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227© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
W.A. Renandya, H.P. Widodo (eds.), English Language Teaching Today,
English Language Education 5, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-38834-2_16
Teaching Vocabulary in the EFL Context
Anna Siyanova-Chanturia and Stuart Webb
Abstract Teaching vocabulary in the English as a foreign language (EFL) context
is challenging. Incidental vocabulary learning is limited due to a lack of second
language (L2) input, and most words are learned through classroom instruction.
Overall, research has shown marginal L2 vocabulary growth in many EFL situa-
tions. Such research indicates a need for a more effective and effi cient approach to
teaching vocabulary in the EFL context. This chapter discusses how to optimise
vocabulary learning in the EFL context. It touches on the following questions:
Which words should be taught? How should vocabulary be taught? How many
words do EFL learners need to know? What should a vocabulary-learning pro-
gramme include? How can vocabulary learning be fostered given limited classroom
time? Which activities might be useful in indirect vocabulary learning?
Keywords Vocabulary size • Vocabulary learning • Extensive reading • Extensive
viewing • Vocabulary-learning programme
1 Introduction
Both fi rst (L1) and second (L2) language educators and researchers agree that mas-
tering vocabulary is of great importance in one’s becoming a mature language user.
Although learning vocabulary in a L1 and L2 is not fundamentally different, one of
the important ways in which L1 and L2 vocabulary learning does differ is the rate
of vocabulary growth. In the L1 learning context, the amount of regular input is
immense allowing for much of vocabulary to be learnt incidentally. In contrast, the
smaller amount of regular input in the L2 context means that the opportunities for
learning new vocabulary items are limited, with relatively few words being acquired
A. Siyanova-Chanturia (*)
School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies , Victoria University of Wellington ,
Wellington , New Zealand
e-mail: anna.siyanova@vuw.ac.nz
S. Webb
Faculty of Education , University of Western Ontario , London , ON , Canada
e-mail: swebb27@uwo.ca
228
incidentally. It is, thus, hypothesised that teachers have the greatest infl uence on the
quality and quantity of L2 vocabulary learnt by EFL learners (Laufer 2003 ). Because
teachers play such a key role and ultimately decide what will be learnt, their careful
planning and general knowledge of the issues involved in vocabulary learning may
help enhance the learning process. The present chapter has as its aim to address a
number of questions with regard to vocabulary size and coverage, the amount and
type of vocabulary that EFL learners may know and need to know, core components
of a vocabulary-learning programme, activities and opportunities for incidental
vocabulary acquisition, as well as the role of the teacher in vocabulary learning in
the EFL context.
2 Vocabulary Size and Coverage: Key Facts and Figures
According to Nation ( 2006 ), one of the ways of deciding on vocabulary learning
goals in an English language-learning programme is to look at native speaker’s
vocabulary size. It is estimated that a well-educated native speaker of English knows
about 20,000 word families, or around 32,000 vocabulary items, excluding proper
names (Goulden et al. 1990 ). Clearly, this fi gure is a very ambitious and rather unre-
alistic goal for any L2 learning programme. It has been proposed that the vocabu-
lary size of a highly educated non-native speaker of English is around 8000–9000
word families (Nation 2006 ) – less than a half of that of a native speaker of English.
Another, perhaps, more realistic, way of determining vocabulary learning goals
is to identify how much vocabulary is needed in order to perform a particular activ-
ity in the target language, such as, for example, reading newspapers or novels,
watching movies, participating in conversations, and so on (Nation 2006 ). When
deciding on the amount of vocabulary needed for L2 learners to be able to success-
fully engage in a particular task, it is important to consider the relationship between
lexical coverage (percentage of known words in a text) and reading comprehension.
Hu and Nation ( 2000 ) studied precisely that. They determined lexical coverage by
replacing the low frequency items in their text with nonsense words (such that one
could be certain they were unknown to the learner). Reading comprehension was
measured using a reading comprehension test and a cued recall test. It was found
that with a text coverage of 80 % (one in every fi ve words being a nonsense word),
no L2 reader was able to demonstrate satisfactory comprehension. When the text
coverage fi gure was increased to 90 %, a very small number of learners demon-
strated adequate comprehension. When the fi gure was further increased to 100 %,
most learners were able to demonstrate good comprehension of the text. Further
analysis revealed that 98 % text coverage (i.e., one unknown word in every 50
words) would be required for most L2 learners to achieve good comprehension of a
text.
