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Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence, theory, and practice
... reading research and theory: (a) the alphabetic principle (Liberman et al., 1989), (b) the Simple View of Reading (Gough & Tunmer, 1986), (c) the four-part processing model (Moats & Tolman, 2009), (d) functional magnetic resonance images (fMRI) of the brain during reading (Fletcher et al., 2018), (e) the Reading Rope (Scarborough, 2001), and (f) reading and spelling development (Ehri, 2005) to strongly advocate for reform. ...
... Four broad clusters of evidence-based components identified in the review of reviews create the SOR for MLs-oral language, PA, decoding and oral reading fluency, and comprehension. Specific evidence-based components within each of the four broad clusters were identified, and overall, these components were consistent with and are included in the Simple View of Reading (SVR; Gough & Tunmer, 1986) and the Reading Rope (Scarborough, 2001) as shown in Figure S3 (online only; identified SOR components for MLs are listed on the right). However, the current review of reviews provides unique and important insight related to the importance of L1 for Spanish-speaking and Chinese-speaking MLs' reading; that is, while the SVR and the Reading Rope represent the key components in proficient reading, there is not explicit mention or description of how MLs' L1 impacts reading in L2 in these two influential theoretical models. ...
... Our review of reviews found that there were several L1 components related to MLs' English reading comprehension (i.e., Spanish vocabulary, Spanish and Chinese decoding, Spanish reading comprehension, and Spanish reading strategies). Here our results diverge from the SVR (Gough & Tunmer, 1986) and Reading Rope (Scarborough, 2001). Although we identified the same key components included in the SVR and Reading Rope, in many cases, the evidence-based components were L1 components rather than English components. ...
The science of reading (SOR) refers to the sum of what we know about how people learn to read based on empirical studies across multiple disciplines. The purpose of this review was to identify research evidence to inform the SOR for multilingual learners (MLs). We reviewed 30 systematic reviews related to reading and reading instruction for MLs conducted primarily in K-5 U.S. classrooms. Results identified four broad clusters of components related to English reading comprehension as well as instructional practices and programs effective in addressing each component. Clusters included oral language, phonological awareness, decoding and oral reading fluency, and reading comprehension. Notably, oral language and reading skills in both MLs’ first language and in English were essential components of the SOR for MLs. Implications for theory and research as well as policy, curriculum, and instruction are provided.
... Teaching about evidence-based literacy practices may be organized by using a reading framework. Scarborough's Reading Rope offers a theoretical framework from which to provide active learning opportunities to shape graduate student perspectives related to literacy (Scarborough, 2001). The Reading Rope represents interwoven components integral to becoming a competent reader as it relates to language comprehension (background knowledge, vocabulary, morpho-syntactic structures, verbal reasoning, and literacy knowledge) and word recognition [phonological awareness, decoding, and sight recognition] (Scarborough, 2001). ...
... Scarborough's Reading Rope offers a theoretical framework from which to provide active learning opportunities to shape graduate student perspectives related to literacy (Scarborough, 2001). The Reading Rope represents interwoven components integral to becoming a competent reader as it relates to language comprehension (background knowledge, vocabulary, morpho-syntactic structures, verbal reasoning, and literacy knowledge) and word recognition [phonological awareness, decoding, and sight recognition] (Scarborough, 2001). In discussions framed by the Reading Rope, the importance of explicitly supporting children learning phonics (the concept that letters [graphemes] represent spoken sounds [phonemes]), phonological awareness (a child's ability to understand broad concepts about how sounds comprise words), and phonemic awareness (the ability to identify and manipulate the sounds heard in words) naturally follow (Gillon, 2005). ...
... Scarborough's Reading Rope (Scarborough, 2001) is an example of a framework that aligns with decades of research referred to as the science of reading (SOR), which suggests that children need more than exposure to books and literacy rich environments to learn to read. Providing preservice SLPs with opportunities to engage with content that support this idea may be important to shaping student perspectives. ...
