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236 American Family Physician www.aafp.org/afp Volume 94, Number 3
◆
August 1, 2016
Premenstrual disorders affect up to 12% of women. The subspecialties of psychiatry and gynecology have developed
overlapping but distinct diagnoses that qualify as a premenstrual disorder; these include premenstrual syndrome
and premenstrual dysphoric disorder. These conditions encompass psychological and physical symptoms that cause
significant impairment during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, but resolve shortly after menstruation. Patient-
directed prospective recording of symptoms is helpful to establish the cyclical nature of symptoms that differen-
tiate premenstrual syndrome and premenstrual dysphoric disorder from other psychiatric and physical disorders.
Physicians should tailor therapy to achieve the greatest functional improvement possible for their patients. Select
serotonergic antidepressants are first-line treatments. They can be used continuously or only during the luteal phase.
Oral contraceptives and calcium supplements may also be used. There is insufficient evidence to recommend treat-
ment with vitamin D, herbal remedies, or acupuncture, but there are data to suggest benefit from cognitive behavior
therapy. (Am Fam Physician. 2016;94(3):236-240. Copyright © 2016 American Academy of Family Physicians.)
Premenstrual Syndrome and Premenstrual
Dysphoric Disorder
SABRINA HOFMEISTER, DO, and SETH BODDEN, MD, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
P
remenstrual disorders consist of
psychiatric or somatic symptoms
that develop within the luteal phase
of the menstrual cycle, affect the
patient’s normal daily functioning, and
resolve shortly after menstruation. The luteal
phase begins after ovulation and ends with
the start of menstruation. The subspecialties
of psychiatry and gynecology have developed
overlapping but distinct diagnoses that qual-
ify as a premenstrual disorder.1 The American
Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists
(ACOG) includes psychiatric and physi-
cal symptoms in describing premenstrual
syndrome (PMS; Ta b l e 1).2 The American
Psychiatric Association (APA) focuses pre-
dominantly on psychiatric symptoms in its
diagnostic criteria for premenstrual dys-
phoric disorder (PMDD; Ta ble 2).3 Symptoms
can occur anytime between menarche and
menopause. The burden of disease can be
high; women with PMS have higher rates of
work absences, higher medical expenses, and
lower health-related quality of life.4
Epidemiology
About 80% of women report at least one
physical or psychiatric symptom during the
luteal phase of their menstrual cycle; how-
ever, most do not report significant impair-
ment in their daily life.5 In a study of 2,800
French women, about 12% met the diagnos-
tic criteria for PMS, and 4% reported severe
symptoms.6 The prevalence of PMS is not
associated with age, educational achieve-
ment, or employment status.6 Symptom
persistence and severity tend to fluctuate.
One study found that only 36% of women
who were diagnosed with PMS continued to
meet the diagnostic criteria one year later.6
Women who gained weight or had a stressful
event in the past year are more likely to be
diagnosed with PMS.6 Fewer patients meet
the more rigorous diagnostic criteria for
PMDD; its prevalence is 1.3% to 5.3%.5
Etiology
There is a poor understanding of the etiology
of premenstrual disorders. Several studies
suggest that cyclical changes in estrogen and
progesterone levels trigger the symptoms.7-9
Postmenopausal women who had previ-
ously been diagnosed with PMS had recur-
rent psychiatric and physical symptoms
when they received cyclical progestogen
therapy.7 Furthermore, the suppression of
estrogen with gonadotropin-releasing hor-
mone analogues has been shown to signifi-
cantly improve PMS symptoms.8 Changes
in mood may be attributable to the effect
estrogen and progesterone have on the sero-
tonin, γ-aminobutyric acid, and dopamine
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Author disclosure: No rel-
evant financial affiliations.
▲
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Volume 94, Number 3 www.aafp.org/afp American Family Physician 237
systems.9 These can also alter the renin-angiotensin-
aldosterone system, which could explain some of the
bloating and swelling t hat occur during the luteal phase.9
Sex hormone levels alone cannot fully explain premen-
strual disorders. Studies show that women diagnosed
with a premenstrual disorder do not have higher levels
of estrogen or progesterone than the general population,
and accepted explanations as to why some women could
be more sensitive to fluctuations in these sex
hormones are lacking.6 Monozygotic twin
studies suggest a possible genetic compo-
nent to premenstrual disorders; however, no
genes have been identified.10
Diagnosis
Establishing the timing of symptoms is
essential when evaluating for PMS and
PMDD. Symptoms must occur during the
luteal phase and resolve shortly after the
onset of menstruation. Other conditions,
such as depression or anxiety, may worsen
during the luteal phase, but these can be dis-
tinguished from PMS because they persist
throughout the menstrual cycle. Migraines,
anemia, endometriosis, and hypothyroidism
may produce symptoms similar to PMS or PMDD and
should also be considered. Diagnostic laboratory testing
or imaging should be directed at ruling out alternative
medical diagnoses.
