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The mate switching hypothesis
Abstract
Leaving one mating relationship and entering another, serial mating, is commonly observed in many cultures. An array of circumstances can prompt a mate switch. These include (1) unanticipated costs inflicted by one's mate, or ‘relationship load,’ not apparent on the initial mate selection; (2) changes in the mate value of either partner, creating discrepancies where none previously existed; and (3) the arrival of a new and interested potential mate of sufficiently incremental value to offset the costs of a breakup. The mate switching hypothesis suggests that these circumstances created adaptive problems throughout human evolution that forged adaptations to anticipate and appraise opportunities to mate-switch, implement exit strategies, and manage challenges confronted in the aftermath. We review several studies that support various aspects of the mate switching hypothesis: The cultivation of ‘back-up mates,’ assessing mate-inflicted costs that comprise relationship load, monitoring selfishly-skewed welfare tradeoff ratios in a partner, gauging mate value discrepancies, and anticipating sexual, emotional, and economic infidelities. The mate switching hypothesis provides both a complementary, and in some instances a competing, explanation to the ‘good genes’ hypothesis for why women have sexual affairs, and parsimoniously explains a host of other mating phenomena that remain inexplicable on alternative accounts.
... Those who report stronger extradyadic attraction may be more likely to communicate their interest, consider initiating a relationship with the alternative, and experience reduced satisfaction with their primary relationship, compromising their investment and ultimately their commitment to it . Those with stronger attractions would then be at greater risk of dissolving their relationship, particularly if they move toward establishing a new partnership with the extradyadic other (Buss et al., 2017). ...
... Most participants reported that they would not leave their partner for their attractive alternative, suggesting that the attractive alternative does not usually represent a potential mate switching opportunity. Mate switching occurs when individuals engage in short-term relationships to obtain a backup partner should their primary relationship discontinue (Buss & Schmitt, 2019;Buss et al., 2017). Some speculate that alternative partnerships are established in anticipation of potential future problems in one's relationship (e.g., backburners, mate insurance) or when an individual wants to ultimately have a higher quality partner (Buss & Schmitt, 2019;Buss et al., 2017). ...
... Mate switching occurs when individuals engage in short-term relationships to obtain a backup partner should their primary relationship discontinue (Buss & Schmitt, 2019;Buss et al., 2017). Some speculate that alternative partnerships are established in anticipation of potential future problems in one's relationship (e.g., backburners, mate insurance) or when an individual wants to ultimately have a higher quality partner (Buss & Schmitt, 2019;Buss et al., 2017). Finding an alternative partner can be time and energy consuming and evaluating options can take place while already in a romantic relationship (Buss et al., 2017). ...
Over the course of an intimate relationship, individuals will frequently encounter potential alternative partners and may in fact develop romantic or sexual attraction to them. It is unclear when a more distal attraction to a potential alternative (a "crush") is associated with impaired relationship quality to one's primary relationship. A growing body of work indicates that crushes are common among those in established, ostensibly monogamous relationships. Yet such attractions likely constitute a starting point for establishing new relationships, including through infidelity. This study was designed to help clarify whether and how extradyadic attraction is linked to compromised relationship quality for a primary relationship, infidelity, and breakup. Participants were 542 adults (22-35 years) in exclusive intimate relationships of at least three months' duration who reported an attraction toward a potential alternative. They were recruited online from crowdsourcing websites and social media to complete two surveys, four months apart. Path analyses indicated that greater attraction intensity was linked to lower relationship quality in one's primary relationship. Overall, few participants became romantically or sexually involved with their crush over the course of the study. However, lower relationship quality was linked to desire to engage in infidelity and primary relationship breakup four months later. Findings are discussed in terms of implications for other researchers examining maintenance of intimate relationships, educators who teach about attraction processes, as well as counselors supporting couples in distress.
... From a male perspective, cheating is an activity that provides sexual benefits to other women, while from a woman's perspective, cheating provides opportunities for long-term relationships, which indirectly means stopping the tendency of a male perspective (Buss et al., 2017). Cheating creates jealousy for legitimate partners (Redlick, 2016), namely a sense of alertness to the dangers posed by third parties who offer sexual and romantic interest in their partners (Buss et al., 2017), both directly and through social media (Dunn & Billett, 2018;Dunn & Ward, 2020). ...
... From a male perspective, cheating is an activity that provides sexual benefits to other women, while from a woman's perspective, cheating provides opportunities for long-term relationships, which indirectly means stopping the tendency of a male perspective (Buss et al., 2017). Cheating creates jealousy for legitimate partners (Redlick, 2016), namely a sense of alertness to the dangers posed by third parties who offer sexual and romantic interest in their partners (Buss et al., 2017), both directly and through social media (Dunn & Billett, 2018;Dunn & Ward, 2020). Cheating requires allocating time and money resources and considerable risks that sometimes end in divorce . ...
... The wife's interdependence with a third person has increased from emotional to sexual. The findings of previous studies consistently state that infidelity in women is dominated by emotional infidelity (Blow & Hartnett, 2005;Buss, 2017;Dunn & Biller, 2018;Scheeren et al., 2018). Referring to Subotnik and Harris's (2009) categorization of the depth of infidelity, the wives' infidelities in this first stage have gone beyond serial affairs and stepped on to flings affairs. ...
An unstable marital relationship, including an Islamic spouse, opens up opportunities for extramarital affairs. This study aimed to understand the dynamics of the relationship between a Muslim husband and wife who face a wife’s infidelity. This research uses qualitative methods with a phenomenological approach. The subject criterion is a Muslim wife who has had an affair and is still married. Three subjects were selected through a purposive sampling technique. Data collection using a semi-structured interview. The results show that the background of the wife’s infidelity is multi-factor. Marital relations reflect the interdependence of husband and wife. This relationship becomes more dynamic and complex because of the presence of a third person. During an affair, the relationship is under an actor’s control. The relationship transforms into a controlling partner after the affair. Wives initiate nonmutual relations manifested in permissive behavior towards husbands as an effort to atone for guilt and maintain a marriage. The research has theoretical implications for religion and supports the effect of social norms in reading the interdependence of marital relations between Islamic husband and wife.
... Second, men's mate guarding increases during the ovulation phase, and third, ovulatory mate preference shift toward other men is stronger in women with partners of lower mate value (Gangestad, Thornhill, & Garver-Apgar, 2005;Larson, Pillsworth, & Haselton, 2012). An alternative explanation of a possible adaptive function of women's mate poaching comes from the recently proposed mate switching hypothesis (Buss, Goetz, Duntley, Asao, & Conroy-Beam, 2017;Buss & Schmitt, 2019). Mate switching is one of the primary mating strategies in humans and refers to breaking up with one partner and remating with another. ...
... Mate switching is one of the primary mating strategies in humans and refers to breaking up with one partner and remating with another. It is suggested that this hypothesis better explains the findings mentioned above as well as other results not previously accounted for by the dual mating hypothesis (Buss et al., 2017). The mate values of a woman, her current partner, as well as her alternative partner are not set in stone, but are dynamic qualities susceptible to change. ...
... Therefore, an already mated woman will continue to monitor these qualities and in specific circumstances the cost-benefit balance will be in favor of terminating the existing relationship and forming a new one. There are three possible sources of change in the costs and benefits ratio of a current relationship: (1) the current partner's mate value dropped (e.g., losing a job, being unable to provide, being violent toward her and/or children); (2) a woman's mate value increased (e.g., a rise in social status, acquiring new skills); (3) or superior alternatives became available (e.g., meeting an interested man; Buss et al., 2017). While this strategy is not free of previously described costs (e.g., reputational damage, loss of social support, risk of violence), it also carries some specific benefits. ...
The interface of sexual behavior and evolutionary psychology is a rapidly growing domain, rich in psychological theories and data as well as controversies and applications. With nearly eighty chapters by leading researchers from around the world, and combining theoretical and empirical perspectives, The Cambridge Handbook of Evolutionary Perspectives on Sexual Psychology is the most comprehensive and up-to-date reference work in the field. Providing a broad yet in-depth overview of the various evolutionary principles that influence all types of sexual behaviors, the handbook takes an inclusive approach that draws on a number of disciplines and covers nonhuman and human psychology. It is an essential resource for both established researchers and students in psychology, biology, anthropology, medicine, and criminology, among other fields. Volume 3: Female Sexual Adaptations addresses theory and research focused on sexual adaptations in human females.
... Within the context of romantic relationships, such power dynamics may lead high-power partners to believe they can offer more valuable resources than their less powerful partners and may thus be interpreted as a sign that the high-power partners possess more alternatives outside the relationship (Overall et al., 2023) and have a higher mate value (Ellis et al., 2002;Lindová et al., 2021). We proposed that this enhanced selfperception of relative mate value determines whether, when people perceive themselves to have high relationship power, they feel they can afford to express interest in alternative, potentially higher-value partners (Birnbaum, 2018;Buss et al., 2017). Supporting this reasoning, research has found that people who see themselves as having higher mate value than their partners are often less satisfied in their relationships and are viewed by their partners as more likely to be unfaithful (Buss & Shackelford, 1997;Conroy-Beam et al., 2016;Sela et al., 2017). ...
... Our findings suggest that within romantic relationships, this transformation of orientation may lead people to disengage from certain relationship-sustaining processes, such as commitment to their current partner (though not their desire for them), if they believe that they have more mating opportunities than their partners. This belief may allow them to feel they can either afford to lose them or replace them with a higher-value mate (Buss et al., 2017). When the motivation to protect the relationship diminishes, the likelihood of unleashing extradyadic desires upon encountering alternative partners increases (Birnbaum et al., 2019b;Lydon & Karremans, 2015). ...