... Simply, it can be described as the product of the ability to recognize or decode words and to comprehend language (Hoover & Gough, 1990). In this review, we define word reading skills as subskills that comprise word recognition ability (e.g., Scarborough, 2001). These subskills-phonological awareness, knowledge of the alphabetic principle (or sound-symbol knowledge) decoding and sight word recognition have been consistently found to be among the strongest and most accurate predictors of reading ability for young children (e.g., Catts et al., 2005;Ehri, 1998;Hogan et al., 2005). ...
... Decoding is the ability to integrate these two former skills together. First, to recognize letter-sound correspondences (e.g., the letter ''c'' in cat makes the /k/ sound) and then to use the phonological awareness skill of blending phonemes together to sound out words (e.g., blending the sounds /k/ /a/ /t/ makes the word ''cat''; Scarborough, 2001). ...
Dynamic assessments (DAs) of word reading skills demonstrate strong criterion reference validity with word reading measures (WRMs). However, DAs vary in the skills they assess, their format and administration method, and the type of words and symbols used in test items. These characteristics may have implications on assessment validity. To compare validity of DAs of word reading skills on these factors of interest, a systematic review of five databases and the gray literature was conducted. We identified 35 studies that met the inclusion criteria of evaluating participants aged 4 to 10, using a DA of word reading skills and reporting a Pearson’s correlation coefficient as an effect size. A random effects meta-analysis with robust variance estimation and subgroup analyses by DA characteristics was conducted. There were no significant differences in mean effect size based on administration method (computer vs. in-person) or symbol type (familiar vs. novel). However, DAs that evaluate phonological awareness or decoding (vs. sound-symbol knowledge), those that use a graduated prompt format (vs. test-teach-retest), and DAs that use nonwords (vs. real words) demonstrated significantly stronger correlations with WRMs. These results inform selection of DAs in clinical and research settings, and development of novel, valid DAs of word reading skills.
... Psychological research strongly suggests that decoding is the foundation for reading comprehension and must be mastered in the initial years of reading instruction… Our data show that instructional efforts in LMICs are failing to equip pupils with the most basic decoding skills necessary for individual word reading, thus undermining any instructional time spent on higherlevel text comprehension." (Crawford et al 2024:6-7) The science of reading provides an evidence-based approach to literacy based on development of word recognition skills plus language comprehension, the two skill areas that together determine a student's reading comprehension ability as shown in Figure 1 (Farrell et al. 2022, Murray 2016, Scarborough 2001. Both these skill sets are essential to developing the English language capability needed in and especially beyond primary grades especially for students in low and middle-income countries (Crawford et al 2024). ...
... Language competencies are developed through the application of skills, combined with language knowledge and an individual's own ability. In the case of literacy, these skills are word recognition skills and language comprehension as shown in Figure 2. The "Reading Rope" model (Scarborough in 2001) illustrates the relationship between literacy skills and the competency goal of being a skilled reader, which in turn lays the foundation for writing skills. ...
This report examines the state of English literacy instruction in Sri Lankan primary schools, and proposes a comprehensive plan to re-align with the science of reading. The report highlights the shortcomings of the current curriculum, which prioritises communicative competencies over foundational literacy skills. The author argues that this results in poor literacy outcomes, leading to a reliance on remedial interventions in later years. The report recommends a shift towards a more evidence-based approach grounded in the "science of reading", which emphasises systematic and explicit phonics instruction. The report details how this approach can be implemented through policy changes, curriculum revisions, and teacher training, using the author's own Lotus Literacy program as an example. The report ultimately calls for a fundamental transformation of English language learning in Sri Lanka, aiming to improve literacy skills and ultimately enhance student success in education and employment.
... Linguistic comprehension is further broken down into understanding vocabulary, syntax, and semantics. Scarborough's (2001) 'Reading Rope' (see Figure 1) gives a visual break down of the model. ...