ACOG has defined PMS as a condition in which a
woman experiences at least one affective symptom and
one somatic symptom that cause dysfunction in social,
academic, or work performance. These symptoms must
be cyclical, beginning after ovulation and resolving
shortly after the onset of menstruation (Tabl e 1) .2 To
meet the diagnostic criteria for PMDD, a patient must
have at least five of the symptoms listed in Table 2 in the
week before menses, and these symptoms must improve
within a few days after the onset of menses.3
Prospective questionnaires are the most accurate way
to diagnose PMS and PMDD because patients greatly
overestimate the cyclical nature of symptoms, when in
fact they are erratic or simply exacerbated during their
luteal phase.2 ,3 ,11 The Daily Record of Severity of Prob-
lems (DRSP) is a valid and reliable tool that can be used
to diagnose PMS or PMDD12 (eTable A). It is a daily log of
symptoms that correlate with the diagnostic criteria for
PMS and PMDD. Patients rate their symptoms through
at least two menstrual cycles, which requires a significant
investment of time and effort. Administering the DRSP
on the first day of menses may be an acceptable way to
screen for premenstrual disorders. A cutoff value of 50
provides a positive predictive value of 63.4% and a nega-
tive predictive value of 90%.13
Treatment
Treatment of PMS and PMDD focuses on relieving phys-
ical and psychiatric symptoms. Many of the medica-
tions used address the body’s hormonal activity through
SORT: KEY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE
Clinical recommendation
Evidence
rating References
The Daily Record of Severity of Problems is a
useful tool to help diagnose PMS and PMDD.
C12
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors may
be used as first-line treatment for severe
symptoms of PMS and PMDD.
A14
Oral contraceptives are effective for treatment
of PMS and PMDD.
A17-19
Calcium supplementation of 1,000 to 1,200 mg
per day may improve PMS symptoms.
B20, 21
Cognitive behavior therapy may improve PMS
and PMDD symptoms.
B29
PMDD = premenstrual dysphoric disorder; PMS = premenstrual syndrome.
A = consistent, good-quality patient-oriented evidence; B = inconsistent or limited-
quality patient- oriented evidence; C = consensus, disease-oriented evidence, usual
practice, expert opinion, or case series. For information about the SORT evide nce
rating system, go to http://w ww.aafp.org /afpsor t.
Table 1. Diagnostic Criteria for Premenstrual
Syndrome
Premenstrual syndrome can be diagnosed if the patient
reports at least one of the following affective and somatic
symptoms during the five days before menses in each of
the three previous menstrual cycles*
Affective symptoms
Angry outbursts
Anxiety
Confusion
Depression
Irritability
Social withdrawal
Somatic symptoms
Abdominal bloating
Breast tenderness or swelling
Headache
Joint or muscle pain
Swelling of extremities
Weight gain
*—These symptoms must be relieved within four days of the onset
of menses, without recurrence until at least day 13 of the cycle, and
must be present in the absence of any pharmacologic therapy, hor-
mone ingestion, or drug or alcohol use. The symptoms must occur
reproducibly during two cycles of prospective recording. The patient
must exhibit identifiable dysfunction in social, academic, or work
performance.
Adapted with permission from American College of Obstetricians
and Gynecologists. Guidelines for Women’s Health Care: A Resource
Manual. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American College of Obstetricians
and Gynecologists; 2014:608.
PMS and PMDD
PMS and PMDD
238 American Family Physician www.aafp.org/afp Volume 94, Number 3
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August 1, 2016
suppression of ovulation, whereas others affect the
concentration of neurotransmitters such as serotonin,
norepinephrine, or dopamine in the brain. A third
group of complementary or alternative agents with vary-
ing mechanisms of action are also used. In the United
States, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
are approved for primary treatment. Although SSRIs are
considered psychiatric medications, when used to treat
premenstrual disorders they improve physical and psy-
chiatric symptoms in most patients.14 Physicians should
tailor therapy based on patient tolerance and response to
each medication.