Power in non-romantic contexts makes people confident in their ability to attract potential partners, increasing their mating motivation and the likelihood of acting on this motivation. Four studies investigated whether perceptions of power within romantic relationships would also activate mating goals, intensifying desires for alternative partners. In Studies 1 and 2, participants underwent power manipulation and then described a sexual fantasy or evaluated photos of attractive strangers. Studies 3 and 4 used face-to-face interaction and daily experiences methods to examine the mechanisms underlying the link between power and extradyadic desires. Overall, high perceived relationship power was associated with increased interest in alternatives. Perceived relative mate value explained this association, suggesting that what determines whether power elicits extradyadic interest is not power perceptions alone but rather the feeling of having a higher mate value than one’s partner that accompanies elevated power and affects whether high-power individuals will prioritize their own needs in ways that may hurt their partners.
... The evaluation of partners does not end after entering into relationships, as individuals continuously assess the mate value of their partners (Birnbaum et al., 2021;Buss et al., 2017), influenced by their partner's attractiveness to others (Krems et al., 2016). However, while mate choice copying has been extensively studied among individuals seeking a partner (e.g., Gouda-Vossos et al., 2018;Rodehefer et al., 2016), less is known about how witnessing others' attention toward current partners shapes the way these partners are perceived. ...
... Because mate copying is used for choosing potential partners, it is not surprising that it has been particularly studied during the phase of mate selection (Anderson & Surbey, 2020;Gouda-Vossos et al., 2018). And yet, the impact of others' attention toward partners on the way they are perceived and treated may extend beyond the initial stages of relationship development, carrying potentially different implications for mate retention efforts (Buss et al., 2017). Research has predominantly viewed this attention as a threat to the current relationship, leading people to be more observant of potential rivals in their mate's vicinity and actively monitor their intentions to prevent any attempts to lure their partners away (e.g., Ein-Dor et al., 2015). ...
When searching for a partner, people often rely on social cues to determine partners’ suitability, finding those who attract attention from others particularly appealing. While people continue to evaluate their partners beyond relationship initiation, existing research has predominantly concentrated on the effects of observing others’ choices during the stage of partner selection, neglecting to consider whether viewing others’ attention toward current partners yields similar effects or instead elicits defensive devaluation. In three experiments, we exposed Israeli participants to situations where their partners received unsolicited flirtatious advances, utilizing visualization, virtual reality, and recall techniques. Participants then rated their desire for their partner and mate retention efforts. Results indicated that attention to partners led to decreased desire for them, subsequently predicting reduced relationship investment. These findings suggest that witnessing current partners receiving attention holds a different meaning than observing potential partners in a similar situation, making salient the risk of losing the partner.
... Mae West A major strategy for facing the romantic affordance of a possible break, which is a kind of preemptive strike, is cultivating backup mates -that is, potential replacements for the current mate, should the relationship implode. In one study (Buss et al., 2017), people of both sexes report having an average of three potential backup mates. People also would be upset if their backup mates became seriously involved romantically with someone else. ...
... People also would be upset if their backup mates became seriously involved romantically with someone else. Women are more likely than men to report that they would be upset if their backup person entered a long-term relationship or fell in love with someone else (Buss et al., 2017). ...
... Both sexes can establish relationships with desirable individuals who could become their partners if their legitimate partners abandon them or die (Buss & Schmitt, 1993). Similarly, both men and women who wish to switch mates can probe future partners before ending their current relationship (Buss et al., 2017). These potential benefits have favored an infidelity strategy in which individuals in long-term relationships engage in extra-pair mating (Buss, 2000). ...
... To minimize this cost, they would be motivated to seek either parallel relationships with higher mate value partners or terminate the current relationship and seek a higher mate value partner. In the case of the latter, they may remain in the current relationship while exploring prospective mates (Buss et al., 2017). Overall, discrepancies in mate value would be associated with a higher risk of cheating, consequently triggering higher levels of jealousy (H 1 ). ...
Romantic jealousy can lead to several negative outcomes, such as tensions between intimate partners, domestic violence, and even homicide. On the other hand, it has been hypothesized that this mechanism has a protective effect against infidelity. In the current research, we aimed to examine five predictions derived from this hypothesis. Specifically, we conducted a study with a sample of N = 333 Greek-speaking participants who were in an intimate relationship. Our findings revealed that intimate partners’ jealousy was predicted by discrepancies in mate value, attitudes toward cheating, and interactions with individuals of the opposite sex. Notably, the latter effect was observed exclusively among male participants. Furthermore, we found that an intimate partner exhibiting higher romantic jealousy was associated with reduced freedom to flirt with others. This effect was both direct and indirect, mediated by an increased fear of their partner’s reactions.
... For one, as females choose as extra-pair partners specifically those males who are of higher genetic value than their current long-term partner (Gangestad & Simpson, 2000;Scheib, 2001), they may secure social and material resources from a long-term partner while securing "better" genes from a different short-term partner. A second potential benefit of an extra-pair partnership for females is the opportunity to trade-up or switch mates (Buss et al., 2017;Drigotas & Barta, 2001), whereby an extra-pair partnership may lead to dissolution of the current long-term relationship in favor of a new long-term relationship with the higher value "previously extra-pair but now current" long-term partner. This is more likely to occur when a woman is of higher mate value than her original longterm-partner (Moran et al., 2017). ...
... Risk of partner defection is influenced not only by the states, traits, and behaviors of one's partner but also by the presence and quality of one's partner's potential alternatives to the current relationship. For example, women who are fertile and perceive their current long-term male partners to be less sexually attractive are more interested in engaging in extrapair sexual behavior (Buss et al., 2017) and are consequently more likely to be the targets of benefit-provisioning mate-retention behaviors from their long-term partners (Pillsworth & Haselton, 2006). Similarly, a woman is more likely to guard her male partner when the pair is around other fertile females (Hurst et al., 2017). ...
The Oxford Handbook of Human Mating covers the contributions and up-to-date theories and empirical evidence from scientists regarding human mating strategies. The scientific studies of human mating have only recently risen, revealing fresh discoveries about mate attraction, mate choice, marital satisfaction, and other topics. Darwin’s sexual selection theory primarily guides most of the research in the scientific study of mating strategies. Indeed, research on the complexities of human mate competition and mate choice has centred around Darwin’s classic book. This book discusses theories of human mating; mate selection and mate attraction; mate competition; sexual conflict in mating; human pair bonding; the endocrinology of mating; and mating in the modern world.
... This parallels what happened in the film Love Actually when Harry purchased an expensive necklace for his secretary but gave Karen a cheap CD. Furthermore, women considering or engaging in extrapair relationships are in a relatively precarious position, as their affair partner's romantic behaviors lack secure cues of commitment (see, e.g., Buss et al., 2017). In such a situation, the provisioning of material resources may be particularly persuasive. ...
A common trope in popular media is that men who are having romantic affairs tend to spend more lavishly on their extrapair partner than their inpair partner. However, empirical literature supporting this gift-giving phenomenon is limited. From an evolutionary perspective, willingness and ability to provide resources are highly desirable traits in male partners. In addition, the reputational and physical risks of engaging in extrapair relationships are greater for women than men. This suggests that female extrapair partners may place an even greater value on partners who provide robust resources, and men’s behavior may be attuned to this reality. Across three studies (N = 523), the current research explored men’s and women’s hypothetical, actual, and stereotyped gift-giving preferences for extrapair and inpair partners. Contrary to predictions—and participants’ own reported stereotypes—results revealed no significant differences between men’s and women’s hypothetical gift expenditures, as well as significantly lower hypothetical spending on extrapair as compared to inpair relationships overall. The present research suggests that gift giving may help signal a long-term commitment to existing inpair partners more so than serving as an enticement for prospective, or existing, extrapair partners.
... Thus, women may gain greater relationship satisfaction and more benefits to health (e.g., life satisfaction) out of being married than men. Likewise, there is empirical support for this theory (Buss et al., 2017;Gildersleeve et al., 2014;Haselton & Buss, 2001). ...
Given inconsistencies in the literature, we examined the role of relationship quality, past relationship experiences (i.e., prior marital experiences and unmarried cohabitation experiences), and demographic characteristics (i.e., gender and age) in the association between relationship status and health. We analyzed data from the 2010 Married and Cohabiting Couples Study, a cross-sectional survey study conducted in the United States. Data were collected from married and unmarried individuals in cohabiting mixed-gender relationships (N = 2,150). Participants completed self-report measures online. We conducted t-tests, multiple regressions, path analyses, and an ANOVA to test hypotheses. Key findings were that (a) relationship quality had a stronger association with health than relationship status, (b) prior marital experiences and unmarried cohabitation experiences were negatively associated with health, (c) married women significantly reported better health than unmarried women, and (d) married men and unmarried men did not significantly differ in reported health. Descriptive statistics showed that younger adults may perceive their health more positively than older adults regardless of relationship status. Future research should consider historical context, recruitment of diverse participant samples, and more precise operational definitions of health.
... Such efforts may be especially important for people who experience chronically higher levels of sexual desire, such as men or those with an unrestricted sociosexual orientation (French et al., 2019;McNulty et al., 2019). Still, all relationships involve an implicit cost-benefit analysis such that, in some cases, it may be reproductively beneficial to leave one's current partner for a new one (e.g., Buss et al., 2017;Kelley & Thibaut, 1978). ...
One longitudinal study of married couples and one experiment tested the hypothesis that the experience of sexual desire for an alternative sexual partner might heighten feelings of desire for one’s long-term romantic partner, and conversely, sexual desire for one’s long-term partner might heighten desire for alternative partners. A daily-diary study of newlywed couples revealed that (a) on days people reported heightened interest in alternative partners, they also reported increased desire to have sex with their partner and (b) on days people reported heightened desire to have sex with their partner, they also reported increased interest in alternative partners. An experimental study of partnered individuals revealed that people primed with sexual desire for an alternative partner reported increased sexual desire for their romantic partner (relative to a control condition). People primed with sexual desire for their romantic partner, however, did not report increased sexual desire for alternatives. Taken together, these findings support evolutionary perspectives on the function of sexual desire. Findings are consistent with the broader hypothesis that sexual desire is not partner-specific.