With this fi gure in mind, in a more recent corpus study, Nation ( 2006 ) investi-
gated how large a vocabulary was needed to adequately comprehend a variety of
written and spoken texts. For example, it was found that a vocabulary of 9000 word
A. Siyanova-Chanturia and S. Webb
229
families (made from the British National Corpus (BNC)) would be needed to read
Lady Chatterley’s Lover by D. H. Lawrence, and a vocabulary of 8000–9000 would
be needed to read other similar novels. Interestingly, a similar 8000–9000 vocabu-
lary size was found to be needed for adequate comprehension of newspaper texts.
When simplifi ed texts, such as graded readers designated for language learners,
were looked at (e.g., The Picture of Dorian Gray by O. Wilde), it was found that
only 3000 word families were needed to achieve a 98 % coverage level. Nation
( 2006 ) also looked at spoken texts, such as a children’s movie Shrek and unscripted
spoken English. The former required about 7000 word families and the latter a com-
parable 6000–7000 word families, excluding proper nouns. It was concluded that if
one takes 98 % as the ideal coverage, a 8000–9000 word-family vocabulary is
needed to deal with most written texts, and 6000–7000 word families are required
to deal with most spoken texts (other fi gures have also been proposed; for example,
van Zeeland and Schmitt ( 2013 ) found that, based on a 95 % coverage fi gure, lan-
guage learners would need to know 2000–3000 word families for adequate listening
comprehension, which is, clearly, lower than Nation’s ( 2006 ) estimate of 6000–
7000 families based on a 98 % fi gure). These vocabulary sizes might be considered
as useful language learning targets.
3 How Much Vocabulary Do EFL Learners Know?
L2 vocabulary learning progress is often slow and uneven. Whereas native speakers
may learn, on average, 1000 word families each year until the age of 20 (Goulden
et al. 1990 ). This rate of growth is clearly unrealistic in the EFL learning context.
This is due to a number of inter-related factors, such as insuffi cient input, lack of
opportunities to use the language outside the classroom (insuffi cient output), teach-
ing methods used (communicative language teaching vs. grammar-translation
method), amount of time dedicated to the English language in general, amount of
time dedicated to vocabulary learning in particular, and so on.
By and large, studies have shown that English vocabulary knowledge and learn-
ing rates in the EFL context fall far short of what is considered to be a norm in the
L1 context. For example, Nurweni and Read ( 1999 ) investigated the English vocab-
ulary knowledge of 324 fi rst-year university students in the Indonesian EFL context.
They found that after six years of formal English language instruction, on average,
the learners knew 1226 English words (986 words, or just under 50 %, of the General
Service List (West 1953 ) and 240 words, or 30 %, of the University Word List (Xue
and Nation 1984 )). Given that L2 learners of English are thought to require 4000–
5000 words to be able read university level textbooks (Nation 1990 ), it is evident
that the EFL learners in Nurweni and Read ( 1999 ) were not equipped even with the
most basic vocabulary to be able to cope with university-level readings. As the
authors conclude, the limited vocabulary knowledge found in their study is discon-
certing as Indonesian EFL learners are expected to have the vocabulary size of a
minimum of 4000 words upon entry to the university. As a possible solution to such
Teaching Vocabulary in the EFL Context
230
an alarmingly low level of vocabulary gains, the authors recommended paying more
attention to vocabulary learning; in particular, focusing more directly on teaching
high-frequency words.
Such was also the conclusion of Webb and Chang ( 2012 ), who investigated the
vocabulary knowledge of 166 EFL learners in Taiwan over a period of fi ve years.