PHARMACOLOGIC TREATMENTS
Serotonergic Antidepressants. SSRIs are first-line treat-
ment for severe symptoms of PMS and PMDD. Sertraline
(Zoloft), paroxetine (Paxil), fluoxetine (Prozac), citalo-
pram (Celexa), and escitalopram (Lexapro) can be used
to treat the psychiatric symptoms of PMS and PMDD and
have been shown to relieve some of the physical symp-
toms.14 A 2013 Cochrane review analyzed 31 randomized
controlled trials that compared SSRIs with placebo for
symptom relief of PMS.14 Each of the five SSRIs studied
had statistically significant benefits on pat ient-reported
symptoms when taken continuously or only during the
luteal phase, but more direct studies comparing luteal
phase administration with continuous administration
are needed.14 Adverse effects include nausea, asthenia,
fatigue, and sexual dysfunction.14 All SSRI doses seemed
to be effective for psychiatric symptoms, and ultimately
could be titrated to the patient’s tolerability.14 Higher
doses are needed for relief of physical symptoms. Bupro-
pion (Wellbutrin) was not effective for symptom relief of
PMS or PMDD.14
Serotonin-Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRIs).
SNRIs such as venlafaxine have been used off-label to
treat PMDD in women with predominantly psycho-
logical symptoms.15 The effect is achieved over a rela-
tively short period, three to four weeks, and sustained
throughout subsequent menstrual cycles.15
Quetiapine (Seroquel). This antipsychotic has been
studied as an adjunctive treatment with an SSRI or
SNRI in patients with PMS or PMDD. The goal was
to improve luteal phase mood in women who did not
respond to SSRI or SNRI therapy alone.16 In a small
study, 20 women were started on 25 mg of quetiapine
Table 2. Diagnostic Criteria for Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder
A. In the majority of menstrual cycles, at least five symptoms must be present in the final week before the onset of menses, start
to improve within a few days after the onset of menses, and become minimal or absent in the week postmenses.
B. One (or more) of the following symptoms must be present:
1. Marked affective lability (e.g., mood swings; feeling suddenly sad or tearful, or increased sensitivity to rejection).
2. Marked irritabilit y or anger or increased interpersonal conflicts.
3. Marked depressed mood, feelings of hopelessness, or self-deprecating thoughts.
4. Marked anxiety, tension, and/or feelings of being keyed up or on edge.
C. One (or more) of the following symptoms must additionally be present, to reach a total of five symptoms when combined with
symptoms from Criterion B above.
1. Decreased interest in usual activities (e.g., work, school, friends, hobbies).
2. Subjective difficulty in concentration.
3. Lethargy, easy fatigabilit y, or marked lack of energy.
4. Marked change in appetite; overeating; or specific food cravings.
5. Hypersomnia or insomnia.
6. A sense of being over whelmed or out of control.
7. Physical symptoms such as breast tenderness or swelling, joint or muscle pain, a sensation of “bloating,” or weight gain.
NOTE: The symptoms in Criteria A– C must have been met for most menstrual cycles that occurred in the prece ding year.
D. The symptoms are associated with clinically significant distress or interference with work, school, usual social activities, or
relationships with others (e.g., avoidance of social activities; decreased productivity and efficiency at work, school, or home).
E. The disturbance is not merely an exacerbation of the symptoms of another disorder, such as major depressive disorder, panic
disorder, persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia), or a personality disorder (although it may co-occur with any of these
disorders).
F. Criterion A should be confirmed by prospective daily ratings during at least two symptomatic cycles. (note: The diagnosis may
be made provisionally before this confirmation.)
G. The symptoms are not attributable to the physiologic effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication, other
treatment) or another medical condition (e.g., hyperthyroidism).
Reprinted with permission from the American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed. Washington, DC:
American Psychiatric Association; 2013:171-172 .
August 1, 2016
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Volume 94, Number 3 www.aafp.org/afp American Family Physician 239
PMS and PMDD
and followed for three menstrual cycles.16 Luteal phase
mood lability, anxiety, and irritability were reduced in
the quetiapine group.16
Oral Contraceptives. Studies have suggested that oral
contraceptives provide benefit when treating physical
and psychiatric symptoms of PMS or PMDD. Research-
ers analyzed four moderate-quality trials of continuous
oral contraceptive use (90 mcg levonorgestrel/20 mcg
ethinyl estradiol) in women who tracked their symp-
toms on the DRSP.17 Although results were somewhat
inconsistent, an improvement in depressive and physical
symptoms (from 30% to 59%) was identified. A higher
placebo response occurred in women with PMDD, which
suggests that a greater improvement occurred in women
with predominantly psychiatric, placebo-responsive
symptoms at baseline.17, 18 A separate PMDD trial found
that continuous treatment for 112 days resulted in the
most improvement in DRSP scores.18
A 2012 Cochrane review of oral contraceptives con-
taining drospirenone evaluated five trials with 1,920
women.19 High drop-out rates were noted in all but one