... Additionally, opportunities for casual sex may not be the only reason why more perceived mate choices can lead to lower willingness to continue a relationship. For instance, it could be that men are more willing than women to engage in mate switching [31] if the opportunity for doing so arises. Thus, future studies need to investigate further the factors that lead to the observed effect. ...
A lack of options can make it challenging for individuals to find a desirable intimate partner. Conversely, an abundance of choices might lead to mate choice overload, making it difficult to determine the most suitable match. Additionally, having numerous alternatives after entering a relationship could undermine its stability by decreasing satisfaction with the current partner. The present research aimed to examine the effects of mate choice plurality on singlehood status and the willingness to stay in a relationship within the Greek cultural context. Specifically, we employed closed-ended questionnaires, which included instruments developed using AI, with a sample of 804 Greek-speaking participants. We found that participants who perceived they had a wider range of potential romantic partners reported a lower likelihood of being single. Furthermore, more perceived mate choices were associated with fewer years spent as single. However, mate choice plurality was also linked to higher choice overload, which, in turn, increased the likelihood of being single rather than in an intimate relationship. Moreover, more perceived mate choices were associated with more regrets about being in the current relationship. These regrets were linked to lower relationship satisfaction and ultimately contributed to a decreased willingness to stay in the relationship. Notably, this indirect effect was significant only for male participants.
... By the time Correa wrote his fourth letter, however, there is little doubt that Nunes was aware of his infatuation with her fiancée, which seems to have become publicly known, and the evidence suggests that direct inter-sexual mate competition ensued in the streets of Silves. Viegas' mate switching (Buss et al., 2017) from Correa to Nunes appears more definitive at this point, leaving Correa in a position whereby he was attempting to poach Viegas away from Nunes and back to himself. Correa's final letter makes clear that these attempts were unsuccessful. ...
Inter-sexual mate competition occurs any time opposite-sex individuals simultaneously seek to acquire or maintain exclusive access to the same sexual partner. This underappreciated form of mate competition has been anecdotally documented in several avian and mammalian species, and systematically described among Japanese macaques and humans. Here, we extend the concept of inter-sexual mate competition by reassessing a remarkable series of Portuguese letters, penned in 1664 and later discovered and translated by Mott and Assunção (J Homosex 16:91–104, 1989). The letters comprise one side of a correspondence between two males, former lovers who were scrutinized by the Portuguese Inquisition. After ending the relationship, the recipient of the letters was betrothed to a woman, which provoked a jealous response from his jilted male lover and pleas to reunite. We argue that the letters portray a prolonged sequence of inter-sexual mate competition in which a male and female competitor vied for the same man. An established taxonomy of mate competition tactics was applied to the behavior of both competitors illustrating many parallels with contemporary examples of inter-sexual mate competition. Through this comparison, we show that modern mate competition taxonomies can be fruitfully applied to historical texts and that inter-sexual mate competition occurred hundreds of years before the present. Other examples of inter-sexual mate competition are likely to exist in the historical record, providing a rich source of scientific information if appropriate theoretical frameworks are employed. Indeed, any time individuals are attracted to sexual partners who behave in a bisexual manner, then inter-sexual mate competition can ensue with members of the other sex.
... Mating effort, which subsumes effort allocated toward current mates and new mating opportunities, can be further subdivided into various domains, including short-term mating energy allocated to casual sex (e.g., Gangestad & Simpson, 1990;Jackson & Kirkpatrick, 2007;Penke & Asendorpf, 2008), competition for access to mates (Buunk & Fisher, 2009), mate switching (reviewed in Buss et al., 2017), mate retention (Buss et al., 2008), and mate poaching (Arnocky et al., 2013;Schmitt & Buss, 2001). Although mating effort is frequently discussed as an important concept in evolutionary psychological frameworks, few scales have been designed to measure the construct, and even fewer have been subject to rigorous psychometric evaluation. ...
The mating effort questionnaire (MEQ) is a multi-dimensional self-report instrument that captures factors reflecting individual effort in upgrading from a current partner, investment in a current partner, and mate seeking when not romantically paired. In the current studies, we sought to revise the MEQ so that it distinguishes among two facets of mate seeking—mate locating and mate attracting—to enable a more nuanced measurement and understanding of individual mating effort. Moreover, we developed additional items to better measure partner investment. In total, the number of items was increased from 12 to 26. In Study 1, exploratory factor analysis revealed that a four-factor solution, reflecting partner upgrading, mate locating, mate attracting, and partner investment, yielded the best fit. In Study 2, this structure was replicated using confirmatory factor analysis in an independent sample. Based on extant studies documenting the relationships between psychopathy, short-term mating effort, and sexual risk taking, a structural equation model (SEM) indicated that trait psychopathy positively predicted mate locating, mate attracting, and partner upgrading and negatively predicted partner investment. A separate SEM showed that partner upgrading positively predicted risky sexual behaviors, while partner upgrading and mate locating positively predicted acceptance of cosmetic surgery.
... Second, normative restrictions on pre-or extra-marital sex constrain people's ability to benefit from a favourable marriage market. Premarital sex allows people entering the marriage market to learn about potential partners available to them while extramarital sex can make it easier to switch partners (Buss et al., 2017;Scelza and Prall, 2023). A double standard where men have more freedom to engage in both premarital and extramarital sex is common throughout the world, limiting women's access to information about available partners (Broude, 1980). ...
Sexual conflict theory has been successfully applied to predict how in non-human animal populations, sex ratios can lead to conflicting reproductive interests of females and males and affect their bargaining positions in resolving such conflicts of interests. Recently this theory has been extended to understand the resolution of sexual conflict in humans, but with mixed success. We argue that an underappreciation of the complex relationship between gender norms and sex ratios has hampered a successful understanding of sexual conflict in humans. In this paper, we review and expand upon existing theory to increase its applicability to humans, where gender norms regulate sex ratio-effects on sexual conflict. Gender norms constrain who is on the marriage market, how they are valued, and may affect reproductive decision-making power. Gender norms can also directly affect sex ratios, and we hypothesize that they structure how individuals respond to market value gained or lost through biased sex ratios. Importantly, gender norms are in part a product of women's and men's sometimes conflicting reproductive interests, but these norms are also subject to other evolutionary processes. An integration of sexual conflict theory and cultural evolutionary theory is required to allow for a full understanding of sexual conflict in humans.
... Furthermore, Conroy-Beam et al., (2016) have shown that relationship satisfaction is predicted, not simply by mate preference fulfilment, but whether there are better alternatives. Similarly, Buss et al. (2017)'s mate switching hypothesis suggests that people are sensitive to alternative options when deciding whether to leave a current relationship. In this respect, people may choose to be single or not on the basis of the available alternatives. ...
Not having an intimate partner is a common state in contemporary post-industrial societies. A substantial proportion of singles are voluntarily so that is, they prefer not to be in an intimate relationship. The current study aimed to examine whether past relationship experiences predicted voluntary singlehood. More specifically, using a sample of 629 Greek-speaking participants, we found that most voluntarily singles were had other priorities, followed by those who had been disappointed by intimate relationships. We also found that more negative past experiences with relationships were associated with an increased probability to fall in the latter group than in other groups of voluntary singlehood or being mated.
... This is known in the evolutionary psychology literature as the Dual Mating (or Good Genes) Hypothesis (Gangestad & Haselton, 2015). However, evidence from evolutionary psychology now appears to favor the Mate Switching Hypothesis (i.e., women typically leave their mate in order to form a relationship with a new one) rather than the dual mating hypothesis (Buss & Schmitt, 2019;Buss et al., 2017). ...
Mating represents a suite of fundamental adaptive problems for humans. Yet a community of men, called incels (involuntary celibates), forge their identity around their perceived inability to solve these problems. Many incels engage in misogynistic online hostility, and there are concerns about violence stemming from the community. Despite significant media speculation about the potential mating psychology of incels, this has yet to be formally investigated in the scientific literature. In the first formal investigation of incel mating psychology, we compared a sample (n = 151) of self-identified male incels with non-incel single males (n = 149). Findings revealed that incels have a lower sense of self-perceived mate-value and a greater external locus of control regarding their singlehood. Contrary to mainstream media narratives, incels also reported lower minimum standards for mate preferences than non-incels. Incels (and non-incel single men) significantly overestimated the importance of physical attractiveness and financial prospects to women, and underestimated the importance of intelligence, kindness, and humor. Furthermore, incels underestimated women's overall minimum mate preference standards. Our findings suggest that incels should be targeted for interventions to challenge cognitive distortions around female mate preferences. Implications for incels' mental health and misogynistic attitudes are discussed, as well as directions for future research. "Women seem wicked when you're unwanted."-Jim Morrison (The Doors)
... Additionally, short-term mating strategies serve some adaptive advantages for women. For example, they can test a partner for a long-term relationship or benefit immediately from a short-term mate's physical strength, genetic quality or economic resources (Buss & Schmitt, 2019;Buss et al., 2017;Greiling & Buss, 2000). ...
Sex differences in mating strategies and partner preferences are well established. However, most research solely focused on heterosexual women and men. We examined the mate selection, marriage, and age preferences of a sample of lesbian women, gay men, and bisexual women and men (LGB) who took part in an online dating survey. Additionally, we analyzed inter- and intrasexual differences in these preferences. A total of 710 participants rated the importance of 82 mate selection criteria and 10 marriage criteria, and they also indicated their age preferences and short-term and long-term relationship orientation. An exploratory factor analysis suggested 11 relevant domains of mate selection in the LGB sample, with sex, age, and long-term relationship orientation being relevant predictors of differences in these domains. We compared the LGB data with data collected from 21,245 heterosexual women and men on the same mate selection criteria. Results showed that the participants’ sex was the most important predictor of differences in mate selection and marriage preferences, while intrasexual variables (sexual orientation and relationship orientation) explained only a small part of the variance. We incorporated the results into the current discussion about partner preferences and sexual orientation.
