perfectionism. External motivation is considered to be specific to PC and identified motivation to PS. Amotivation represents a lack of meaningful striving. Intrinsic motivation, lacking perfectionism’s pressure, is conceptualized to be a self-determined form of striving for excellence. We further posited that this continuum is implicitly underlain by a continuum of self-definition as defined by Blatt. The resulting questionnaire showed an adequate structure with ESEM, followed a simplex structure, and had adequate reliabilities (Study 1a/Study 2). It also showed adequate convergent validity (Study 1b/Study 2). Finally, the questionnaire proved to be invariant over a 6-week period (Study 2). Results suggest that the degree of active goal pursuit, in addition to standards setting, could be a distinguishing characteristic between dimensions of perfectionism as well as striving for excellence.
... Following this classification, perfectionistic strivings indicate a self-oriented effort for excellence, self-organization (i.e., emphasis for precision, routines and structure) and setting high personal performance standards. By contrast, perfectionistic concerns include aspects of perfectionism related to concerns about previous mistakes, fear of negative social evaluation, feelings of mismatch between one's expectations and performance, and negative reactions to imperfection (Stoeber & Gaudreau, 2017). Summarized by Olsson et al. (2020), perfectionistic strivings are linked to both negative and maladaptive (e.g., depression symptoms, fear of failure) and positive and adaptive (e.g., enjoyment, commitment, performance) outcomes, whereas perfectionistic concerns are exclusively linked to negative results (e.g., burnout, anxiety, amotivation). ...
Since Junior-to-Senior Transition (JST) is only considered successful when soccer players become professionals, many junior athletes must cope with failure, and their sporting careers and mental health may be at risk. Therefore, the objectives of this study are to (a) identify different career expectancies of male soccer academy players, and (b) describe irrational beliefs, perfectionism and mental health levels associated with different career expectancies, identifying risk factors in the JST. A total of 515 male soccer players between 14 and 19 years old ( M = 16.7; SD = 1.6) who played in Spanish professional youth academies during the 2020–2021 season, answered questionnaires on sports career model, beliefs, perfectionism and mental health (i.e., iPBI, MPS-2 and GHQ-12). The results suggest that the number of juniors who aspire to be professionals (57%) far exceeds the number of players who become professionals (10%; Dugdale in Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports 31:73–84, 2021). Also, results show that this population presents high levels of demandingness ( M = 5.5), low frustration tolerance ( M = 5.2), self-organization ( M = 5.2) and social functioning ( M = 5.5), and low scores on depreciation ( M = 2.6) and loss of confidence and self-esteem ( M = 2.4). In a more detailed way, the results are compared according to expectancies. These academies are usually environments where success and failure are antagonistic concepts, and where perfectionism and irrational beliefs are normalized and integrated among all members of this context. However, the possible maladaptive effects put their mental health at risk. With the aim of rationalizing the concepts of success and failure and protecting their mental health, especially those who will not become professionals, this study proposes a new route based on the REBT philosophy and ARRC technique.
... Although these models have been widely used, factor analysis studies examined the basic structure of multidimensional perfectionism measures and supported two higher-order perfectionism dimensions commonly used in contemporary research, mainly including perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns [8,9,[29][30][31]. What is more, the dimensions in each model can be divided into perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns [29][30][31][32]. Therefore, we choose perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns to measure perfectionism. ...
Compared to non-perfectionists, perfectionists may not be satisfied with the growing needs in their lives to the same extent. To test whether perfectionists are dissatisfied with their lives, we investigated whether trait perfectionism attenuates the relationship between basic psychological needs, perceived control, and life satisfaction. A total of 574 college students self-reported basic psychological needs, perceived control, life satisfaction, and perfectionistic strivings and concerns, with a mean age of 19.53 (SD = 1.61), including 299 women and 275 men. A correlation analysis showed that perfectionistic strivings were significantly positively related to life satisfaction, while perfectionistic concerns were significantly negatively related to life satisfaction. The moderation analysis showed that perfectionistic strivings not only moderated the relationship between basic psychological needs and life satisfaction but also moderated the relationship between perceived control and life satisfaction. Individuals with high perfectionistic strivings generally reported high levels of life satisfaction. Perfectionistic strivings, however, reduced the positive relationship between perceived control and life satisfaction. Perfectionistic concerns moderated the relationship between perceived control and life satisfaction—the higher the perfectionistic concerns, the weaker the positive relationship between perceived control and life satisfaction. The study found that individuals with high perfectionistic tendencies are not always dissatisfied with life, but that perfectionism weakens the relationship between basic psychological needs, perceived control, and life satisfaction. We argue that one way to improve happiness is by coaching individuals who are highly perfectionistic to become self-aware of their personality so both their perfectionistic strivings and concerns are more coherent with their values and goals or character.