They measured students’ vocabulary learning progress using the Vocabulary Levels
Test (VLT: Schmitt et al. 2001 ). The data were examined according to the number
of hours of English language instruction that learners had received (e.g., while one
group enjoyed between 10 and 22 h of English classes per week, another group had
a mere 2–6 h of English per week). The authors found that those with less exposure
to English learnt signifi cantly fewer words (some learnt as few as 18 words in one
year), while the learners with greater exposure learnt as many as 430 words in one
year. Perhaps, most disappointingly, the study revealed that after nine years of
English language instruction, less than half of all the learners had mastered the
words in the fi rst 1000 word families. More disappointingly still, only 16 % of the
learners had mastered the words in the second 1000 word families. Similar to
Nurweni and Read ( 1999 ), Webb and Chang ( 2012 ) highlighted the need to specifi -
cally focus on the high-frequency words, that is, those in the fi rst and second 1000
word families.
4 Choosing Words to Be Learned in an English Language-
Learning Programme
Frequency plays a central role in language acquisition, processing and use. It is
believed that the language processor is tuned to input frequency because language
users are sensitive to the frequencies of linguistic events in their experiences. Lexical
frequency effects are, arguably, some of the most robust in psycholinguistic research,
and are thought to be responsible for the organisation of the lexicon (Bod et al.
2003 ; Ellis 2002 ; Forster 1976 ). Indeed, frequency is a decisive (albeit not the only)
factor indicating which L1 words are likely to be learned and when. Some words are
acquired early on in a child’s life ( milk, bottle, dog ), others may be acquired later in
life ( internet, university, marriage ); many words, however, may never be acquired,
used, or ever encountered by even highly educated L1 users (terms and other very
low frequency words: dactylion, tachyphagia, yclept ). It is, thus, hardly surprising
that frequency of occurrence should be the guiding force in language teachers’ and
course designers’ decisions regarding what should be taught to L2 learners and
when. Over the past two decades, corpus-driven studies of written and spoken dis-
course have been fundamental in improving our understanding of the relative fre-
quency of words and, hence, value of vocabulary in language learning and
teaching.
In the corpus study described above, Nation (
2006 ) found that a 8000–9000
word-family vocabulary is needed to deal with written texts, and 6000–7000 word
families are needed to adequately comprehend spoken texts. More importantly,
A. Siyanova-Chanturia and S. Webb
231
Nation ( 2006 ) concluded that the greatest variation in vocabulary is likely to occur
in the fi rst 1000 word families, which cover around 80 and 83 % of written and spo-
ken texts, respectively. Similarly, the most frequent 1000 word families in the BNC
were also found to cover over 85 % of the words in 88 television programmes (Webb
and Rodgers 2009a ) and around 86 % of the words in 318 movies (Webb and
Rodgers 2009b ). These fi ndings demonstrate the value of the high frequency words
and, thus, make learning the fi rst 1000 word families of primary importance in any
English language-learning programme. On the contrary, the second 1000 word fam-
ilies in Nation ( 2006 ) were found to account for around 9 and 6 % of written and
spoken language, respectively, while combined the fourth and the fi fth 1000 word
families were found to provide only 3 % coverage of written and 2 % coverage of
spoken texts. Clearly, however, in order to reach specifi c language learning goals
and be able to communicate effectively in the L2, it is fundamental to learn and be
able to operate with the words beyond the fi rst 1000 word families.
What these fi gures demonstrate, fi rst and foremost, is the relative value of words
in vocabulary learning. Learners’ primary task should be suffi cient mastery of the
words in the most frequent 1000 word families before they move on to second or
third 1000-word levels. Evidently, learners learn (or attempt to learn) what teachers
present them with. Thus, an important role in the mammoth task of vocabulary
learning belongs to language teachers and course designers, whose duty it is to
choose, in a principled way, which words should be learned and when.
Earlier in the chapter, we reported that students in various EFL contexts, even
those studying at a university, may not know some of the high-frequency words
found in the fi rst 1000 word families, and may know very few, if any, words in the
second 1000 word families (Danelund 2013 ; Nurweni and Read 1999 ; Quinn 1968 ;
Webb and Chang 2012 ). These learners’ vocabulary knowledge can be said to fall
far short of what is expected of an EFL learner upon entry to university. These rather
disheartening fi ndings suggest that vocabulary learning in the EFL context may be
lacking a number of important elements, both at the level of course planning and
course delivery. In what follows below, we discuss what can be done to improve the
effectiveness of the EFL learning programme on vocabulary development.