... Instead, in this section, we focus attention on literature uniquely related to why and how people switch, and what impact it has on those involved. Buss et al. (2017) originally proposed a theory that explains why people might switch mates. We rst examine their theory as to what motivates a switch, then discuss factors that may make individuals more prone to switch. ...
Evolutionary social science is having a renaissance. This volume showcases the empirical and theoretical advancements produced by the evolutionary study of romantic relationships. The editors assembled an international collection of contributors to trace how evolved psychological mechanisms shape strategic computation and behavior across the life span of a romantic partnership. Each chapter provides an overview of historic and contemporary research on the psychological mechanisms and processes underlying the initiation, maintenance, and dissolution of romantic relationships. Contributors discuss popular and cutting-edge methods for data analysis and theory development, critically analyze the state of evolutionary relationship science, and provide discerning recommendations for future research. The handbook integrates a broad range of topics (e.g., partner preference and selection, competition and conflict, jealousy and mate guarding, parenting, partner loss and divorce, and post-relationship affiliation) that are discussed alongside major sources of strategic variation in mating behavior, such as sex and gender diversity, developmental life history, neuroendocrine processes, technological advancement, and culture. Its content promises to enrich students’ and established researchers’ views on the current state of the discipline and should challenge a diverse cross-section of relationship scholars and clinicians to incorporate evolutionary theorizing into their professional work.
... Women, on the other hand, are obligated to commit gestational resources to a single, fertilized egg for nine months and therefore do not benefit from mating with multiple partners in the same way. Nevertheless, women may pursue multipartner mating for other reasons, such as to sample and secure better partners (i.e., mate switch; see Buss et al., 2017), to produce offspring with diverse genes (see Buss & Schmitt, 1993;Gangestad & Simpson, 2000), or to secure investment from several partners at once (Hrdy, 1995). These divergent motives for men and women can cause conflict when one partner's pursuit of an extra-pair romantic or sexual relationship is at odds with the other partner's reproductive interests (i.e., sexual conflict; see Kennair et al., this volume; also see Buss, 2017). ...
Evolutionary social science is having a renaissance. This volume showcases the empirical and theoretical advancements produced by the evolutionary study of romantic relationships. The editors assembled an international collection of contributors to trace how evolved psychological mechanisms shape strategic computation and behavior across the life span of a romantic partnership. Each chapter provides an overview of historic and contemporary research on the psychological mechanisms and processes underlying the initiation, maintenance, and dissolution of romantic relationships. Contributors discuss popular and cutting-edge methods for data analysis and theory development, critically analyze the state of evolutionary relationship science, and provide discerning recommendations for future research. The handbook integrates a broad range of topics (e.g., partner preference and selection, competition and conflict, jealousy and mate guarding, parenting, partner loss and divorce, and post-relationship affiliation) that are discussed alongside major sources of strategic variation in mating behavior, such as sex and gender diversity, developmental life history, neuroendocrine processes, technological advancement, and culture. Its content promises to enrich students’ and established researchers’ views on the current state of the discipline and should challenge a diverse cross-section of relationship scholars and clinicians to incorporate evolutionary theorizing into their professional work.
... Excluding cases of spousal homicide, death is out of a partner's control. From an evolutionary perspective, desertion or divorce could be predicted to be more likely to occur when one or both partners seek(s) to increase their fitness by leaving a partnership to seek out or be with a better matecolloquially termed "trading-up" (Freese, 2000, p. 293) or "mate switching" (Buss et al., 2017). The behavior may not necessarily be a conscious act (R. M. Nesse, 1990a). ...
Evolutionary social science is having a renaissance. This volume showcases the empirical and theoretical advancements produced by the evolutionary study of romantic relationships. The editors assembled an international collection of contributors to trace how evolved psychological mechanisms shape strategic computation and behavior across the life span of a romantic partnership. Each chapter provides an overview of historic and contemporary research on the psychological mechanisms and processes underlying the initiation, maintenance, and dissolution of romantic relationships. Contributors discuss popular and cutting-edge methods for data analysis and theory development, critically analyze the state of evolutionary relationship science, and provide discerning recommendations for future research. The handbook integrates a broad range of topics (e.g., partner preference and selection, competition and conflict, jealousy and mate guarding, parenting, partner loss and divorce, and post-relationship affiliation) that are discussed alongside major sources of strategic variation in mating behavior, such as sex and gender diversity, developmental life history, neuroendocrine processes, technological advancement, and culture. Its content promises to enrich students’ and established researchers’ views on the current state of the discipline and should challenge a diverse cross-section of relationship scholars and clinicians to incorporate evolutionary theorizing into their professional work.
... If unsuccessful, however, he risks losing access to both his primary and affair partners (Buss, 2013;Fletcher et al., 2015). Despite these risks, infidelity rates suggest that approximately 50% of married men do attempt a dual mating strategy (Buss et al., 2017;Kinsey et al., 1953). ...
Humans have a complex and dynamic mating system, and there is evidence that our modern sexual preferences stem from evolutionary pressures. In the current paper we explore male use of a dual mating strategy: simultaneously pursuing both a long-term relationship (pair-bonding) as well as short-term, extra-pair copulations (variety-seeking). The primary constraint on such sexual pursuits is partner preferences, which can limit male behavior and hence cloud inferences about male preferences. The aim of this study was to investigate heterosexual male mating preferences when largely unconstrained by female partner preferences. In service of this goal, female full-service sex workers (N = 6) were surveyed on the traits and behaviors of their male clients (N = 516) and iterative cluster analysis was used to identify male mating typologies. Two clusters emerged: clients seeking a pair-bonding experience and clients seeking a variety experience. Results also suggested that romantically committed men were more likely to seek a variety experience than a relationship experience. We conclude that men desire both pair-bonding and sexual variety, and that their preference for one might be predicted by fulfilment of the other. These findings have implications for relationships, providing insight into motivations for male infidelity.
... It may also be the case that increasing the external validity of contexts in which speech is elicited may more actively influence these evaluations than when these are sought for context-neutral, read speech (addressed in the next section). An alternative, but not mutually exclusive, proposal points to the possibility of women engaging in short-term liaisons as a mate-switching strategy helping them secure new longterm mates for a wider range of benefits than those involving a limited set of good gene traits 103 . Based on the mate-switching proposal it makes sense that the short-term attractiveness of the two kinds of speakers were not definitively different, as these evaluations are informed by self-perceived mate value/mate value discrepancies in terms of several cost-benefit tradeoffs. ...
Research on heterosexual mating has demonstrated that acoustic parameters (e.g., pitch) of men’s voices influence their attractiveness to women and appearance of status and formidability to other men. However, little is known about how men’s tendency to clearly articulate their speech influences these important social perceptions. In the current study, we used a repeated-measures design to investigate how men’s articulatory clarity or conformity influenced women’s (N = 45) evaluations of men’s attractiveness for both short- and long-term relationships, and men's (N = 46) evaluations of physical formidability and prestige. Results largely supported our hypotheses: men who enunciated phonemes more distinctly were more attractive to women for long-term relationships than short-term relationships and were perceived by other men to have higher prestige than physical dominance. These findings suggest that aspects of articulatory behavior that influence perceptions of prestige and long-term mating attractiveness may indicate an early social history characterized by high socioeconomic status, likely owing to crystallization of articulatory patterns during the critical period of language development. These articulatory patterns may also be honest signals of condition or disposition owing to the nature of complex, multicomponent traits, which deserve further empirical attention.
... Females who are biased towards short-term mating strategies might be more willing to engage in uncommitted sexual behavior if doing so stands a reasonable chance of garnering some immediate resource, identifying or attracting potential longterm mates, or engaging in sexual behavior with males displaying superior physical characteristics or social standing (Buss & Schmitt, 2019). Favorable combinations of any of these factors also present females with opportunities to engage in mate-switching (Buss et al., 2017). Given established links between shorter-term mating strategies and female sexual orientation (Diamond & Alley, 2019;Luoto et al., 2019), it is of interest to determine whether females who are mostly-androphilic, or ambiphilic, are more motivated by resource provision from partners, more interested in especially attractive partners, or more likely to engage in mate-switching behavior. ...
The interface of sexual behavior and evolutionary psychology is a rapidly growing domain, rich in psychological theories and data as well as controversies and applications. With nearly eighty chapters by leading researchers from around the world, and combining theoretical and empirical perspectives, The Cambridge Handbook of Evolutionary Perspectives on Sexual Psychology is the most comprehensive and up-to-date reference work in the field. Providing a broad yet in-depth overview of the various evolutionary principles that influence all types of sexual behaviors, the handbook takes an inclusive approach that draws on a number of disciplines and covers nonhuman and human psychology. It is an essential resource for both established researchers and students in psychology, biology, anthropology, medicine, and criminology, among other fields. Volume 4: Controversies, Applications, and Nonhuman Primate Extensions addresses controversies and unresolved issues; applications to health, law, and pornography; and non-human primate evolved sexual psychology.
Despite the overall desirability of men's upper body strength, women's preference for such features remains bounded to contexts in which the benefits exceed the potential costs. The relative salience of these costs could be augmented within ostensibly threatening environments, which could include one of ambient darkness. This study sought to determine whether women's interest in strong men would become downregulated in the presence of these cues. A sample of sorority women reported their reactions to meeting a hypothetical man on campus who was manipulated to appear either strong or weak with the image manipulated to be either at night or during the day. Although women reported feeling more comfortable around the weak man in the dark compared to the strong man, no difference emerged in their evaluations of strong men during the day and night. These findings suggest that women functionally shift their interest in strong men based on environmental cues that could implicate men as costly.