... The reading rope. Source:Scarborough (2001). ...
Achieving proficiency in reading Latin is the stated aim of nearly every Latin course the world over. However, very little research has been devoted to how beginner students attempt to process Latin when it is placed in front of them for the first time. This paper aims to fill this gap, based on a study of students still relatively close to the start of their Latin journeys. I found that they tend to read Latin sentences in their original order, breaking them down into individual lexical items, and trying to discern their meaning by looking for similarities with words they already know. They will usually skip over words they do not recognise, returning to them later. This suggests that, as they become more familiar with Latin vocabulary and grammar, and so long as they are not taught to read in a different order, they will continue to read Latin in the order it is written. There is, however, a perception among many of the students that grammar is difficult, and so they tend to overly rely on context and common sense instead. Going forward, I would try to ensure my students become more confident with their grammar, as context can sometimes lead them astray. However, it is clear that, rather than just giving them tables and lists to learn, they need as much exposure to the grammatical forms ‘in the wild’ as possible, to promote ease of recognition.
... Decoding skills of the ML students continued to fall within the normal range throughout the data collection period, however, starting in third grade when complex written language was more prominent, reading comprehension skills began to fall below expectations for the Hispanic group (see also Biemiller, 2003;Lindsey et al., 2003;Proctor et al., 2005). According to several reading models (Duke & Cartwright, 2021;Gough & Tunmer, 1986;Scarborough, 2001), when a student is struggling to understand what they are reading, and word recognition is not a major problem, then more than likely factors related to language comprehension need to be addressed. This focus on language should take place as early as possible, even prior to formal reading instruction. ...
... Although schools are deeply invested in enhancing their decoding instruction, it is not the only literacy skill that warrants more attention. There is considerable research evidence suggesting that language plays a pivotal role in reading comprehension and academic success (Benson, 2009;Greenhalgh & Strong, 2001;Westby, 1985), and the extent to which language is inextricably connected to reading comprehension is well understood (Gough & Tunmer, 1986;Scarborough, 2001). Yet, with the exception of incidental exposure and dialogic, shared storybook reading, attention to language using an explicit, systematic approach in the core curriculum for young students is nearly absent (Snow & Uccelli, 2008), even when extensive professional development in language instruction has been provided . ...
The purpose of this three-arm randomized controlled trial was to explore the impact of multi-tiered explicit and systematic narrative language instruction on the language students are expected to understand and produce in the school setting (e.g., reading and writing). A sample of 210 kindergarten students were assigned to three conditions: treatment, active control, and no-treatment control. The treatment group received Tier 1, whole group contextualized oral narrative language instruction from their classroom teacher twice a week for 15–20 min over 14 weeks. Students who did not make adequate progress after one month of the large group instruction were assigned to receive additional 20-min Tier 2, small group narrative language intervention sessions, delivered by speech-language pathologists two times each week. The students assigned to the active control group participated in Tier 1 shared storybook reading instruction with their classroom teacher twice a week for 15–20 min. Students in the no-treatment control group participated in classroom activities that were in place at the outset of the school year. Narrative and expository language samples elicited at pretest and posttest were analyzed for several features of complex language. Results indicated that students in the contextualized narrative language group produced significantly more complex language with large effect sizes compared to the shared storybook treatment and no-treatment control groups. Additionally, gains in expository language were noted, indicating that the intervention generalized across discourse types. The findings from this study add to a meaningful corpus of research that supports the use of multi-tiered explicit and systematic contextualized narrative language instruction to increase the complexity of the language of young students, including those who are at risk for language learning difficulty.
... The goal of this literacy program is usually to improve children's reading comprehension. This reading skills competency is influenced by the Simple View of Reading (Gough & Tunmer, 1986) and Hollis Scarborough (2001) argued that to be a fluent/skilled reader with comprehension is supported by decoding ability and language comprehension. Teachers are trained to teach students phonological awareness, decoding, alphabetical principles, letter sounds, vocabulary, and literacy knowledge. ...