5 Vocabulary-Learning Programme: Key Features
A number of challenges exist with respect to L2 vocabulary learning and teaching.
First, much unlike L1 vocabulary learning, L2 vocabulary learning rates are slow
and uneven. This is largely due to insuffi cient input and lack of opportunities to use
the language in and outside the classroom. Second, the sheer task may appear daunt-
ing – there is simply too much to learn. An educated native speaker knows 20,000
word families, while an educated L2 speaker’s vocabulary is 8000–9000 words –
even the latter may be a life-long challenge for an EFL learner. Finally, words differ
vastly in their frequency and coverage and, hence, learning worth – it is, therefore,
imperative to choose words judiciously. It makes little sense to introduce an EFL
Teaching Vocabulary in the EFL Context
232
learner to words from the second 1000 families (or beyond) until the words in the
fi rst 1000 word families have been mastered, if not productively then at least recep-
tively. What can help learners and teachers in the vocabulary-learning quest is the
development of a sound institutional programme aimed at optimising vocabulary
teaching and learning.
A prominent example of such a programme is Nation’s ( 2001 ) model that incor-
porates the vocabulary component of a language course. The main tenets and ele-
ments of this model can be summarised as follows:
1 . Establishing goals and needs.
While an overarching goal will, inevitably, be to increase learners’ vocabulary
size, more specifi c goals may differ from one group of learners to another. For
example, depending on what the learners already know, the focus may be on
high-frequency, academic, technical, or low-frequency vocabulary. In order to
identify the goals and to establish what kind of vocabulary teachers should focus
on, it is important to fi nd out what vocabulary learners already know. Nation
( 2001 ) and Webb and Chang ( 2012 ) suggest using diagnostic testing, such as the
VLT (Schmitt et al. 2001 ), or Productive Levels Test (Laufer and Nation 1999 ).
While the VLT is a receptive test and the scores will indicate whether learners
can recognise the meanings of L2 forms, the Productive Levels Test indicates
whether learners might be able to produce the L2 forms of words when speaking
and writing. Thus, teachers should establish what vocabulary learners already
know and can use, and which words should be focused on and to what extent.
2 . Taking into account environmental factors.
Nation ( 2001 ) suggests establishing features and characteristics of the learn-
ers (e.g., Do they share the same L1?), the teachers (e.g., Are teachers well
informed about teaching and learning vocabulary?), and the situation (e.g., Do
L1 and L2 share cognate vocabulary?).
3 . Following vocabulary-teaching principles.
Arguably, the core of Nation’s model is the three principles of content and
sequencing , format and presentation , and monitoring and assessment . The prin-
ciple of content and sequencing deals with the vocabulary to be learnt, the stages
and means of learning. For example, frequency and range of occurrence should
be the main guiding force in deciding what should be learnt and when. Students
should also be trained in vocabulary-learning strategies (guessing from context,
learning word parts, learning to use a dictionary, using word cards) and be famil-
iarised with what is involved in knowing a word (form, meaning, aspects of use).
With regards to the principle of format and presentation, Nation ( 2001 ) empha-
sises that high-frequency words should occur in the four strands of meaning-
focused input (learning through listening and reading activities that are oriented
towards comprehension and enjoyment), meaning-focused output (learning
through speaking and writing), language-focused learning (deliberately learning
language features such as pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and discourse),
and fl uency development (which does not involve the learning of new vocabulary
A. Siyanova-Chanturia and S. Webb
233
items, but focuses on becoming fl uent in using what the learner already knows).
The four strands are a useful basis for vocabulary learning, because each strand
focuses on different aspects of knowing and using a word and contributes to
vocabulary development in its own unique way. In addition, this principle high-
lights the importance of spaced, repeated exposures to the target vocabulary (we
will come back to this principle in the fi nal section of the chapter). Finally, the
principle of monitoring and assessment centres on a regular and systematic use
of various types of assessment (e.g., tests, quizzes) in order to measure learning
progress, but also to motivate and encourage learners. Depending on the goals,
some assessment may happen weekly or fortnightly (short-term achievement),
while other forms of evaluation may only happen twice, at the beginning and at
the end of the course (long-term achievement).