This study used cubic polynomial regression with response surface analysis to examine the associations that mate value discrepancies (i.e., the difference between an individual's self‐reported mate value and their perceptions of their partner's mate value) had with mate retention behaviors performed by the individual and their perceptions of the mate retention behaviors performed by their partner. The sample included 1083 undergraduates, and the results revealed a congruence effect such that participants who perceived themselves and their romantic partners to have similarly low levels of mate value reported high levels of cost‐inflicting behaviors by themselves and their partners. There was also a curvilinear association that emerged for mate value discrepancies such that individuals who perceived themselves to have higher levels of mate value than their partners reported higher levels of cost‐inflicting behaviors by themselves and their romantic partners. These results demonstrate how cubic response surface analysis can allow for a better understanding of the connections that mate value discrepancies have with outcomes in romantic relationships.
The interface of sexual behavior and evolutionary psychology is a rapidly growing domain, rich in psychological theories and data as well as controversies and applications. With nearly eighty chapters by leading researchers from around the world, and combining theoretical and empirical perspectives, The Cambridge Handbook of Evolutionary Perspectives on Sexual Psychology is the most comprehensive and up-to-date reference work in the field. Providing a broad yet in-depth overview of the various evolutionary principles that influence all types of sexual behaviors, the handbook takes an inclusive approach that draws on a number of disciplines and covers nonhuman and human psychology. It is an essential resource for both established researchers and students in psychology, biology, anthropology, medicine, and criminology, among other fields. Volume 3: Female Sexual Adaptations addresses theory and research focused on sexual adaptations in human females.
The interface of sexual behavior and evolutionary psychology is a rapidly growing domain, rich in psychological theories and data as well as controversies and applications. With nearly eighty chapters by leading researchers from around the world, and combining theoretical and empirical perspectives, The Cambridge Handbook of Evolutionary Perspectives on Sexual Psychology is the most comprehensive and up-to-date reference work in the field. Providing a broad yet in-depth overview of the various evolutionary principles that influence all types of sexual behaviors, the handbook takes an inclusive approach that draws on a number of disciplines and covers nonhuman and human psychology. It is an essential resource for both established researchers and students in psychology, biology, anthropology, medicine, and criminology, among other fields. Volume 3: Female Sexual Adaptations addresses theory and research focused on sexual adaptations in human females.
Online dating applications have become increasingly popular in recent years and a common way for relationship initiation. However, the potential implications of online dating applications for long-term relationships are not well-understood. To further the literature in this field, this study aimed to examine the association between perceived online dating success and online infidelity-related behaviours by considering two possible indirect paths through perceived number of alternative partners or mate value discrepancy (i.e., mate value relative to one’s partner) and attention to alternatives. A total of 338 individuals that were currently in an exclusive long-term relationship participated in this study. A serial mediation analysis with two parallel paths revealed that perceived online dating success is associated with higher perceived availability of alternative partners and higher mate value relative to one’s partner, both of which are associated with attention to alternatives that, in turn, increases engagement in online infidelity-related behaviours. No direct association between perceived online dating success and online infidelity-related behaviours was found.
While early evolutionary accounts of female sexuality insisted on coyness and monogamous tendencies, evidence from the field of primatology started challenging those assumptions in the 1970s. Decades later, there exists many competing and overlapping hypotheses stressing the potential fitness benefits of female short-term and extra-pair mating. Female mammals are now seen as enacting varied and flexible reproductive strategies. This is both a victory for science, with a better fit between theory and reality, and for feminism, with the downfall of narrow stereotypes about female sexuality. However, evolutionary hypotheses on female mating strategies are routinely invoked among the antifeminist online communities collectively known as “the manosphere”. Based on extensive qualitative analysis of manosphere discourse, this study shows how these hypotheses are sometimes interpreted in misogynistic online spaces. Indeed, evolutionary scholars might be surprised to see sexist worldviews reinforced by the “dual mating strategy” and “sexy son” hypotheses, or by the latest research on the ovulatory cycle. The manosphere has its own version of Evolutionary Psychology, mingling cutting-edge scientific theories and hypotheses with personal narratives, sexual double standards, and misogynistic beliefs. After analyzing this phenomenon, this article suggests ways to mitigate it.
Objective
This study aimed to examine the effects of promotion focus on the relationship between high mate value discrepancy (MVD) and marital satisfaction and alternative monitoring behavior.
Background
Much research has documented the detrimental effects of MVD on marriage. Nevertheless, little work has been devoted to investigating the individual differences within the negative relationship between MVD and marital outcomes.
Method
In all, 700 Korean participants (350 men and 350 women) were recruited for an online survey. The moderating effects of promotion focus on the relationship between MVD and (a) marital satisfaction and (b) alternative monitoring were tested. We computed MVD with three methodologies: absolute difference, weighted difference, and residual score.
Results
When confronted with a high MVD, highly promotion‐focused individuals were shown to maintain a more satisfactory marriage than did those low in promotion focus. At the same time, however, highly promotion‐focused individuals showed a greater tendency to engage in alternative monitoring behavior under high MVD.
Conclusion
Promotion focus could buffer the negative effects of MVD on marital satisfaction, but it could also exacerbate the detrimental effects of MVD on alternative monitoring behavior.
Implications
Understanding one of the underlying reasons on seeking alternative romantic partners and how individuals differ in their chronic ways to be motivated can help counselors and family practitioners. The information helps tailor strategies to meet specific goals and directions that individuals have. This may, therefore, better guide couples to adjust their marital lives.
The interface of sexual behavior and evolutionary psychology is a rapidly growing domain, rich in psychological theories and data as well as controversies and applications. With nearly eighty chapters by leading researchers from around the world, and combining theoretical and empirical perspectives, The Cambridge Handbook of Evolutionary Perspectives on Sexual Psychology is the most comprehensive and up-to-date reference work in the field. Providing a broad yet in-depth overview of the various evolutionary principles that influence all types of sexual behaviors, the handbook takes an inclusive approach that draws on a number of disciplines and covers nonhuman and human psychology. It is an essential resource for both established researchers and students in psychology, biology, anthropology, medicine, and criminology, among other fields. Volume 2: Male Sexual Adaptations addresses theory and research focused on sexual adaptations in human males.
Most mammalian females possess classic estrus, a discrete phase of the ovulatory cycle during which females engage in sex and undergo dramatic physical changes that make them attractive to males. By contrast, humans engage in sexual activity throughout the ovulatory cycle. But is it the case that humans possess no estrous-like changes across the cycle? Research over the past three decades has shown that, in fact, women's sexual desires change across the cycle, as do men's responses to women. Research over the last few years has sharpened scientific understanding of the precise nature of these changes. Nevertheless, many intriguing questions remain. We highlight recent work in this area and identify key opportunities for research in the future.
As a species, humans are generally serial monogamists; in some cases mating with the same partner for years or even decades. Nonetheless, humans often mate with more than one partner over the life course, meaning that romantic pair bonds often come to an end. Prior research has tentatively suggested that a mental mechanism might exist that facilitates severing the romantic bond between mates. Put differently, because romantic love is a species-typical trait, all members of the human species may come equipped with the mental hardware for both falling in love as well as for ending a relationship. Currently, the evolutionary, cognitive, neurobiological, and genetic underpinnings of human mate ejection have yet to be fully elucidated. We examine each of these factors to illuminate the possible mechanisms that may underpin the human tendency to fall out of love.
A recent and controversial hypothesis suggests the presence of an oestrus phase in women as in other mammals. This implies that women at their optimal fertility point of the menstrual cycle exhibit behaviors focused to maximize the genetic quality of their offspring. Several studies support this hypothesis, finding that women in the fertile phase tend to prefer men with traits associated to phenotypic quality, such as greater facial masculinization and symmetry. We experimentally tested some of the observations supporting this hypothesis in a population of 810 young Spanish women. We analyzed whether the preference for masculinized male faces is affected by i) the phase of the menstrual cycle, ii) having a stable partner and iii) the use of birth control pills. We could not reproduce the effect of the first two factors, but we found that women using hormonal contraceptives tend to prefer men with less masculine faces. These results indicate that some of the evidences supporting the oestrus hypothesis in humans must be reviewed, incorporating data from different sociocultural and ethnic populations. © 2014: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Murcia. Murcia (España).
Sexual selection theory suggests that the sex with a higher potential reproductive rate will compete more strongly for access to mates. Stronger intra-sexual competition for mates may explain why males travel more extensively than females in many terrestrial vertebrates. A male-bias in lifetime distance travelled is a purported human universal, although this claim is based primarily on anecdotes. Following sexual maturity, motivation to travel outside the natal territory may vary over the life course for both sexes. Here, we test whether travel behaviour among Tsimane forager-horticulturalists is associated with shifting reproductive priorities across the lifespan. Using structured interviews, we find that sex differences in travel peak during adolescence when men and women are most intensively searching for mates. Among married adults, we find that greater offspring dependency load is associated with reduced travel among women, but not men. Married men are more likely to travel alone than women, but only to the nearest market town and not to other Tsimane villages. We conclude that men's and women's travel behaviour reflects differential gains from mate search and parenting across the life course.
Significance
It is a popular assumption that certain perceptions—for example, that highly feminine women are attractive, or that masculine men are aggressive—reflect evolutionary processes operating within ancestral human populations. However, observations of these perceptions have mostly come from modern, urban populations. This study presents data on cross-cultural perceptions of facial masculinity and femininity. In contrast to expectations, we find that in less developed environments, typical “Western” perceptions are attenuated or even reversed, suggesting that Western perceptions may be relatively novel. We speculate that novel environments, which expose individuals to large numbers of unfamiliar faces, may provide novel opportunities—and motives—to discern subtle relationships between facial appearance and other traits.