Improving literacy for early-grade children in primary schools in rural areas in Indonesia is a complex task due to the limited availability of reading resources and the varying teachers’ pedagogy competencies to teach students. This study aims to explore how school-based literacy programs by enhancing teachers’ teaching practices and improving the literacy learning environment at schools may improve students reading competencies, especially in lower grades. Using mixed methods, this study explains how students improve their reading competencies and this study also explores supporting factors and challenges to improve students' literacy. The sample of the study is 800 students and 92 teachers or principals in 28 primary schools in a district in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. The proportion of students who can read (categorized as a reader) improved after the program intervention. Several supporting factors that contribute to the improvement of student reading competencies have been identified such as teachers' motivation, teaching strategies, the availability of print-rich learning materials, and the support of school principals in literacy programs.
... Matching skills to the real-world context can motivate the learning of more advanced skills. Take, for example, reading: Children need phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency, comprehension skills, and more, just to be effective readers (Scarborough, 2001). These skills are primarily secondary skills that require explicit instruction. ...
There is a rapidly growing body of research in the field of evolutionary educational psychology that examines children’s evolved motivational and educational inclinations as they relate to modern learning and schooling. It is generally agreed that schools are inherently mismatched with how children of our species evolved to learn, thereby contributing to difficulty learning and associated adverse schooling outcomes. Many researchers argue that, by making small changes to schools that help to better align instructional methods and childhood as a whole with our species’ evolved learning mechanisms, we can lessen the negative impacts from evolutionary mismatch and create better outcomes for modern students. In order to create effective change, there must be collaborative work done by parents, teachers, and school administrators. This paper delineates the roles of these stakeholders in elementary education with respect to creating more evolutionarily relevant systems. A research-based toolkit is proposed to guide these stakeholders in evolutionizing the elementary education system.
... Resultados similares encontramos con la conciencia fonémica, los niños con mayor número de aciertos tendieron a leer más rápido, cometer menos errores y a comprender mejor, y viceversa. Los procesos de bajo nivel como el reconocimiento de las letras y su sonido, la habilidad para manipular esos sonidos, así como el reconocimiento automático de las palabras, se va adquiriendo con la experiencia, a medida que el niño se vuelve cada vez más rápido y preciso va ganado en procesos de orden superior como la comprensión de la información, la adquisición de conocimientos y el desarrollo del razonamiento verbal (Scarborough, 2001). Esto no sucede de un día para otro, se requiere de práctica y de instrucción apropiada, para que se alcance progresivamente una lectura experta. ...
Introducción: Actualmente, el bajo desempeño lector de los niños es un motivo de preocupación en el mundo, sobre todo después del confinamiento por la pandemia por el COVID-19, por las implicaciones que un pobre desempeño lector pudiera tener para el desarrollo cognitivo y el progreso académico de los niños. Se considera que, si los niños no logran alcanzar competencias básicas en lectura y matemáticas, es muy difícil que alcancen otras metas educativas. Objetivo: determinar el nivel actual de desempeño en tareas de lectura, conciencia fonémica y velocidad de denominación en niños de la zona metropolitana de Guadalajara, México. Metodología: participaron 762 niños de primero a cuarto grado de primaria de escuelas públicas, en quienes se evaluó la velocidad, eficiencia y comprensión de la lectura en voz alta, la conciencia fonémica y la velocidad de denominación de letras y números. Resultados: En la evaluación de lectura se encontró que el promedio de velocidad lectora de los niños en los 4 grados se ubica dentro de los estándares esperados, sin embargo, estos resultados provienen sólo de aquellos que sí habían aprendido a leer. Se encontró un elevado porcentaje de niños que aún no podían leer y escribir, para el final de primer grado un 39 % de los niños apenas podía identificar algunas letras de manera aislada y otro 8 % presentó un nivel de lectura muy bajo; en los grados posteriores más del 20 % no sabía leer o se ubicaba en un nivel que requería apoyo. Adicionalmente, los resultados obtenidos en tareas de conciencia fonémica y de velocidad de denominación reflejan que las habilidades de los niños para el procesamiento fonológico están disminuidas en comparación con lo reportado en investigaciones previas. Se discuten los posibles factores que pudieran estar relacionados con el bajo rendimiento lector de los niños, entre ellos la falta de oportunidades adecuadas de aprendizaje por el confinamiento por el COVID-19 y la influencia del tipo de metodología de enseñanza que se emplea en las escuelas públicas del país.