4 . Evaluation of the vocabulary component of a language course.
The fi nal component of the model centres on evaluating the effectiveness of the
vocabulary component of a language programme. Nation ( 2001 , 2008 ) provides
a number of principles that can be used to achieve this aim. The following ques-
tions draw on some of these principles:
(a) Were the target vocabulary learning goals reached?
(b) Were the important environmental factors taken into account?
(c) Were the learners’ needs met?
(d) Are teachers and learners happy with the vocabulary-learning programme?
If not, do they understand its key components and principles?
(e) Did the learners’ development of vocabulary knowledge extend beyond the
learning of form and meaning? Were the learners able to use the target vocab-
ulary? If not, were there suffi cient opportunities for students to encounter the
target vocabulary (in and outside the classroom)? Were the learners encour-
aged to use extracurricular activities for indirect vocabulary learning?
6 Vocabulary Learning Activities: Learning
Outside the Classroom
As has been pointed out throughout the chapter, researchers and educators recom-
mend paying more attention to vocabulary learning and strategically focusing on
teaching high-frequency words. However, there is a limit to how much vocabulary
can be explicitly taught in the classroom. It is not uncommon for EFL students to
have a very limited exposure to the target language (some learners in Webb and
Chang ( 2012 ) had as few as two hours of English classes per week). In addition, not
all of this time will be dedicated to vocabulary learning; other aspects, such as
grammar, will too be part of the curriculum. It may, therefore, be of considerable
value to encourage EFL learners to engage in a number of extracurricular, out-of-
classroom activities that focus on and promote the acquisition of new vocabulary.
Teaching Vocabulary in the EFL Context
234
As Nation ( 2001 ) notes, opportunities for indirect vocabulary learning should
occupy much more time in a language course than direct vocabulary learning activi-
ties. Such indirect activities may, for example, include extensive reading and exten-
sive viewing.
6.1 Extensive Reading
Reading may not be the main source of vocabulary acquisition in an instructed
language-learning context (Laufer 2003 ), but it can be used as a useful activity out-
side the EFL classroom. It is also one of the activities central to Nation’s ( 2001 )
strand of meaning-focused input. Second language researchers, educators and prac-
titioners have long acknowledged an important role of reading in vocabulary acqui-
sition (Pigada and Schmitt 2006 ). It has been claimed that acquiring vocabulary
through reading leads to learning gains due to repeated encounters with the same
word (according to Nation’s ( 2001 ) core principles of vocabulary teaching, spaced,
repeated exposures are imperative for vocabulary learning). This suggests that lon-
ger texts might be better suited for vocabulary learning purposes than shorter ones,
as the same word is more likely to be encountered a number of times. Extensive
reading has been argued to be particularly effective in vocabulary learning. Not only
does extensive reading offer opportunities for repeated exposure to the same lexical
item, but it also provides learners with opportunities to encounter words in their
contexts of use, thus helping them notice, read, analyse, and eventually learn new
items.