Most evolutionary theories of human mating have focused on the adaptive benefits of short-term mating for men. Men cannot pursue a strategy of short-term mating, however, without willing women. Existing empirical evidence suggests that some women engage in short-term mating some of the time and probably have done so recurrently over human evolutionary history. The current studies tested hypotheses about the potential benefits women might derive from engaging in one type of short-term mating — extra-pair liaisons — and the contexts in which they do so. These include resource hypotheses (e.g. immediate resource accrual), genetic hypotheses (e.g. having genetically diverse offspring), mate switching hypotheses (e.g. acquiring a better mate), mate skill acquisition hypotheses (e.g. mate preference clarification) and mate manipulation hypotheses (e.g. deterring a partner's future infidelity). These hypotheses were tested by examining the perceived likelihood that women would receive particular benefits through a short-term extra-pair mating (Study 1); the perceived magnitude of benefits if received (Study 2); the contexts in which women engage in short-term extra-pair mating (Study 3); and individual differences among women in proclivity to pursue short-term matings in their perceptions of benefits (Study 4). Most strongly supported across all four studies were the mate switching and resource acquisition hypotheses. Discussion focuses on the distinction between functions and beneficial effects of short-term mating, limitations of the current studies and the consequences of women's short-term mating strategies for the broader matrix of human mating.
The authors hypothesized that people form opposite-sex friendships (OSFs), in part, to acquire long-term mates (both sexes), to gain short-term sexual access (men more than women), and to gain physical protection (women more than men). In Study 1, men and women evaluated reasons for initiating OSFs, characteristics preferred in an OSF, and reasons for ending OSFs. Study 2 extended the framework to include individual differences in sociosexual orientation. Compared with women, men judged sexual attraction and a desire for sex as more important reasons for initiating OSFs, reported a preference for sexual attractiveness when selecting OSFs, and judged the lack of sex as a more important reason for dissolving OSFs. Women judged physical protection as a more important reason for initiating OSFs and the lack of it as a more important reason for dissolving them. Across sex, people with an unrestricted sexual style were more likely to perceive OSFs as opportunities for sex. Discussion addresses the implications of the results for understanding conflict in OSFs.
In contrast to our closest cousin, the chimpanzee, humans appear at first to lack cues of impending ovulation that would mark the fertile period in which a female can become pregnant. Consequently, that ovulation is “concealed” in women has long been the consensus among scientists studying human mating. A recent series of studies shows, however, that there are discernible cues of fertility in women’s social behaviors, body scents, voices, and, possibly, aspects of physical beauty. Some of these changes are subtle, but others are strikingly large (we report effect sizes ranging from small, d = 0.12 to large, d = 1.20). Moreover, emerging evidence suggests that women’s male partners may adaptively shift their behavior in response to cues of approaching ovulation. These results have far-reaching implications for understanding fluctuations in attraction, conflict, and relationship dynamics.
Infidelity is a major cause of divorce and spousal battering. Little is known, however, about which individuals are susceptible to infidelity, or about the relationship contexts that promote infidelity. This study of 107 married couples examines three sets of possible predictors of infidelity: Personality factors such as narcissism and conscientiousness; relationship contexts, including recurrent sources of conflict and sexual satisfaction; and the relative “mate value” of the individuals composing a couple. We obtained self-report and spouse-report data on susceptibility to infidelity. We obtained self-report, spouse-report, and interviewer-report data on personality, relationship context, and relative mate value. Personality factors most strongly linked to susceptibility to infidelity were low Conscientiousness, high Narcissism, and high Psychoticism. Relationship contexts most strongly linked to susceptibility to infidelity include sexual dissatisfaction, and specific sources of conflict such as partner complaints about jealousy. Discussion addresses limitations of this study and directions for future research on predicting infidelity.
There is a class of nonverbal facial expressions and gestures, exhibited by human females, that are commonly labeled “flirting behaviors.” I observed more than 200 randomly selected adult female subjects in order to construct a catalog of these nonverbal solicitation behaviors. Pertinent behaviors were operationally defined through the use of consequential data; these behaviors elicited male attention. Fifty-two behaviors were described using this method. Validation of the catalog was provided through the use of contextual data. Observations were conducted on 40 randomly selected female subjects in one of four contexts: a singles' bar, a university snack bar, a university library, and at university Women's Center meetings. The results indicated that women in “mate relevant” contexts exhibited higher average frequencies of nonverbal displays directed at males. Additionally, women who signaled often were also those who were most often approached by a man: and this relationship was not context specific.I suggest that the observation of women in field situations may provide clues to criteria used by females in the initial selection of male partners. As much of the work surrounding human attraction has involved laboratory studies or data collected from couples in established relationships, the observation of nonverbal behavior in field settings may provide a fruitful avenue for the exploration of human female choice in the preliminary stages of male-female interaction.
Evolutionary theory predicts that males will provide less parental investment for putative offspring who are unlikely to be their actual offspring. Cross-culturally, paternity confidence (a man's assessment of the likelihood that he is the father of a putative child) is positively associated with men's involvement with children and with investment or inheritance from paternal kin. A survey of 67 studies reporting nonpaternity suggests that for men with high paternity confidence rates of nonpaternity are(excluding studies of unknown methodology) typically 1.9%, substantially less than the typical rates of 10% or higher cited by many researchers. Further cross-cultural investigation of the relationship between paternity and paternity confidence is warranted. © 2006 by The Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research. All rights reserved.
This study examined differences between men and women, and between individuals experiencing rejection (Rejectees) and individuals doing the rejecting (Rejectors) in romantic relationship break-ups. We tested fourteen evolution-based predictions about romantic breakups using data from 193 participants; ten received support. Women more than men, for example, experienced costly sequelae such as the loss of a mate's physical protection and harmful post- breakup stalking by the ex-partner. Both men and women who were rejected, compared with those who did the rejecting, experienced more depression, loss of self-esteem, and rumination. Rejectors, on the other hand, experienced the reputational cost of being perceived by others as cruel. Exploratory data analyses revealed that women more than men reported experiencing negative emotions after a breakup, particularly feeling sad, confused, and scared. Both sexes used an array of strategies to cope with the breakup, ranging from high base-rate strategies such as discussing the breakup with friends to low base-rate strategies such as threatening suicide. The largest sex difference in coping strategies centered on the act of shopping, used by women Rejectors as well as women Rejectees, likely a strategy of appearance enhancement prior to re- entering the mating market. Discussion focuses on the adaptive significance of sex differences and individual differences based on rejection status.
The current research tests the hypothesis that women have an evolved mate value calibration adaptation that functions to raise or lower their standards in a long-term mate according to their own mate value. A woman's physical attractiveness is a cardinal component of women's mate value. We correlated observer-assessed physical attractiveness (face, body, and overall) with expressed preferences for four clusters of mate characteristics (N = 214): (1) hypothesized good-gene indicators (e.g., masculinity, sexiness); (2) hypothesized good investment indicators (e.g., potential income); (3) good parenting indicators (e.g., desire for home and children), and (4) good partner indicators (e.g., being a loving partner). Results supported the hypothesis that high mate value women, as indexed by observer-judged physical attractiveness, expressed elevated standards for all four clusters of mate characteristics. Discussion focuses on potential design features of the hypothesized mate-value calibration adaptation, and suggests an important modification of the trade-off model of women's mating. A minority of women--notably those low in mate value who are able to escape male mate guarding and the manifold costs of an exposed infidelity--will pursue a mixed mating strategy, obtaining investment from one man and good genes from an extra-pair copulation partner (as the trade-off model predicts). Since the vast majority of women secure genes and direct benefits from the same man, however, most women will attempt to secure the best
combination of all desired qualities from the same man. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Human groups contain reproductively relevant resources that differ greatly in their ease of accessibility. The authors advance a conceptual framework for the study of 2 classes of adaptations that have been virtually unexplored: (a) adaptations for exploitation designed to expropriate the resources of others through deception, manipulation, coercion, intimidation, terrorization, and force and (b) antiexploitation adaptations that evolved to prevent one from becoming a victim of exploitation. As soon as adaptations for exploitation evolved, they would immediately select for coevolved antiexploitation defenses--adaptations in target individuals, their kin, and their social allies designed to prevent their becoming a victim of exploitation. Antiexploitation defenses, in turn, created satellite adaptive problems for those pursuing a strategy of exploitation. Selection would favor the evolution of anticipatory and in situ solutions designed to circumvent the victim's defenses and minimize the costs of pursuing an exploitative strategy. Adaptations for exploitation have design features sensitive to the group dynamics in which they are deployed, including status hierarchies, social reputation, and the preferential selection of out-group victims. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Previous research has documented shifts in women's attractions to their romantic partner and to men other than their partner across the ovulation cycle, contingent on the degree to which her partner displays hypothesized indicators of high-fitness genes. The current study set out to replicate and extend this finding. Forty-one couples in which the woman was naturally cycling participated. Female partners reported their feelings of in-pair attraction and extra-pair attraction on two occasions, once on a low-fertility day of the cycle and once on a high-fertility day of the cycle just prior to ovulation. Ovulation was confirmed using luteinizing hormone tests. We collected two measures of male partner sexual attractiveness. First, the women in the study rated their partner's sexual attractiveness. Second, we photographed the partners and had the photos independently rated for attractiveness. Shifts in women's in-pair attractions across the cycle were significantly moderated by women's ratings of partner sexual attractiveness, such that the less sexually attractive women rated their partner, the less in-pair attraction they reported at high fertility compared with low fertility (partial r = .37, p(dir) = .01). Shifts in women's extra-pair attractions across the cycle were significantly moderated by third-party ratings of partner attractiveness, such that the less attractive the partner was, the more extra-pair attraction women reported at high relative to low fertility (partial r = -.33, p(dir) = .03). In line with previous findings, we found support for the hypothesis that the degree to which a woman's romantic partner displays indicators of high-fitness genes affects women's attractions to their own partner and other men at high fertility.
