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Extending the Testing Effect to Self-Regulated Learning

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Jonathan Fernandez at Paris-Est Créteil University
Jonathan Fernandez
Éric Jamet at University of Rennes 2
Éric Jamet
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In addition to serving summative assessment purposes, testing has turned out to be a powerful learning tool. However, while the beneficial effect of testing on learning performances has been confirmed in a large body of literature, the question of exactly how testing influences cognitive and metacognitive processes remains unclear. We therefore set out to investigate the effect of testing on self-regulated learning (SRL) processes. We hypothesized that by recalibrating metacognitive monitoring, regular practice testing can trigger efficient SRL processes and, in turn, foster learning. To test this hypothesis, we exposed first-year undergraduates to a complex neurology module. Participants were randomly assigned to either the practice testing group or a control group. The testing group underwent multiple practice tests during the neurology module, whereas the control group only underwent the multiple practice tests after the course. To assess the impact of practice testing on SRL processes, we combined a think aloud protocol with a metacognitive monitoring self-report measure. Results showed that, compared with controls, participants in the practice testing group were significantly less overconfident in their ability to recall recently learned information and performed better on a posttest questionnaire. Furthermore, mediation analyses confirmed that enhanced learning performance was explained by the use of efficient SRL processes. Therefore, these results allow us to extend the testing effect to SRL, and empirically underscore the central role of monitoring in SRL. Contributions to the fields of practice testing and SRL are discussed.
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Extending the testing effect to self-regulated learning
Jonathan Fernandez
1
&Eric Jamet
1
Received: 22 November 2015 /Accepted: 22 August 2016 /Published online: 1 September 2016
#Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016
Abstract In addition to serving summative assessment purposes, testing has turned out to be a
powerful learning tool. However, while the beneficial effect of testing on learning perfor-
mances has been confirmed in a large body of literature, the question of exactly how testing
influences cognitive and metacognitive processes remains unclear. We therefore set out to
investigate the effect of testing on self-regulated learning (SRL) processes. We hypothesized
that by recalibrating metacognitive monitoring, regular practice testing can trigger efficient
SRL processes and, in turn, foster learning. To test this hypothesis, we exposed first-year
undergraduates to a complex neurology module. Participants were randomly assigned to either
the practice testing group or a control group. The testing group underwent multiple practice
tests during the neurology module, whereas the control group only underwent the multiple
practice tests after the course. To assess the impact of practice testing on SRL processes, we
combined a think aloud protocol with a metacognitive monitoring self-report measure. Results
showed that, compared with controls, participants in the practice testing group were signifi-
cantly less overconfident in their ability to recall recently learned information and performed
better on a posttest questionnaire. Furthermore, mediation analyses confirmed that enhanced
learning performance was explained by the use of efficient SRL processes. Therefore, these
results allow us to extend the testing effect to SRL, and empirically underscore the central role
of monitoring in SRL. Contributions to the fields of practice testing and SRL are discussed.
Keywords Self-regulated learning .Metacognition .Monitoring .Tes ti ng e ff ec t .Think aloud
protocol
Introduction
Mastering the complex scientific knowledge dispensed in high school or university courses
can prove challenging for some students (e.g., Azevedo 2005; Azevedo 2014;Greeneetal.
Metacognition Learning (2017) 12:131–156
DOI 10.1007/s11409-016-9163-9
*Jonathan Fernandez
jonathan.fernandez@uhb.fr
1
CRPCC, University of Rennes-II Haute Bretagne, 1 Place du Recteur Henri-Le-Moal, 35043 Rennes
Cedex, France
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
... (e.g., Wissman et al., 2011), and to our knowledge, few studies have investigated the effects of quizzes on multimedia content such as illustrated documents (e.g., Fernandez & Jamet, 2016;Johnson & Mayer, 2009). Moreover, interindividual differences in cognitive abilities can modulate the benefits of quizzes (e.g., Agarwal et al., 2017). ...
... In particular, when testing provides corrective feedback about performance (by describing whether or not the result is correct and outlining the correct response; Panadero & Lipnevich, 2022), it can improve learners' metacognitive awareness of their own learning. According to the theoretical framework of testing, this strategy can support SRL by serving as a resource for recalibrating monitoring, which should improve control (Fernandez & Jamet, 2016;Karpicke, 2009). ...
... Several studies have shown that quizzing can enhance the accuracy of learners' judgements of their own learning, regarded as an indicator of monitoring (Azevedo et al., 2010). For example, research has shown that when quizzes are provided, there is a smaller discrepancy between learners' actual and estimated learning performances (i.e., better calibration), for both text-only materials (e.g., Händel et al., 2020) and illustrated documents (e.g., Fernandez & Jamet, 2016). Practice tests give students experience in retrieval success and failure, which provides them with feedback on the possible gap between their cognitive state and the task demands set by the practice test (Miller & Geraci, 2016;Yang et al., 2017), increasing the probability of triggering learning regulation (Dunlosky & Ariel, 2011). ...