... Some researchers consider perfectionism to be always detrimental (Hewitt et al., 2017;Smith, 2018). Conversely, other lines of research have suggested that controlling for the overlapping variance between dimensions (by partialling out overlapping variance or creating profiles) allows the emergence of a dimension of perfectionism that is more strongly associated with positive outcomes (Stoeber and Otto, 2006;Gaudreau and Thompson, 2010;Hill et al., 2010;Gotwals et al., 2012;Stoeber and Gaudreau, 2017). Yet, this position has been criticized on the grounds of theoretical and measurement concerns (Hill, 2014(Hill, , 2017Smith and Saklofske, 2017). ...
Perfectionism has been the object of many disputes. One such debate pertains to the nature of perfectionistic strivings. Whereas perfectionistic concerns (PC) have been shown to correlate with negative outcomes, perfectionistic strivings (PS) have been associated with mixed outcomes. This view of perfectionism assumes a motivational perspective; however, commonly used questionnaires assess motivation only implicitly. To create a more explicit measure of motivation as regard perfectionism, we aimed to assess perfectionism in post-secondary education based on Deci and Ryan’s self-determination continuum. We posit that introjected motivation represents the variance common to both dimensions of perfectionism. External motivation is considered to be specific to PC and identified motivation to PS. Amotivation represents a lack of meaningful striving. Intrinsic motivation, lacking perfectionism’s pressure, is conceptualized to be a self-determined form of striving for excellence. We further posited that this continuum is implicitly underlain by a continuum of self-definition as defined by Blatt. The resulting questionnaire showed an adequate structure with ESEM, followed a simplex structure, and had adequate reliabilities (Study 1a/Study 2). It also showed adequate convergent validity (Study 1b/Study 2). Finally, the questionnaire proved to be invariant over a 6-week period (Study 2). Results suggest that the degree of active goal pursuit, in addition to standards setting, could be a distinguishing characteristic between dimensions of perfectionism as well as striving for excellence.
... Bivariate correlations allow us to understand why a subject with high levels in one of the perfectionist dimensions differs or not from another individual with low levels in that perfectionist dimension. Conversely, partial correlations allow to control the superposition between PS and PC by keeping constant one of the dimensions [50,51]. us, according to the results of this study, it seems that both dimensions, PS and PC, have unique and shared relationships with emotional attention, which means that both are responsible for the differences found between the three profiles. ...
This study examined the relationship between perfectionistic concerns (PC) and perfectionistic strivings (PS) with the subcomponents of emotional intelligence (EI) through a latent class person-centered approach. A sample of 1582 Ecuadorian adolescents (619 females) aged from 12 to 18 was employed. The trait meta-mood scale-24 (TMMS-24) and the child and adolescent perfectionism scale (CAPS) were used, respectively, for assessing three subcomponents of EI (i.e., emotional attention, emotional clarity, and mood repair) and two perfectionist dimensions (PC and PS). A three-class solution (High perfectionism, moderate perfectionism, and nonperfectionism) was identified by using latent class analysis. High perfectionism significantly scored higher on emotional attention in comparison with the moderate and nonperfectionism classes, with small and moderate effect sizes. Overall, results suggest that people with high perfectionism might be at greater risk of developing maladaptive emotional self-regulation strategies, such as rumination, because of their tendency to excessively attend their negative mood states.
Le perfectionnisme est conceptualisé à l’aide de deux dimensions, la recherche de hauts standards et les préoccupations perfectionnistes. Il est encore difficile de statuer clairement si la recherche de hauts standards est associée à un meilleur fonctionnement que les préoccupations perfectionnistes. Une faible flexibilité cognitive est associée au perfectionnisme ainsi qu’à un moins bon fonctionnement. Cette étude examine le rôle médiateur de la flexibilité dans la relation entre le perfectionnisme et le fonctionnement psychologique. Les résultats suggèrent que la flexibilité joue un rôle différent dans le fonctionnement psychologique des personnes selon leurs tendances sur les deux dimensions perfectionnistes.
Physical appearance perfectionism, which refers to the desire for a flawless physical appearance, was the focus of the study. The study aimed to examine the psychometric properties of the Persian version of the Physical Appearance Perfectionism Scale (PAPS) in a sample of Iranian adult women. A convenience sample of 324 adult women completed the PAPS, Tehran's multidimensional perfectionism (TMPS), and social appearance anxiety (SAAS) scales. Validity and reliability were checked using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, Pearson correlation, and internal consistency. The results confirmed the 2-factor structure of this scale, with both worry about imperfection and hope for perfection subscales showing a significant positive correlation with the scores of the Tehran Multidimensional Perfectionism Questionnaire and Social Appearance Anxiety Questionnaire. The Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the subscales was 0.90 and 0.89, respectively, and 0.90 for the total score. These findings suggest that the Physical Appearance Perfectionism Scale (PAPS) demonstrates good validity and reliability in Iranian adult women.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886924000655?dgcid=author
Purpose
First, this study aimed to investigate the association of time perspective (TP) profiles with work engagement and workaholism. Second, it tested TP profiles as the moderator of perfectionism with work engagement and workaholism relationship.