... Resulta fundamental, entonces, analizar las variables que inciden en la habilidad para comprender o producir textos escritos que permite acceder a los contenidos educativos en poblaciones que no sean las mayoritariamente descritas en la bibliografía sobre el tema. Los datos obtenidos en el presente estudio señalan que los sujetos de la muestra presentan grandes dificultades para desempeñarse en habilidades de nivel inferior del proceso de alfabetización (lectura y escritura de palabras, Scarborough, 2001). ...
El sistema educativo argentino ha atravesado en las últimas décadas un importante proceso de inclusión. Sin embargo, la preocupación por la calidad de las propuestas educativas ha ido ocupando un lugar cada vez más preponderante en la opinión pública: los desempeños en el área de lengua, específicamente en habilidades de comprensión lectora y producción textual resultan alarmantes aún en estudiantes de escuela media. Al respecto, diversos estudios realizados con alumnos de secundario sugieren que existiría un porcentaje importante de sujetos cuya dificultad para procesar textos radica en problemas básicos de lectura y/o escritura de palabras. Es por ello que el objetivo del siguiente trabajo fue explorar estas habilidades en estudiantes de escuela media de bajo nivel económico social de la provincia de Buenos Aires (Argentina). Para ello, se evaluó mediante pruebas de lectura y escritura de distintos tipos de palabras a 85 sujetos de 13 a 15 años. Los resultados mostraron desempeños muy descendidos en la escritura de palabras ortográficamente complejas y en la tasa de lectura; y, por otro lado, la ausencia de correlaciones entre la edad de los participantes y su desempeño. Se discuten estos resultados a partir de la baja calidad de las propuestas educativas a las que acceden los adolescentes que viven en contextos de pobreza.
... Therefore, two readers may approach the same text and interpret it differently. Current theories in comprehension as influenced by Scarborough's (2001) Reading Rope indicate that making meaning from reading involves multiple cognitive structures, including knowledge regarding vocabulary, schema, language structures, print concepts, metaphors, and inference. Metacognition can be layered over these structures as a bridge to make meaning when students interact purposefully with the text (Rosenblatt, 1994). ...
This study examines how the amount of teacher talk supports elementary-aged readers’ use of metacognitive strategies to comprehend text. One fourth-grade teacher’s small group reading sessions (n=5 sessions; 2 with advanced readers, 3 with striving readers) were observed and analyzed for metacognitive reading strategy implementation, some with a think-aloud protocol and some with curriculum materials. Results indicate that more teacher talk during small group lessons led to fewer metacognitive behaviors from striving readers. Small-group lesson talk focused on lower-level questions and problem-solving/support strategies initiated and scaffolded by the teacher, resulting in minimal opportunities for students to independently engage with text.
... It is clear that it is difficult to capture the complexity of writing in one or two key processes or knowledge sources. Scarborough (2001) published a graphic of a 'reading rope' depicting multiple components of language comprehension (background knowledge, vocabulary, language structure, verbal reasoning, literacy knowledge) and word recognition (phonological awareness, decoding, sight word recognition) as important components or interacting strands of reading. As children develop skills in these components, they become increasingly more strategic and automatic in their application, leading to strong reading comprehension. ...