The effects of embedded quizzes on self‐regulated processes and learning performance during a multimedia lesson
Article
Full-text available
Background Previous research has demonstrated that quizzing can improve self‐regulation processes and learning performances. However, it remains unclear whether quizzes in multimedia material bring similar benefits, and whether interindividual differences such as working memory capacity (WMC) modulate quizzing effects. Aims This study aimed to examine the effects of embedded quizzes (multiple quizzes within the learning sequence) with feedback during a multimedia learning sequence on self‐regulated processing (monitoring and control) and learning performances on repeated (material already tested) and new (untested) questions, and possible WMC moderation on performances. Sample and Methods Participants were 59 students who learned a multimedia neuroscience course module in either a no‐quiz or embedded quizzes condition. With regard to self‐regulated processing, control was assessed with eye‐tracking measures (fixation durations and transitions between texts and illustrations), and monitoring by comparing self‐reported judgements of learning with actual performances (calibration). At the end, students' WMC was measured, and learning performances were assessed with repeated and new questions. Results Quizzing improved learning performances on repeated and new questions, and enhanced monitoring (better calibration). Students with low WMC benefited more from quizzing for new questions than those with high WMC. However, contrary to our hypothesis, the embedded quizzes group allocated less time to the learning than the no‐quiz group. Conclusions Embedded quizzes are relevant tools to help students recalibrate their monitoring process and foster more effective self‐regulated learning. Results confirm that the use of quizzes can be recommended to improve the learning of multimedia material, especially among students with low WMC.
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... Beyond the scientific literature on writing, research on self-regulated learning has regularly shown that when students perform educational tasks on their own, they often implement unsuitable strategies, partly because they tend to be overconfident (Bjork et al., 2013;Dunlosky & Rawson, 2012;Fernandez & Jamet, 2017;Greene & Azevedo, 2009;Panadero et al., 2017). Overconfidence arising from inaccurate monitoring prevents students from using effective strategies and from spending sufficient time on the task. ...
... Many studies have tested the efficacy of different tools for recalibrating students' monitoring process, generally by offering students feedback on their learning, or by encouraging them to use metacognitive strategies to help them self-generate feedback (e.g., Fernandez & Jamet, 2017;Schleinschok et al., 2017). These investigations have shown that recalibrating monitoring accuracy by giving students feedback on the quality of their learning has a beneficial effect on students' task engagement, resulting in substantial improvements in their memory and their comprehension of the concepts to be learned. ...
... As part of the SRSD intervention, students were taught explicitly about writing goals and strategies for assessing whether these goals have been achieved. Based on the metacognition literature (e.g., Fernandez & Jamet, 2017), we predicted that by clarifying expectations and providing feedback on written production, the SRSD intervention would help students produce more accurate monitoring judgments than students who received regular writing instruction (Hypothesis 2). The present study's results revealed that compared with students in the BAU group, students in the SRSD group estimated the quality of their text more precisely. ...
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Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) is a method designed to explicitly teach students self-regulation skills and help them implement them. While SRSD’s beneficial effect on writing quality has been confirmed in a large body of literature, the questions of why, how, and for whom SRSD works remain unclear. To investigate the underlying cognitive and metacognitive mechanisms, and identify the factors that potentially moderate SRSD’s effectiveness, we compared fourth- and fifth-graders who either received regular writing instruction or underwent an SRSD intervention in a quasi-experimental setting. Students’ abilities to plan, write quality texts, and self-evaluate were measured. Factors that have been demonstrated to be related to writing abilities were assessed to study whether they might facilitate or hinder acquisition of strategies taught in the SRSD intervention. The results indicated that compared with students who received regular writing instruction, students who underwent the SRSD intervention produced higher-quality texts and evaluated their texts’ quality more accurately, despite persistent overestimation. Mediation analyses indicated that progress in producing high-quality texts was explained by improvements in students’ planning skills, enabling them to write stories that were better-structured and contained more ideas. However, the results also indicated that some students under the SRSD condition struggled to implement the planning strategies they were taught, particularly students with poor working memory. Recommendations for optimizing the SRSD intervention’s effectiveness in developing all students’ writing skills are discussed.
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... Prior research suggests that formative assessments have a positive effect on self-regulated study time allocation and monitoring (Clariana & Park, 2021;Fernandez & Jamet, 2017;Perry & Winne, 2006;Soderstrom & Bjork, 2014;Yang et al., 2017). Engagement in solving exercises enhanced students' monitoring of their knowledge, leading to a reduction in the overestimation of their knowledge and an increase in time allocated for studying (Soderstrom & Bjork, 2014). ...