Design/methodology/approach
The sample of this study comprised 148 Japanese employees, and snowball sampling was used for data collection. The authors found the TP profiles in the first step using cluster analysis with five TP dimensions. Next, the authors tested workaholism and work engagement in three clusters. The two dimensions of perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns were extracted through the exploratory factor analysis of Sakurai and Ohtani's (1997) perfectionism measure. Further, their relationship with workaholism and work engagement was tested in the TP profiles using multiple group analysis in structural equation modeling (SEM).
Findings
Three TP profiles were found, which the authors named: Future (F), Hedonistic and Balanced. There was a significant difference between the three groups. Notably, working compulsively was significantly higher in the Future cluster in the three clusters. The moderator analysis results indicated that perfectionistic concerns positively affected workaholism in the Future cluster but not for the Balanced cluster.
Originality/value
To the best of authors’ knowledge, this is the first study to investigate the relationship between perspective profiles, workaholism and work engagement. The relationship between these factors can be a stepping stone for further research.
Evidence suggests perfectionism is a multidimensional construct comprised of two higher-order factors: perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. However, the substantial overlap between perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns is problematic, as are the unanswered questions regarding the structure of perfectionism following removal of common variance. The present research addressed this through bifactor modeling. Three student samples (N = 742) completed Hewitt and Flett’s (1991) Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (HFMPS), Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate’s (1990) Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS), and Slaney, Rice, Mobley, Trippi, and Ashby’s (2001) Almost Perfect Scale-Revised (APS-R). Greater support was consistently found for the bifactor model, relative to the two-factor model. Results suggest the bifactor model best represents the structure of perfectionism and provide preliminary support for the use of a general factor score. Researchers are cautioned that removal of general variance may render the reliability of specific factors (i.e., perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns) suspect.
This article introduces a new measure of dispositional perfectionism: the Big Three Perfectionism Scale (BTPS). The BTPS assesses three higher-order global factors (rigid perfectionism, self-critical perfectionism, narcissistic perfectionism) via 10 lower-order perfectionism facets (self-oriented perfectionism, self-worth contingencies, concern over mistakes, doubts about actions, self-criticism, socially prescribed perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, hypercriticism, grandiosity, entitlement). The present investigation examined the structure of the BTPS using exploratory factor analysis in Study 1 (288 undergraduates), and confirmatory factor analyses in Study 2 (352 community adults) and Study 3 (290 undergraduates). Additionally, in Study 3 the relationships among the BTPS, other measures of perfectionism, and the five-factor model of personality were investigated. Overall, findings provide first evidence for the reliability and validity of the BTPS as a multidimensional measure of perfectionism.
Reports in the public media indicate that intense perfectionism and severe self-criticism played a role in the suicide of three remarkably talented individuals. The role of perfectionism in these suicides is consistent with recent extensive investigations of aspects of perfectionism as well as further analyses of the NIMH Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program (TDCRP), indicating that intense perfectionism interfered significantly with therapeutic response in the various brief treatments for depression. Self-critical individuals, however made substantial improvement in long-term intensive treatment. These findings suggest the value of considering psychopathology, especially depression, from a psychological rather than a symptomatic perspective; that different patients may be differentially responsive to various types of therapy, and that more extensive therapy may be necessary for many highly perfectionistic, self-critical patients.
A recent article in the Journal of Management gives a critique of a Bayesian approach to factor analysis proposed in Psychological Methods. This commentary responds to the authors' critique by clarifying key issues, especially the use of priors for residual covariances. A discussion is also presented of cross-loadings and model selection tools. Simulated data are used to illustrate the ideas. A reanalysis of the example used by the authors reveals a superior model overlooked by the authors.
The contributions in this volume attest to the relevance of studying individual differences in perfectionism in relation to health and well-being. It is evident that the field has moved beyond simply examining whether perfectionism is associated with health and well-being or not to testing conceptual models that may help further our understanding of when, how, and why perfectionism may be implicated in health and well-being. In this final chapter, we discuss four key themes emerging from these works that we believe merit greater consideration because they have the potential to provide a platform for future research for the next generation of scholars in the field. Specifically, we discuss (1) issues in the conceptualization and measurement of perfectionism, (2) the pervasiveness of perfectionism, (3) the adaptive versus maladaptive perfectionism debate, and (4) issues in measuring health and well-being in relation to perfectionism. These themes afford us new insights into links among perfectionism, health, and well-being that can guide scholars to new and exciting questions to further propel the field forward. We conclude by offering several directions for future research.