During human evolution, men and women faced distinct adaptive problems, including pregnancy, hunting, childcare, and warfare. Due to these sex-linked adaptive problems, natural selection would have favored psychological mechanisms that oriented men and women toward forming friendships with individuals possessing characteristics valuable for solving these problems. The current study explored sex-differentiated friend preferences and the psychological design features of same- and opposite-sex friendship in two tasks. In Task 1, participants (N = 121) categorized their same-sex friends (SSFs) and opposite-sex friends (OSFs) according to the functions these friends serve in their lives. In Task 2, participants designed their ideal SSFs and OSFs using limited budgets that forced them to make trade-offs between the characteristics they desire in their friends. In Task 1, men, more than women, reported maintaining SSFs for functions related to athleticism and status enhancement and OSFs for mating opportunities. In Task 2, both sexes prioritized agreeableness and dependability in their ideal SSFs, but men prioritized physical attractiveness in their OSFs, whereas women prioritized economic resources and physical prowess. These findings suggest that friend preferences may have evolved to solve ancestrally sex-linked adaptive problems, and that opposite-sex friendship may directly or indirectly serve mating functions.
The prevalence of nonpaternity in human societies is difficult to establish. To obtain a current and fairly unbiased estimate of the nonpaternity rate in Germany, we analysed a dataset consisting of 971 children and their parents in whom human leukocyte antigen (HLA) typing had been carried out in the context of bone marrow transplantation. In this sample, nine exclusions (0.93%) could be identified on the basis of more than 300 HLA-haplotypes defined by four HLA genes. Given this number of exclusions, a maximum likelihood estimate of the nonpaternity rate in the population of 0.94% was obtained with asymptotic 95% confidence limits of 0.33% and 1.55%, respectively. This result is in accordance with recent surveys as well as findings from Switzerland for a comparable sample, and it suggests that earlier estimates of the nonpaternity rate which were often in excess of 10% may have been largely exaggerated.
Infanticide among animals is a widespread phenomenon with no unitary explanation. Although the detrimental outcome for the infant is fairly constant, individuals responsible for infanticide may or may not benefit, and when they gain in fitness there may be considerable variation in how they gain. Sources of increased fitness from infanticide include: (1) exploitation of the infant as a resource, (2) elimination of a competitor for resources, (3) increased maternal survival or lifetime reproductive success for either mother or father by elimination of an ill-timed, handicapped, or supernumerary infant, and, finally, (4) increased access for individuals of one sex for reproductive investment by the other sex at the expense of same-sex competitors. Predicted attributes of the perpetrators (such as sex and degree of relatedness to the infant), attributes of the victim (i.e., age and vulnerability), as well as schedule of gain, vary for each class. Under some circumstances, individuals commit infanticide which does not result in any prospect for gain; such instances are considered nonadaptive or “pathological.” In those cases where infanticide does on the average increase fitness, selection pressures favoring it have arisen as a result of the extensive and time-consuming investment involved in production of young, and the extreme vulnerability that characterizes infancy in many animals.
The evolution of cooperation through partner choice mechanisms is often thought to involve relatively complex cognitive abilities. Using agent-based simulations I model a simple partner choice rule, the 'Walk Away' rule, where individuals stay in groups that provide higher returns (by virtue of having more cooperators), and 'Walk Away' from groups providing low returns. Implementing this conditional movement rule in a public goods game leads to a number of interesting findings: 1) cooperators have a selective advantage when thresholds are high, corresponding to low tolerance for defectors, 2) high thresholds lead to high initial rates of movement and low final rates of movement (after selection), and 3) as cooperation is selected, the population undergoes a spatial transition from high migration (and a many small and ephemeral groups) to low migration (and large and stable groups). These results suggest that the very simple 'Walk Away' rule of leaving uncooperative groups can favor the evolution of cooperation, and that cooperation can evolve in populations in which individuals are able to move in response to local social conditions. A diverse array of organisms are able to leave degraded physical or social environments. The ubiquitous nature of conditional movement suggests that 'Walk Away' dynamics may play an important role in the evolution of social behavior in both cognitively complex and cognitively simple organisms.
Nonpaternity (i.e., discrepant biological versus social fatherhood) affects many issues of interests to psychologists, including familial dynamics, interpersonal relationships, sexuality, and fertility, and therefore represents an important topic for psychological research. The advent of modern contraceptive methods, particularly the market launch of the birth-control pill in the early 1960s and its increased use ever since, should have affected rates of nonpaternity (i.e., discrepant genetic and social fatherhood). This cross-temporal meta-analysis investigated whether there has been a recent decline in nonpaternity rates in the western industrialized nations. The eligible database comprised 32 published samples unbiased towards nonpaternity for which nonoverlapping data from more than 24,000 subjects from nine (mostly Anglo-Saxon heritage) countries with primarily Caucasian populations are reported. Publication years ranged from 1932 to 1999, and estimated years of the reported nonpaternity events (i.e., the temporal occurrence of nonpaternity) ranged from 1895 to 1993. In support of the hypothesis, weighted meta-regression models showed a significant decrease (r = -.41) of log-transformed nonpaternity rates with publication years and also a decrease, albeit not significant (r = -.17), with estimated years of nonpaternity events. These results transform into an estimated absolute decline in untransformed nonpaternity rates of 0.83% and 0.91% per decade, respectively. Across studies, the mean (and median) nonpaternity rate was 3.1% (2.1%). This estimate is consistent with estimates of 2 to 3% from recent reviews on the topic that were based on fewer primary studies. This estimate also rebuts the beliefs and hearsay data widespread among both the public and researchers which contend nonpaternity rates in modern populations might be as high as about 10%.
We test a novel evolutionary hypothesis predicting that mate value discrepancies, but not mate preference fulfillment, will regulate relationship satisfaction. Across Study 1 (n=259) and Study 2 (n=300), we employed new
Euclidean measures able to capture preference fulfillment and compute estimates of mate value discrepancies.
Relationship satisfaction was not related to how well mates fulfilled their partner's preferences. Mate value discrepancies, in contrast, interacted to predict relationship satisfaction: relationship satisfaction declined for
participants whose mates were less desirable than their alternatives, but only for participants who were higher
in mate value than their mates. Additionally, these satisfaction differences mediated a relationship between mate value discrepancies and mate retention behavior. This mediation pathway is unique to satisfaction; the same pathway was not observed through trust, a functionally distinct relationship affective state. Study 3 (n = 301) addressed a methodological limitation of Studies 1 and 2.We replicated the mate value discrepancy interaction to predict relationship satisfaction, but found an effect of ideal preference fulfillment on relationship satisfaction. These results provide evidence that mate preferences have important, functionally specific effects on within relationship processes through contributing to two independent discrepancy variables: partner–self and partner-potential mate value discrepancies. They also largely contravene the hypothesis that mate preference fulfillment is the key to relationship satisfaction.
In most mammals, cues of impending ovulation—including changes in appearance and sexual behavior—mark the fertile phase within the ovulatory cycle. Such cues were long thought to have been completely concealed in humans. However, research over the past two decades has overturned this assumption, revealing subtle but detectable cues of ovulation to which observers respond both behaviorally and hormonally. We review research in this area over the last several years. Cues of ovulation in human females include attractive changes in scent, voice, and appearance. Women also appear to be more receptive and solicitous towards sexually attractive prospective mates when fertile within the cycle. We discuss reasons why human ovulation cues are subtle and outline questions for future research.
Human long-term mating is an evolutionary mystery. Here, we suggest that evolutionary game theory provides three essential components of a good theory of long-term mating. Modeling long-term relationships as public goods games parsimoniously explains the adaptive problems long-term mating solved, identifies the novel adaptive problems long-term mating posed, and provides testable predictions about the evolved psychological solutions to these adaptive problems. We apply this framework to three adaptive problems long-term mating may have solved and generate novel predictions about psychological mechanisms evolved in response. Next, we apply the public goods framework to understand the adaptive problems produced by long-term mating. From these adaptive problems, we derive novel predictions about the psychology responsible for (1) selection and attraction of romantic partners, (2) evaluation of long-term relationships, and (3) strategic behavior within relationships. We propose that public goods modeling synthesizes adaptive problems at all stages of long-term mating-from their initiation through their maintenance and through their dissolution. This model provides an important tool for understanding the evolution and complex psychology of long-term committed mating.
Alexander (1979) has invited "⋯ biologists to contribute to the analysis of human behavior on all legitimate fronts⋯" He considered it "⋯ especially relevant that [they] take up the problem of relating human attributes to evolutionary history." The analysis of human sexual behavior surely qualifies as a legitimate topic in evolutionary biology. This chapter represents a contribution to the argument that sperm competition does occur in humans and has been a selective force in the evolution of certain human characteristics. There has been considerable controversy over what may be the "natural" sexual inclinations (promiscuous, polygynous, serially polygynous, monogamous, or some mixture of these) of human males (e.g., Trivers 1972; Wilson 1975; Alexander 1977; Short 1977, 1979, 1981; Daly and Wilson 1978; Symons 1979; Lovejoy 1981; Barash 1982; Harvey and Harcourt, this volume), but relatively much less debate over the sexual predilections of human females (Hrdy 1981). Females are widely assumed to be monogamous, with little formal recognition of alternative female strategies (but see Hrdy 1981, and Knowlton and Greenwell, this volume). The compromise view of human male mating strategy proposes mixed tactics (Trivers 1972) where males attempt to pair-bond with one or more females by high investment, and opportunistically (more or less promiscuously) mate with other females. All combinations of male tactics from rape (Shields and Shields 1983, Thornhill and Thornhill 1983) to high investment (Trivers 1972) and the environmental and social circumstances that occasion their expression have received analysis in the literature. As Hrdy (1981) observed: "The sociobiological literature stresses the travails of males - their quest for different females, the burdens of intra-sexual competition, the entire biological infrastructure for the double standard. No doubt this perspective has led to insights concerning male sexuality. But it has also effectively blocked progress toward understanding female sexuality - defined here as the readiness of a female to engage in sexual activity." The biological irony of the double standard is that males could not have been selected for promiscuity if historically females had always denied them opportunity for expression of the trait. If strict monogamy were the singular human female mating strategy, then only rape would place ejaculates in position to compete and the potential role of sperm competition as a force in human evolution would be substantially diminished. Here I shall explore the literature for evidence of the evolutionary significance of sperm competition in humans. I present data on the circumstances that would place ejaculates from different human males together in the reproductive tract of a female during a single reproductive cycle. I summarize the evidence that human sperm competition actually occurs. And, finally, I speculate on how selection within the context of potential or actual sperm competition may have operated in human evolutionary history to shape some aspects of human anatomy, physiology, behavior, and culture. © 2006 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. All rights reserved.