... Engagement in solving exercises enhanced students' monitoring of their knowledge, leading to a reduction in the overestimation of their knowledge and an increase in time allocated for studying (Soderstrom & Bjork, 2014). The positive impact of exercise solving on learning success was partially mediated by improved monitoring and learning behavior (Fernandez & Jamet, 2017). This is because additional formative assessments can provide feedback on learning status, aiding learners in metacognitive control, and adapting their self-regulated learning behavior (Clariana & Park, 2021;Perry & Winne, 2006). ...
... Given that each formative assessment introduced new material, solvers' enhanced performance can only be attributed to an indirect testing effect, since apart from the additional formative assessments, all other conditions were identical for both groups. The indirect testing effect occurs when testing not only enhances performance on the tested material but also on new, related material (Fernandez & Jamet, 2017;Szpunar et al., 2008;Wissman et al., 2011). Consequently, the additional formative assessments impacted the solvers' self-regulated learning behavior with this new content. ...
Differential Effects of Additional Formative Assessments on Student Learning Behaviors and Outcomes
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  • Apr 2024
It is well-established that formative assessments with accompanying feedback can enhance learning. However, the degree to which additional formative assessments on the same material further improve learning outcomes remains an open research question. Moreover, it is unclear whether providing additional formative assessments impacts self-regulated learning behavior, and if the benefits of such assessments depend on students' self-regulated learning behavior. The current study, conducted in a real-world blended learning setting and using a Learning Analytics approach, compares 154 students who completed additional formative assessments with 154 students who did not. The results indicate that the additional formative assessments led to an improvement in learning outcomes, but also had both positive and negative effects on students' self-regulated learning behavior. Students who completed additional formative assessments performed better on the assessments but reported lower levels of subjective comprehension and devoted more time to completing exercises. Simultaneously, they devoted less effort to additional learning activities (additional investment), such as class preparation and post-processing. Furthermore, the impact of additional formative assessments on learning success depended on students' self-regulated learning behavior. It was primarily the students who invested above-average time during formative assessments (time investment) who benefited from the additional exercises. Cluster analysis revealed that high-effort students (those with above-average time investment and above-average additional investment) gained the most from the extra exercises. In contrast, low-effort students and those who achieved high performance with relatively low effort (efficient students) did not benefit from additional formative assessments. In conclusion, providing students with additional formative assessments can enhance learning, but it should be done with caution as it can alter self-regulated learning behavior in both positive and negative ways, and not all students may benefit from it equally.
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... This act of retrieval does two things, the first is to reinforce the memory for that information, which will make it more likely to be retained over time. Second, it is an effective monitoring process for an individual's learning level (Fernandez & Jamet, 2017). This was mentioned briefly in the introduction when an individual's metacognitive assessment of their own learning was described. ...
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... HE teachers' conceptions of the formative use of assessment to foster SRL have an influence on their classroom assessment practices (Barnes et al., 2017;Brown et al., 2019;Opre, 2015). In turn, teachers' assessment practices can have a major influence on student learning and on the regulation of this learning process (Becker et al., 1968;Boekaerts & Corno, 2005;Broekkamp & Van Hout-Wolters, 2007;Fernandez & Jamet, 2017;Greene, 2020;Norman et al., 2010;Nugent et al., 2019;Van der Linden et al., 2021). The probability for such a rich environment most conducive for developing SRL is high where teachers are cognizant of the need to create the necessary classroom assessment practices. ...
Formative Use of Assessment to Foster Self-Regulated Learning: the Alignment of Teachers’ Conceptions and Classroom Assessment Practices
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This study investigates the pivotal role of self-regulated learning in higher education and explores to what extent teachers’ conceptions of formative assessment influence the development of students’ self-regulated learning skills. Despite the recognised significance of self-regulated learning, many students in higher education lack effective self-regulation strategies. Therefore, the teachers’ role is paramount. We investigated teachers’ beliefs and practices concerning assessment and the influence on self-regulated learning development through qualitative interviews with 16 teachers from different programmes. Findings reveal that teachers, influenced by their conceptions, strive to provide feedback primarily at the task and process levels, not adequately addressing the self-regulation level. While teachers acknowledge the importance of fostering self-regulated learning when inquired, their classroom practices lack a focus on the self-regulation level, often assuming students acquired the necessary skills from previous education. The study underscores a misalignment between teachers’ recognition of the importance of self-regulation learning and their actual practices. Recommendations emphasise the necessity of raising awareness among teachers about the important role of feedback in enhancing students’ self-regulation, addressing the current gap in educational support. Future research should explore how to bridge this awareness-practice gap and create an environment conducive to the development of self-regulated learning.
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Comparing Embedded and End-of-Session Formative Quizzes: Implications for Engagement and Self-Regulated Learning in Psychology Classrooms
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