A meta-analysis of research examining the relationships between multidimensional perfectionism and burnout is provided. In doing so, relationships before and after controlling for the relationship between dimensions of perfectionism were examined along with whether relationships were moderated by domain (work, sport, or education). A literature search yielded 43 studies (N = 9,838) and 663 effect sizes. Meta-analysis using random-effects models revealed that perfectionistic strivings had small negative or non-significant relationships with overall burnout and symptoms of burnout. By contrast, perfectionistic concerns displayed medium-to-large and medium positive relationships with overall burnout and symptoms of burnout. After controlling for the relationship between dimensions of perfectionism, "pure" perfectionistic strivings displayed notably larger negative relationships. In terms of moderation, in some cases, perfectionistic strivings were less adaptive and perfectionistic concerns more maladaptive in the work domain. Future research should examine explanatory mechanisms, adopt longitudinal designs, and develop interventions to reduce perfectionistic concerns fueled burnout.
© 2015 by the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc.
Perfectionism is a prevalent personality disposition that may affect all domains of life. Work is an important domain of life for many people. Yet, research on perfectionism at work and how perfectionism affects employees’ health and well-being is still limited. Research, however, has investigated perfectionism’s relationships with three key aspects of peoples’ working lives that are closely associated with employees’ health and well-being: work engagement, workaholism, and job burnout. Differentiating between perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns (Stoeber & Otto, 2006), the present chapter presents an overview of the relevant research findings. Taken together, the findings suggest that (a) perfectionistic strivings show positive relationships with work engagement whereas perfectionistic concerns show no relationships or negative relationships, (b) perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns both show positive relationships with workaholism, and (c) perfectionistic strivings show negative relationships with burnout whereas perfectionistic concerns show positive relationships. To explain the opposite relationships that perfectionistic strivings and concerns show with burnout, two hypothetical models are presented. In Model 1, autonomous versus controlled motivation explain the opposite relationships of perfectionistic strivings and concerns with burnout. In Model 2, adaptive versus maladaptive coping explain the relationships. The chapter concludes with directions for future research on perfectionism, work engagement, workaholism, and job burnout pointing out the importance of longitudinal studies and intervention studies.
The author provides comments on the contributions to this special issue on perfectionism in sport and dance focusing on how they provide further support for the view that perfectionism is a “double-edged sword.” In addition, the author gives his personal view on using the tripartite model versus the 2 x 2 model of perfectionism as an analytic framework and, in conclusion, outlines future research on perfectionism in sport and dance that he thinks is needed to further advance our knowledge.
Two recent reviews of research examining the effects of perfectionism in athletes concluded that perfectionistic strivings is adaptive when perfectionistic concerns are controlled or partialled. This study aims to provide a caveat to the conclusions of these reviews by highlighting the perils of partialling and illustrating how it is possible for the conceptual meaning of perfectionistic strivings to change following partialling. In order to do so, 283 athletes (age M = 20.65, s = 3.68, range 18–43) completed measures of two commonly used sub-dimensions of perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns (personal standards and concern over mistakes) along with a number of constructs from their nomological network. A comparison of the observed relationships before (raw scores) and after (residualised scores) partialling indicated a reasonably high degree of overall similarity. However, closer examination revealed 14 of 18 individual relationships changed in magnitude, direction or statistical significance and 4 of the changes were indicative of suppression (i.e. an increase in the relationship with the criterion variable). The results exemplify the impact of partialling on perfectionistic strivings and question the conceptual meaning of residualised perfectionistic strivings and its relevance when understanding the effects of perfectionism.
The manner in which coaches regulate their emotions has implications for their performance and well-being. Drawing on research that has found perfectionism to predict emotion regulation in other settings, this study adopted the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism to examine whether subtypes of perfectionism among coaches were associated with variation in the use of emotion regulation strategies. Coaches (N = 238, M age = 23.92, SD = 10.32) from various sports completed measures of perfectionism (personal standards and evaluative concerns) and emotion regulation strategies (expressive suppression, cognitive reappraisal, and control of anger directed inwards and outwards). Moderated hierarchical regression provided mixed support for the 2 × 2 model. As expected, pure personal standards perfectionism (high standards/low concerns) was generally associated with the highest capacity for emotion regulation and pure evaluative concerns perfectionism (low standards/high concerns) with the lowest. Unexpectedly, mixed perfectionism (high standards/high concerns) was associated with the highest level of expressive suppression, suggesting that in some instances standards might exacerbate rather than attenuate concerns. © 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York.
Perfectionism cognitions capture automatic perfectionistic thoughts and have explained variance in psychological adjustment and maladjustment beyond trait perfectionism. The aim of the present research was to investigate whether a multidimensional assessment of perfectionism cognitions has advantages over a unidimensional assessment. To this aim, we examined in a sample of 324 university students how the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory (PCI) and the Multidimensional Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory (MPCI) explained variance in positive affect, negative affect, and depressive symptoms when factor or subscale scores were used as predictors compared to total scores. Results showed that a multidimensional assessment (PCI factor scores, MPCI subscale scores) explained more variance than a unidimensional assessment (PCI and MPCI total scores) because, when the different dimensions were entered simultaneously as predictors, perfectionistic strivings cognitions and perfectionistic concerns cognitions acted as mutual suppressors thereby increasing each others’ predictive validity. With this, the present findings provide evidence that—regardless of whether the PCI or the MPCI is used—a multidimensional assessment of perfectionism cognitions has advantages over a unidimensional assessment in explaining variance in psychological adjustment and maladjustment.