Period divorce measures can misrepresent the underlying behavior of birth cohorts as changes in cohort timing produce changes in period probabilities of divorce. Building on methods used to adjust period fertility and marriage measures, we adjust U.S. period divorce rates for timing effects, calculating a timing index for every year between 1910 and 2000. The adjusted probability of divorce, PMED*, increases nearly linearly from 1910 through 1990, remaining at about that level through 2000. Period measures greatly exaggerate divorce risks from the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, but understate them at other times. Adjusted values for recent years do not suggest a decline in the likelihood of divorce, with year 2000 values indicating a divorce probability of 0.43 – 0.46.
Comparative, quantitative and statistical methods are increasingly eschewed by sociocultural anthropologists. In an attempt to demonstrate how such research tools can shed light on social behaviour, the changing covariates of marriage payments are examined in relation to the socioeconomic, ecological, and political factors affecting family life over a 40-year period in rural Kenya. Assuming that negotiated bridewealth outcomes reflect some compromise of the costs and benefits of the anticipated marriage to each party, correlates of bridewealth variability will reveal the critical qualities that parents seek in the spouses of their progeny and how these change over time. On the basis of such changing covariates, Kipsigis bridewealth can be characterized as an institution that (I) buttresses the formation of an incipient marriage elite and (2) articulates bargaining over the socioeconomic status and earning power of grooms and, increasingly, brides. The significance of women's reproductive and labour value as a determinant of the size of bridewealth payments has declined over the past decade. The merits and demerits of correlational analysis founded on the assumption of maximization are discussed in this context.
The authors theorized that adversity elicits relationship maintenance responses when level of adversity is calibrated with level of commitment. To test this, the authors examined the commitment-devaluation effect: Those committed to a close relationship are thought to devalue attractive alternatives. Two levels of adversity were operationalized. Participants evaluated an attractive alternative (moderate threat), or participants evaluated the same target after learning that the target was attracted to them (high threat). Unmarried and low on a relationship commitment scale was considered low commitment; unmarried but high or married but low on the scale were considered moderately committed. Finally married and high on the scale was considered high commitment. Under moderate threat, moderately committed rated the alternative as less attractive than those low and high in commitment. Under high threat, those high in commitment rated the alternative as less attractive than those low and moderately committed. Gender differences and comparisons with single people were examined.
Committed romantic relationships confer important benefits to psychological health and well-being. However, to effectively maintain these relationships, individuals must avoid threats posed by the temptation of attractive relationship alternatives. Previous work has demonstrated that individuals in committed relationships consciously downplay the allure of romantic alternatives. The current work tested the hypothesis that attractive relationship alternatives evoke an automatic self-protective response at an early stage of cognition. The current study employed a computer simulation that recorded automatic, split-second assessments of threat elicited by social targets that varied in their gender and level of attractiveness. Consistent with hypotheses, attractive opposite-sex targets evoked automatic self-protective responses from participants in committed heterosexual relationships. Moreover, these responses seemed to be particularly pronounced among the male participants in committed relationships. These findings have implications for the maintenance of long-term close relationships.
Several models of relationship dissolution imply a sequence of steps or stages, for which there might exist a cultural script. Previous research has identified a script for first dates. The present research attempted to identify a relationship dissolution script by asking men and women to list the steps that typically occur when a couple breaks up. Analysis of their 1480 responses indicated a 16-step ordered script for relation-ship dissolution. The relationship dissolution script is discussed in terms of approach-avoidance theories of conflict and relevant relationship dissolution theories.
Married persons completed anonymous questionnaires rating the extent to which they would feel justified having an extramarital relationship for 17 reasons derived from the clinical and research literatures. Men and women clustered these justifications similarly into four factors: sexual, romantic love, emotional intimacy, and extrinsic. Women approved less of sexual justifications and more of love justifications. Attitude-behavior congruence was demonstrated in the link between sexual justification and sexual involvement for both sexes and in the link between love justifications and emotional involvement for men. The data supported the observation that men separate sex and love; women appear to believe that love and sex go together and that falling in love justifies sexual involvement. Clinical implications include the importance of understanding the extramarital attitudes as cognitions and thresholds related to extramarital behavior. Research implications include the importance of assessing specific reasons including emotional justifications, assessing emotional involvement and sexual involvement, and analyzing for gender differences.
This . . . book is the first to present a unified theory of human mating behavior. [It] is based on the most massive study of human mating ever undertaken, encompassing more than 10,000 people of all ages from thirty-seven cultures worldwide.
If we all want love, why is there so much conflict in our most cherished relationships? To answer this question, we must look into our evolutionary past, according to David M. Buss.
The book discusses casual sex and long-term relationships, sexual conflict, the elusive quest for harmony between the sexes, and much more.
Buss's research leads to a radical shift from the standard view of men's and women's sexual psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In the first century after the "Origin of Species," virtually no one tested Darwin's theory against the evidence of human history. In the last decade, that tide has changed; this book is caught up in it. It tests the proposition that the evolved end of human life is its reproduction, against the literature on conflict resolution from over a hundred societies across space and time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The mutation-selection hypothesis may extend to understanding normal personality variation. Traits such as emotional stability, agreeableness, and conscientiousness figure strongly in mate selection and show evidence of non-additive genetic variance. They are linked with reproductively relevant outcomes, including longevity, resource acquisition, and mating success. Evolved difference-detection adaptations may function to spurn individuals whose high mutation
load signals a burdensome relationship
load.
ABSTRACT Individual differences are explicitly connected to social interaction in Darwin's notion of sexual selection Traits that increase the probability of successful reproduction will tend to increase in frequency This process operates partly through differential choice, by one sex, of certain traits in the other According to the parental investment model, females frequently have more stringent criteria for the traits they will accept in a mate because they have a relatively larger investment in each offspring Because human mating arrangements often involve a substantial commitment of resources by the male, it is necessary to invoke a distinction between the selectivity involved during casual mating opportunities and the selectivity exercised when choosing a long-term partner Ninety-three undergraduate men and women rated their minimum criteria on 24 partner characteristics at four levels of commitment In line with an unqualified parental investment model, females were more selective overall, particularly on status-linked variables In line with a qualified parental investment model, males' trait preferences depended upon the anticipated investment in the relationship Males had lower requirements for a sexual partner than did females, but were nearly as selective as females when considenng requirements for a long-term partner
There can be important reproductive benefits to maintaining a long-term romantic relationship. As a result, humans may possess evolved psychological mechanisms designed to help them maintain their commitment to a long-term mate, particularly when faced with attractive alternative relationship partners. The current study identifies a relationship maintenance process that involves being inattentive to alternative relationship partners. Experimentally eliciting thoughts and feelings of romantic love—an emotion thought to have evolved for the purpose of relationship maintenance—reduced attention to alternative partners at an early, automatic stage of visual perception. Consistent with evolutionary models of mate selection, this reduction in attention was observed only for opposite sex targets displaying high levels of physical attractiveness. This research illustrates the utility of integrating evolutionary models of mating with theory and method from cognitive science.
This study extends traditional sex roles to extramarital relationships in order to clarify sex differences in extramarital involvement and marital dissatisfaction. Both emotional and sexual extramarital involvement were studied, since women's greater emphasis on emotional intimacy was ignored in earlier extramarital studies which focused solely on sexual involvement. A purposive sample of 300 White middle-class men and women completed anonymous questionnaires about marital and extramarital relationships. Men's extramarital relationships are more sexual and women's are more emotional. Women involved in extramarital relationships report greater marital dissatisfaction than their male counterparts. For both sexes, those with combined sexual and emotional extramarital involvement report the greatest marital dissatisfaction. In sum, traditional sex roles that influence the expressions of sexuality and emotionality in premarital and marital relationships also appear to operate in extramarital relationships.
The temptation of alternative mating partners can threaten satisfaction with and commitment to an existing romantic relationship. Consequently, people exhibit cognitive processes that help protect their relationship when faced with desirable relationship alternatives. Previous studies have focused primarily on processes that involve explicit, higher-order cognitive mechanisms such as overt judgments and choices (e.g., judging the alternative as less attractive). The current studies, in contrast, examined automatic, early-stage attentional processes that may help protect against threats posed by exposure to alternative mating partners. Whereas single participants responded to implicit mating primes by increasing early-stage attention to physically attractive opposite sex targets, participants in a committed romantic relationship were inattentive to those attractive alternatives. This research provides a novel approach for studying implicit cognitive mechanisms involved in maintaining close relationships.
The literature on human mate preferences is vast but most data come from studies on college students in complex societies, who represent a thin slice of cultural variation in an evolutionarily novel environment. Here, I present data on the mate preferences of men and women in a society of hunter-gatherers, the Hadza of Tanzania. Hadza men value fertility in a mate more than women do, and women value intelligence more than men do. Women place great importance on men's foraging, and both sexes rate character as important. Unlike college students, Hadza men place considerable importance on women being hard-working, and Hadza women cite looks about as often as men do. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2007 APA, all rights reserved) (journal abstract)
Obra de divulgación de la teoría de la evolución biológica por selección natural, a este autor se le considera un acérrimo defensor de la teoría de Darwin y refuta al teólogo del siglo XVIII William Paley sobre la cuestión de que la vida es creada por Dios debido a su perfección y lo complicado de la misma, pero Richard Dawkins considera que no es perfecta pues en las creaturas se encuentran deficiencias. Insiste además que la evolución se da como ramificaciones y en este proceso hay especies menos desarrolladas que otras aunque provengan de un antepasado común.