Modern technology can also help teachers use extensive reading more effectively
in the EFL context. For example, the RANGE programme (Nation and Heatley
2002 ) allows teachers to tactically choose texts for different courses according to
the vocabulary level of their learners. When selecting texts for use in and outside the
classroom, it is advisable to use texts that are primarily made of high frequency
words and contain relatively few low frequency words. The RANGE programme,
which allows the user to compare vocabulary loads of a large number of texts at the
same time, is easy to use and can be an invaluable tool for teachers and course
designers alike. Webb and Chang ( 2012 ) argue that judiciously selecting texts that
largely contain high frequency words will provide superior conditions for text com-
prehension and will allow the learner to focus their attention on the target vocabu-
lary. Other researchers have similarly argued for the relative simplicity of extensive
reading texts, and have outlined some of the key principles to be borne in mind
when choosing extensive reading material for a language-learning programme. For
example, Day and Bamford ( 2002 ) put forward ten principles for an extensive read-
ing approach that deal with the nature of extensive reading, as well as the conditions
and methodologies necessary for its implementation and success:
1. The reading material is easy (i.e., primary focus on high-frequency vocabulary;
the RANGE programme can help teachers select appropriate texts);
A. Siyanova-Chanturia and S. Webb
235
2. A variety of reading material on a wide range of topics must be available;
3. Learners choose what they want to read;
4. Learners read as much as possible (i.e., multiple encounters with a new word
are necessary; Nation and Wang ( 1999 ) suggest that learners need to read about
one book per week in order to meet repetitions of a new word soon enough to
reinforce the previous meeting);
5. The purpose of reading is usually related to pleasure, information, and general
understanding;
6. Reading is its own reward;
7. Reading speed is usually faster rather than slower;
8. Reading is individual and silent;
9. Teachers orient and guide learners;
10. The teacher is a role model of a reader.
As can be seen, the focus is primarily on L2 learners – their choice, their reading
for pleasure, and their comfort zone. Importantly, extensive reading promotes
learner autonomy, can be motivating, and can result in substantial vocabulary learn-
ing, which is diffi cult to achieve with explicit teaching during the short period of
time that L2 learners spend in the classroom (Pigada and Schmitt 2006 ). Finally, as
Nation ( 2001 ) points out, the use of reading may be one of the few options for out-
of- class vocabulary development for some learners, such as, for example, EFL
learners. Researchers have, therefore, recommended including extensive reading
into the language-learning programme (Day and Bamford 2002 ; Pigada and Schmitt
2006 ).
6.2 Extensive Viewing
It has been argued that word knowledge involves a number of skills and that word
learning can be facilitated by approaches and methods that provide varied learning
experiences. Extensive reading may be one of the few options for out-of-class
vocabulary development available to EFL learners (Nation 2001 ), but it is not the
only one. Researchers also suggest that an approach that involves comprehensible
and enjoyable aural input in the form of extensive listening to aural versions of
graded readers and other text types may be a useful way to further expand vocabu-
lary knowledge and listening skills (Chang and Millet 2014 ; Renandya and Farrell
2011 ). Extensive viewing of L2 television is another such activity that can comple-
ment extensive reading (Webb 2009 , 2014 ).
Television, movies and videos have a long history in English language teaching
and learning, and research into the ways in which popular media can be used to
enhance English learning dates back to the 1980s (Lin and Siyanova-Chanturia
2014 ). EFL learners are particularly encouraged to watch English television pro-
grammes outside the classroom (Lin and Siyanova-Chanturia
2014 ; Nurweni and
Teaching Vocabulary in the EFL Context
236
Read 1999 ) since research has shown that it can aid the learning of English vocabu-
lary (Koolstra and Beentjes 1999 ; Lin 2014 ).
Webb ( 2009 , 2014 ) recommended extensive viewing of English language televi-
sion programmes as an approach to increasing vocabulary growth. Lin and Siyanova-
Chanturia ( 2014 ) suggest that internet television may be an ideal material for
developing autonomous vocabulary learners. They argue that EFL learners can take
internet television with them and watch it wherever they happen to be (while
commuting, at home, at university). Recent technological developments mean that
internet television is accessible with a few clicks on an internet-enabled smartphone
(or another mobile devise), allowing learners to receive authentic input even if they
have only a few minutes on a train.
According to Lin and Siyanova-Chanturia ( 2014 ), the following principles dem-
onstrate the potential of internet television, especially, in the EFL context where
classroom time is limited:
1. Learners receive extensive exposure to English;
2. Learners have the opportunity to observe authentic, everyday English. This is
especially important in the context of formulaic language which has been found
to be particularly problematic for L2 learners (Siyanova and Schmitt 2007 , 2008 ;
Siyanova-Chanturia and Martinez 2015 );
3. Internet television facilitates contextual vocabulary acquisition.
Extensive viewing is not unlike extensive reading, in that it too promotes repeated
exposure to lexical items and exploits contextual cues available to the viewer. With
regard to the latter, however, television provides multimodal (e.g., aural, visual)
contextual cues, which are likely to make it easier for learners to not only work out
the meaning of an unknown lexical item, but also to learn the new item (Lin and
Siyanova-Chanturia 2014 ). Simply put, given the availability of multimodal contex-
tual cues, fewer exposures may be necessary for vocabulary learning to take place.