The development and validation of a new measure, the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) is described. The EDI is a 64 item, self-report, multiscale measure designed for the assessment of psychological and behavioral traits common in anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia. The EDI consists of eight sub-scales measuring: 1) Drive for Thinness, 2) Bulimia, 3) Body Dissatisfaction, 4) Ineffectiveness, 5) Perfectionism, 6) Interpersonal Distrust, 7) Interoceptive Awareness and 8) Maturity Fears. Reliability (internal consistency) is established for all subscales and several indices of validity are presented. First, AN patients (N = 113) are differentiated from female comparison (FC) subjects (N = 577) using a cross-validation procedure. Secondly, patient self-report subscale scores agree with clinician ratings of subscale traits. Thirdly, clinically recovered AN patients score similarly to FCs on all subscales. Finally, convergent and discriminate validity are established for subscales. The EDI was also administered to groups of normal weight bulimic women, obese, and normal weight but formerly obese women, as well as a male comparison group. Group differences are reported and the potential utility of the EDI is discussed.
The Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS; Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990, Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, 449-568) provides six subscales for a multidimensional assessment of perfectionism: Concern over Mistakes (CM), Personal Standards (PS), Parental Expectations (PE), Parental Criticism (PC), Doubts about actions (D), and Organization (O). Despite its increasing popularity in personality and clinical research, the FMPS has also drawn some criticism for its factorial instability across samples. The present article argues that this instability may be due to an overextraction of components. Whereas all previous analyses presented six-factor solutions for the FMPS items, a reanalysis with Horn's parallel analysis suggested only four or five underlying factors. To investigate the nature of these factors, item responses from N = 243 participants were subjected to principal component analysis. Again, parallel analysis retained only four components. Varimax rotation replicated PS and O as separate factors, whereas combining CM with D as well as PE with PC. Consequently, the present article suggests a reduction to four (instead of six) FMPS subscales. Differential correlations with anxiety, depression, parental representations, and action tendencies underscore the advantage of this solution.
Over the past 20 years we have gained a comprehensive understanding of self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism, but our understanding of other-oriented perfectionism (OOP)—and how it differs from the other two forms of perfectionism—is still underdeveloped. Two studies with university students are presented examining OOP’s relationships with social goals, the dark triad, the HEXACO personality dimensions, and altruism. OOP showed unique positive relationships with narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy and unique negative relationships with nurturance, intimacy, and social development goals. Furthermore it showed unique relationships with social dominance goals (positive) and emotionality, agreeableness, and altruism (negative) dependent on the OOP measure used. The findings suggest that OOP is a “dark” form of perfectionism associated with antisocial and narcissistic personality characteristics.
This study of university students (136 men and 307 women) examined the roles of hassles, avoidant and active coping, and perceived available social support in the relation between evaluative concerns and personal standards perfectionism and distress symptoms (i.e., depression, anxiety). Confirmatory factor analysis supported the measurement model used in this study. Structural equation modeling results indicated that hassles, avoidant coping, and perceived social support are each unique mediators that can fully explain the strong relation between evaluative concerns perfectionism and distress. Personal standards perfectionism had a unique association with active coping only. Hassles and social support also moderated the relation between both dimensions of perfectionism and distress. Clinical implications of distinguishing between evaluative concerns and personal standards perfectionism are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A controversial issue in sport perfectionism research concerns the degree to which athletes’ perfectionistic tendencies are adaptive or maladaptive. Insight into this issue can be obtained by distinguishing between two perfectionism dimensions: perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. Past narrative reviews concede that perfectionistic concerns are maladaptive in sport, but offer contrasting conclusions about whether athletes’ perfectionistic strivings are adaptive or maladaptive (see Flett & Hewitt, 2005; Hall, 2006; Stoeber, 2011). To address this discrepancy, this review systematically documented, categorized, and quantitatively analyzed 201 correlations from 31 studies on perfectionism in athletes. When bivariate correlations were regarded, the proportion of evidence associating perfectionistic strivings with adaptive characteristics in sport was slightly greater than the proportion of evidence associating the dimension with maladaptive characteristics in sport. When partial correlations were regarded (i.e., correlations that controlled for overlap with perfectionistic concerns), a clear majority of evidence associated perfectionistic strivings with adaptive characteristics and only a small minority associated it with maladaptive characteristics. Across both instances, though, considerable evidence (as represented by nonsignificant correlations) associated perfectionistic strivings with neither adaptive nor maladaptive characteristics. Collectively, these findings suggest that perfectionistic strivings among athletes are predominantly adaptive, occasionally neutral, and rarely maladaptive. However, this trend is only apparent when the negative influence of perfectionistic concerns is controlled. Implications of these findings on future research directions and applied sport psychology practice are discussed.