trial. Results showed that the drospirenone combina-
tion pill reduced impairments in productivity and social
functioning in women with PMDD, but there was insuf-
ficient evidence of benefit for those with PMS.19 Oral
contraceptives with and without drospirenone seem to
be effective at relieving abdominal bloating, mastalgia,
headache, weight gain, and swelling of extremities. Trials
that extend beyond three months are needed for further
analysis.19
Other Medications. Calcium supplementation has been
evaluated as treatment for PMS. Women with PMS and
mood instability have been noted to have associated
cyclic changes in their calcium levels; the exact mecha-
nism of action is unknown.20 A randomized controlled
trial of 179 Tehran University students who met criteria
for PMS without another psychiatric diagnosis found a
50% reduction in depression, appetite, and fatigue in
women who received 500 mg of supplemental calcium
carbonate twice daily for three months.21 This result
was also demonstrated in a U.S. study of more than 400
women who supplemented with 1,200 mg of calcium
ca r bonat e dai l y.20
Vitamin D supplementation for treatment of PMS
and PMDD symptoms was reviewed in a cross-sectional
analysis of a large study.22 The cross-section analyzed was
too small to make strong conclusions about the benefit of
vita min D.22 A separate study followed 401 women for
16 years and compared those who developed PMS with
those who did not.23 The analysis concluded that low
vitamin D levels were not associated with an increased
risk of PMS.23 Further studies are needed to support the
use of vitamin D as a treatment for symptoms of PMS
and PMDD. Vitamin B6 at a dosage of 80 mg per day has
also been studied and recommended as treatment for
primarily psychological symptoms of PMS, but these
studies are small and more data is needed to recommend
it as first-line treatment.24
Guidelines from the International Society of Premen-
strual Disorders addressed gonadotropin-releasing hor-
mone agonists as potential treatment of PMS and PMDD
by eliminating luteal phase symptoms.25 Although these
medications have been used since the 1980s and are
effective, they are not practical for long-term use because
of the increased cardiovascular and osteoporosis risks
associated with extended use.25 Long-term users often
need hormone add-back therapy to counteract many of
their hypoestrogenic effects, which may cause a return of
PMS symptoms.26
COMPLEMENTARY AND NONPHARMACOLOGIC
TREAT MENTS
Herbal Preparations and Acupuncture. Many small,
poorly conducted studies have reviewed the effectiveness
of Chinese herbal supplements and acupuncture in the
treatment of premenstrual symptoms.27 This evidence is
too limited and study quality is too poor to suggest ben-
efit.27 A 2010 Cochrane review of Chinese herbal supple-
ments for PMS also did not find evidence that was strong
enough to support their use.28 The studies evaluated use
of saffron, St. John’s wort, ginkgo, vitex agnus-castus,
peppermint, angelica root, dragon’s teeth, turmeric, tan-
gerine leaf, and bitter orange, among others.27, 28 Larger,
more extensive trials are needed to support the use of
these agents as first-line treatment.
Cognitive Behavior Therapy. A 2009 meta-analysis ana-
lyzed seven trials, three of which were randomized con-
trolled trials, and showed improvement in functioning
and depression scores for patients with PMS or PMDD.29
The frequency and duration of therapy were not defined.
However, the results suggest that mindfulness-based
WHAT IS NEW ON THIS TOPIC: PREMENSTRUAL
SYNDROME AND PREMENSTRUAL DYSPHORIC
DISORDER
Prospective questionnaires are the most accurate way
to diagnose premenstrual syndrome and premenstrual
dysphoric disorder because patients have been found
to greatly overestimate the cyclical nature of symptoms,
when realistically, they are erratic or simply exacerbated
during the luteal cycle.
240 American Family Physician www.aafp.org/afp Volume 94, Number 3
◆
August 1, 2016
PMS and PMDD
exercises and acceptance-based cognitive behavior
therapy may be helpful for reducing symptoms. Further
studies are needed to support the use of cognitive behav-
ior therapy as first-line therapy.
Data Sources: Research was conducted in the PubMed and Cochrane
databases using the terms PMS and PMDD, PMS and PMDD treatment,
and PMS and PMDD definition. We also used articles located in an Essen-
tial Evidence Plus report on the topic premenstrual dysphoric disorder,
topic 248. External sources such as the
Diagnostic and Statistical Man-
ual of Mental Disorders,
5th ed., and publications from the American
Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists were accessed separately
and directly through our institutional licensing agreement at the Medical
College of Wisconsin. Search date: August 1, 2015.
This review updates a previous article on this topic by Biggs and Demuth.30
The Authors
SABRINA HOFMEISTER, DO, is an assistant professor in the Department
of Family and Community Medicine at the Medical College of Wisconsin,
Milwaukee.
SETH BODDEN, MD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Family
and Communit y Medicine at the Medical College of Wisconsin.
Address correspondence to Sabrina Hofmeister, DO, Medical Col-
lege of Wisconsin, 1121 E. North Ave., Milwaukee, WI 53212 (e-mail:
shofmeister@mcw.edu). Reprints are not available from the authors.
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