One of the principles of extensive reading proposed by Day and Bamford ( 2002 )
is that it should be easy. Because television puts emphasis on authentic (unmodi-
fi ed) input, this is unlikely to apply to extensive viewing of television. Moreover,
while extensive reading is suitable for any level (beginner, intermediate, advanced),
television may only be suitable for more advanced EFL learners. Even then, learners
may need help and guidance on how to make watching television a valuable learn-
ing (rather than entertainment only) experience. The following strategies, adapted
from Lin and Siyanova-Chanturia ( 2014 ), may help guide EFL learners:
1. Repeated viewing: Repeated viewing leads to repeated encounters with a vocab-
ulary item. There is no maximum number of times that a learner can watch a
given episode (in Nation’s ( 2001 ) model, the importance of repeated encounters
with the target item is emphasised);
2. Training on contextual vocabulary learning skills: This will help learners acquire
implicitly from watching television;
3. Programme selection: While learners’ individual interests should be prioritised,
Lin ( 2014 ) argues that programmes should be chosen based on the extent to
A. Siyanova-Chanturia and S. Webb
237
which they refl ect real language use. Lin ( 2014 ) found that television pro-
grammes in the factual, drama and comedy categories were more representative
of everyday English than programmes in the music, learning and religion
categories;
4. Narrow viewing: Viewing programmes on the same or similar theme, which is
more likely to provide multiple repetitions of vocabulary items and may help
learners accumulate vocabulary on a particular topic (Rodgers and Webb 2011 );
5. Subtitles: These can be used in the same language as the programme ( intralin-
gual subtitles), or in another language, such as learners’ L1 ( interlingual subti-
tles). Subtitles have been found to aid vocabulary learning (Koolstra and Beentjes
1999 ). However, more research is needed on the effect of subtitles on foreign
language learning, as recent fi ndings suggest that while foreign-language subti-
tles may assist learning, native-language subtitles may, in fact, create lexical
interference (Mitterer and McQueen 2009 ).
Finally, learners may also benefi t from reading-while-listening activities.
Research suggests that reading while listening can lead to greater vocabulary learn-
ing than reading alone (Webb and Chang 2012 ; Webb et al. 2013 ). TED Talks ( http://
www.ted.com/ ) and other similar services provide a range of videos and talks with
transcripts. In addition, Tom Cobb’s Compleat Lexical Tutor (available at http://
www.lextutor.ca/ ) offers a range of electronic versions of graded and ungraded
readers accompanied by recordings that learners can listen to before, after, or during
reading. It is noteworthy that the Compleat Lexical Tutor is an extremely valuable
resource for teachers and learners alike, offering (among other things) such tools as
word lists, concordancers, vocabulary profi lers, and vocabulary tests.
Overall, researchers agree that watching (traditional) television and internet tele-
vision can be a useful EFL activity promoting learner autonomy and enhancing
vocabulary learning, and recommend including extensive viewing of television into
the language-learning programme.
7 Conclusion
In the present chapter, we raised a number of issues pertinent to vocabulary teaching
and learning in the EFL context. Overall, research has shown only marginal L2
vocabulary growth, suggesting that vocabulary learning in many EFL situations
may be ineffi cient. These fi ndings call into question current EFL pedagogies and
practices. We argued that careful development of the vocabulary component of a
language course – that takes into account the core principles of vocabulary teach-
ing – might have a positive and long-lasting effect on the development of vocabu-
lary knowledge among EFL learners. Finally, we proposed that a number of
extracurricular, out-of-class activities, such as extensive reading and extensive
viewing, have the potential to contribute to vocabulary development and enhance
EFL learners’ vocabulary knowledge.
Teaching Vocabulary in the EFL Context
238
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Teaching Vocabulary in the EFL Context