Research examining the perfectionism-burnout relationship has typically focused on the main effects of single dimensions of perfectionism. The purpose of the current study was to extend this research by examining the interactive effects of dimensions of perfectionism in predicting symptoms of athlete burnout. In doing so, the hypotheses of the recently developed 2 × 2 model of dispositional perfectionism were tested in regards to differences between subtypes of perfectionism. One hundred sixty-seven junior male soccer players were recruited from English professional soccer clubs and completed paper-and-pencil measures of perfectionism and symptoms of athlete burnout. Moderated hierarchical regression provided support for the hypotheses of the 2 × 2 model for some but not all symptoms of burnout. Overall, the findings suggest that the 2 × 2 model may offer a useful framework through which to explain the interactive effects of dimensions of perfectionism on athlete burnout.
Asserts that perfection is an undesirable and debilitating goal and that striving for nonexistent perfection keeps people in turmoil and is associated with a number of psychological problems. Human qualities come from imperfection, from defects that define unique personalities and create real people. The psychopathological aspects of perfectionists are described, focusing on mental distortions and the distinction between perfectionists and neurotic perfectionists. Individual and group treatment techniques are outlined. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Does perfectionism predict maladjustment beyond self-criticism? Attention to this key question is needed as some studies suggest perfectionism may not explain variance in maladjustment beyond self-criticism. Using a large cross-national sample of 524 undergraduates (229 Canadian, 295 British), this study examined whether evaluative concerns perfectionism (socially prescribed perfectionism, concern over mistakes, doubts about actions) explained variance in self-defeating behaviors (binge eating, procrastination, interpersonal conflict) after controlling for self-criticism. Results showed that-after controlling for self-criticism-concern over mistakes predicted binge eating, doubts about actions predicted procrastination, and socially prescribed perfectionism and concern over mistakes predicted interpersonal conflict. Self-criticism also uniquely predicted self-defeating behaviors beyond evaluative concerns perfectionism. The relationships that evaluative concerns perfectionism shows with self-defeating behaviors appear neither redundant with nor fully captured by self-criticism. Results dovetail with theoretical accounts suggesting evaluative concerns perfectionism is a uniquely important part of the personality of people prone to self-defeating behaviors.
The 2 × 2 model of perfectionism conceptualizes perfectionism as the within-person combinations of self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism to define four subtypes of perfectionism. This model posits that each subtype is distinctively associated with self-determined motivation and psychological adjustment. Results of latent moderated structural equation model with data from a sample of 559 university students with our newly developed MPLUS syntax codes to estimate simple slopes and their statistical significance supported this hypothesis. As expected, pure self-oriented perfectionism was associated with higher academic self-determination and academic satisfaction relative to mixed perfectionism. Mixed perfectionism was also associated with higher academic self-determination and satisfaction than was pure socially prescribed perfectionism. Results of a latent mediated moderation structural equation model also showed that academic self-determined motivation significantly mediated the relationships between perfectionism subtypes and academic satisfaction. The indirect effects of the four simple slopes, tested with our newly developed MPLUS syntax codes, all reached statistical significance. On substantive grounds, the different amounts of autonomy or self-determination associated with each of the four subtypes of perfectionism of the 2 × 2 model explicate why they are distinctively associated with academic satisfaction. On methodological grounds, this study offered a roadmap to examine the hypotheses of the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism with latent moderated structural equation modeling.
Does perfectionism predict maladjustment beyond self-criticism? Attention to this key question is needed as some studies suggest perfectionism may not explain variance in maladjustment beyond self-criticism. Using a large cross-national sample of 524 undergraduates (229 Canadian, 295 British), this study examined whether evaluative concerns perfectionism (socially prescribed perfectionism, concern over mistakes, doubts about actions) explained variance in self-defeating behaviors (binge eating, procrastination, interpersonal conflict) after controlling for selfcriticism. Results showed that—after controlling for self-criticism—concern over mistakes predicted binge eating, doubts about actions predicted procrastination, and socially prescribed perfectionism and concern over mistakes predicted interpersonal conflict. Self-criticism also uniquely predicted self-defeating behaviors beyond evaluative concerns perfectionism. The relationships that evaluative concerns perfectionism shows with self-defeating behaviors appear neither redundant with nor fully captured by self-criticism. Results dovetail with theoretical accounts suggesting evaluative concerns perfectionism is a uniquely important part of the personality of people prone to self-defeating behaviors.
The development and validation of a new measure, the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) is described. The EDI is a 64 item, self-report, multiscale measure designed for the assessment of psychological and behavioral traits common in anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia. The EDI consists of eight subscales measuring: Drive for Thinness, Bilimia, Body Dissatisfaction, Ineffectiveness, Perfectionism, Interpersonal Distrust, Interoceptive Awareness and Maturity Fears. Reliability (internal consistency) is established for all subscales and several indices of validity are presented. First, AN patients (N=113) are differentiated from femal comparison (FC) subjects (N=577) using a cross-validation procedure. Secondly, patient self-report subscale scores agree with clinician ratings of subscale traits. Thirdly, clinically recovered AN patients score similarly to FCs on all subscales. Finally, convergent and discriminant validity are established for subscales. The EDI was also administered to groups of normal weight bulimic women, obese, and normal weight but formerly obese women, as well as a male comparison group. Group differences are reported and the potential utility of the EDI is discussed.
Recent research suggests that validation-seeking and dimensions of perfectionism may be antecedents of athlete burnout. The present investigation examined whether validation and growth-seeking mediate the relationship between selforiented and socially prescribed perfectionism and burnout. One-hundred and fifty canoe polo and kayak slalom athletes recruited from the top two divisions in the UK completed measures of validation and growth-seeking (GOI), perfectionism (HMPS), and athlete burnout (ABQ). Analyses supported the mediating role of validation-seeking in the relationship between socially prescribed perfectionism and burnout. However, while bivariate correlations indicated that self-oriented perfectionism was positively related to both validation and growth-seeking, neither mediated the self-oriented perfectionism-burnout relationship. The findings suggest that validation-seeking may be an important psychological factor in the development of burnout for athletes exhibiting high levels of socially prescribed perfectionism. The relationship between self-oriented perfectionism and athlete burnout remains unclear because of its association with multiple motives and with socially prescribed perfectionism.
In the current article, we revisit the role of perfectionism as a maladaptive factor in sports, dance and exercise behavior as an extension of our previous paper on the perils of perfectionism in sports and exercise. New findings described in this special issue are highlighted to illustrate the vulnerabilities of perfectionists and the various costs and consequences that can result from the inflexible and rigid pursuit of perfection and associated ways of evaluating the self and other people. While there is ample evidence of the potential destructiveness of perfectionism among athletes and dancers, we suggest that the current literature paints a more positive view of perfectionism than is warranted according to a person-centered view of the athlete or dancer who is highly perfectionistic. Our analysis focuses on areas of investigation that deserve to be more fully explored in order to gain a better understanding of the costs and consequences of extreme perfectionism, including the mental well-being and physical health of perfectionistic athletes and their ability to cope with injuries. Our analysis emphasizes the self and identity issues that differentiate perfectionistic overstrivingfrom a healthier form of striving for excellence.
The use of control variables plays a central role in organizational research due to practical difficulties associated with the implementation of experimental and quasi-experimental designs. As such, we conducted an in-depth review and content analysis of what variables and why such variables are controlled for in ten of the most popular research domains (task performance, organizational citizenship behaviors, turnover, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, employee burnout, personality, leader-member exchange, organizational justice, and affect) in organizational behavior/human resource management (OB/HRM) and applied psychology. Specifically, we examined 580 articles published from 2003 to 2012 in AMJ, ASQ, JAP, JOM, and PPsyc. Results indicate that, across research domains with clearly distinct theoretical bases, the overwhelming majority of the more than 3,500 controls identified in our review converge around the same simple demographic factors (i.e., gender, age, tenure), very little effort is made to explain why and how controls relate to focal variables of interest, and control variable practices have not changed much over the past decade. To address these results, we offer best-practice recommendations in the form of a sequence of questions and subsequent steps that can be followed to make decisions on the appropriateness of including a specific control variable within a particular theoretical framework, research domain, and empirical study. Our recommendations can be used by authors as well as journal editors and reviewers to improve the transparency and appropriateness of practices regarding control variable usage.
The 2 × 2 model of perfectionism examines the relation between four subtypes of perfectionism and psychological adjustment (Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010). Researchers have investigated subtypes of perfectionism using common multivariate statistical analyses. The development of a new measure is warranted to evaluate whether individuals can, with a decent degree of certainty, assess by themselves their subtypes of perfectionism. Two studies with samples of university students were conducted to develop and provide initial evidence for the Self-Assessment of Perfectionism Subtypes (SAPS). Our measurement approach tries to simulate the features of mixture modeling by asking participants to assess a self-rated probability of belonging into each subtype of perfectionism. Using a finite-like and continuous scale, our results showed that self-rated probabilities of belonging in subtypes of perfectionism are significantly associated with traditional measures of perfectionism and consequential life outcomes in a way that mostly replicated past research and supported the four hypotheses of the model.
This tutorial addresses possible sources of confusion in interpreting trait scores from the bifactor model. The bifactor model may be used when subscores are desired, either for formative feedback on an achievement test or for theoretically different constructs on a psychological test. The bifactor model is often chosen because it requires fewer computational resources than other models for subscores. The bifactor model yields a score on the general or primary trait measured by the test overall, as well as specific or secondary traits measured by the subscales. Interpreting the general trait score is straight-forward, but the specific traits must be interpreted as residuals relative to the general trait. Trait scores on the specific factors are contrasted with trait scores on a simple-structure model with correlated factors, using example data from one TIMSS test booklet and a civic responsibility measure. The correlated factors model was used for contrast because its scores correspond to a more intuitive interpretation of subscores, and thus it helps to illustrate how the bifactor scores should NOT be interpreted. Estimation details are covered in an appendix.
The 2 × 2 model of perfectionism has recently been analyzed in a critical commentary from Stoeber (2012). The purpose of this article was to have another look at some of the key assumptions of the 2 × 2 model – with a particular focus on the ones that were critically reviewed by Stoeber (2012). In this article, I have tried to clarify our theoretical position to facilitate further theorizing and empirical examination of the 2 × 2 model. The article starts with an overview of the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism. Then, it reiterates the conceptual meanings attached to subtypes of perfectionism while emphasizing that the word “subtype” is a diminutive for within-person combinations of perfectionism. The article proceeds to outline the importance of adopting neutral labels to define subtypes of perfectionism in order to differentiate them from their expected outcomes. The 2 × 2 model is subsequently described as an open-ended theoretical system in which the four hypotheses are needed to offer a compelling framework to test moderating effects. The article also proposes alternative methods, with a particular focus on equivalence testing in order to empirically determine whether some subtypes of perfectionism are associated with equivalent outcomes.
The goal of this methodological note was to outline the importance of considering the interactive and main effects of dualistic personality dimensions by presenting an example grounded in the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism (Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010). A study was conducted with a sample of 98 university students to examine the associations between four subtypes of perfectionism and academic performance. Results of moderated regression analyses revealed a non-significant interaction between self-oriented (SOP) and socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP). Nonetheless, the four hypotheses of the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism were supported in the context of a compensatory model showing a significant and positive main effect of SOP along with a negative and significant main effect of SPP. This methodological note contributes to the literature by offering clear guidelines on how the two main effects of SOP and SPP (and their resulting predicted values) can be used to test the four hypotheses of the 2 × 2 model despite the absence of a significant interaction between SOP and SPP.
Perfectionism, with its harshly negative self-talk, is felt to be a burden by most people who experience it. Despite this, a body of literature asserts that some perfectionism is healthy, even though a critical review of this literature finds no factual or theoretical basis for such a claim. The commonly asserted belief in a dichotomy between healthy and dysfunctional perfectionism is based on a misunderstanding of the nature of perfectionism, in part confusing the concept with striving for excellence, and has apparently arisen from uncritical acceptance of early work on the subject. Perfectionism is discussed as an interpersonal and intersubjective phenomenon, involving the perfectionist's experience of other people's expectations and judgments. Implications for treatment are discussed.
This study focused on the issue of measurement reliability and its attenuation on correlation between two composites and two seemingly different approaches for correcting the attenuation. As expected, correlation coefficients uncorrected for measurement error are systematically biased downward. For the data conditions examined, the two correction approaches provided not only near identical and unbiased estimates but also near identical confidence intervals for the sampling distribution of the corrected correlation coefficients. The highly comparable results from the two approaches suggest that these two approacheswork equally well for these data. It is pointed out that the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) modeling approach may be less applicable because of more difficult data conditions at the item level in research practice. The findings point to the importance of reporting measurement reliability information in substantive research. The findings further suggest that, in research practice, correction for attenuation should be considered when information about score reliability is available.
Since Horst (1941) first discussed and defined the suppressor variable in multiple regression/correlation, a number of more nearly precise definitions has been offered (Cohen and Cohen, 1975; Conger, 1974; Darlington, 1968; Velicer, 1978). This paper compares the different approaches to defining suppression, and illustrates the differences among them. Velicer's definition, which is based on the semi-partial correlation coefficient or usefulness and which is perhaps the least well known of the definitions, is shown to have several important practical advantages relative to the other definitions. The paper extends Velicer's usefulness definition to the general multiple predictor case and to analysis of variance (ANOVA) applications of multiple regression. A test for determining the significance of a suppressor effect is suggested, which is based on Velicer's definition of suppression.
Replicability of findings is at the heart of any empirical science. The aim of this article is to move the current replicability debate in psychology towards concrete recommendations for improvement. We focus on research practices but also offer guidelines for reviewers, editors, journal management, teachers, granting institutions, and university promotion committees, highlighting some of the emerging and existing practical solutions that can facilitate implementation of these recommendations. The challenges for improving replicability in psychological science are systemic. Improvement can occur only if changes are made at many levels of practice, evaluation, and reward.