... 'Literacy' is a multifaceted and dynamic concept and whilst there are no internationally agreed definitions of the term 'Literacy', (UNESCO 2019;Keefe and Copeland 2011) all include the ability to read and write. Reading is also complex involving the interplay of component skills including word recognition and language comprehension with increasing levels of fluency (Scarborough 2001). The National Reading Panel (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development 2000) identifies five critical areas of learning to read: phonemic awareness (the ability to hear and manipulate the sounds in spoken words), phonics (matching the sounds of spoken words with individual letters or groups of letters), fluency (the ability to read with speed, accuracy and proper expression) and vocabulary and text comprehension. ...
Background:
There is a paucity of research into interventions that help people with intellectual disabilities learn to read. This feasibility study examines whether an online reading programme, Headsprout, with additional support strategies and supervision (the intervention), can be delivered by support workers/family carers and the feasibility of conducting a later large-scale effectiveness trial.
Methods:
The study used a 2-arm randomised controlled trial (RCT) design with an embedded process evaluation using a mixed methods approach.
Results:
Thirty-six adults with intellectual disabilities were recruited. Informed consent and data were obtained remotely. Progression criteria for recruitment, retention, randomisation and usual practice were met; intervention adherence and fidelity were poor. Pressure on support services was a key barrier.
Conclusions:
Whilst progression to a large-scale effectiveness trial was not recommended, the success of conducting an RCT and remotely obtaining informed consent and data from adults with intellectual disabilities opens opportunities for increased participation in research for a currently under-represented group.
Registration:
ISRCTN11409097.
... The 95 Percent Group utilizes the gradual release model, allowing all students to practice each skill using multisensory materials, including a phonics mat and chips, word sorts, elkonin boxes, and other tools. Additionally, 95 PCP derives its scope and sequence from Scarborough's Reading Rope (Figure 2) that identifies the necessary knowledge of language comprehension and word recognition to develop skilled reading (Scarborough, 2001). ...
LXD Research was engaged by 95 Percent Group to conduct a third-party, mixed-methods efficacy study of their 95 Phonics Core Program (95 PCP) to evaluate the impact on fourth and fifth grade literacy outcomes over the school year 2023-2024. LXD analyzed the formative assessment data from i-Ready, focusing on overall scale scores, subdomains, and performance level growth, as well as the summative assessment data of the Delaware System of Student Assessment's English Language Arts State Test (DeSSA). LXD also conducted qualitative research activities including educator surveys, administrator interviews, and site observations to evaluate the implementation and training from the perspective of participating educators. Results indicated that one year of 95 PCP positively impacted the fourth and fifth grade literacy by improving their i-Ready Overall Scale Scores from beginning-of-year (BOY) to end-of-year (EOY). Additionally, on the DeSSA ELA State Test, both grades significantly improved from Spring 2023 to Spring 2024. The educator insights provided context for our quantitative findings, and showed that there was a learning curve for the fourth and fifth grade classroom teachers regarding both the content and science of reading practices. Teachers did report feeling more comfortable with program use by EOY, and reported meaningful growth in their students’ reading abilities. These educator perspectives, paired with the significant quantitative findings, indicated the efficacy of 95 PCP for fourth and fifth grade students.
... First, from the very beginning of the semester, we collectively examine, critique, and put into conversation diverse definitions, models, and perspectives on literacy and literacy learning (e.g., Duke & Cartwright, 2021;Frankel et al., 2016;Freire, 1991;Gee, 1991;Gough & Tunmer, 1986;Gutiérrez, 2009;Muhammad, 2018;Scarborough, 2001). Each week, we intentionally read across multiple perspectives and explore the tensions that arise at the intersection of cognitive, sociocultural, and critical approaches as a way to ground, inform, and refine our evolving understandings of literacy and literacy learning. ...
The present iteration of the “reading wars” has created intense debate about what constitutes rigorous and effective literacy instruction. Increasingly, politicized discourses have narrowed the field's definition of reading across education spaces (P‐20) and overemphasized foundational early literacy skills while minimizing the consequentiality of sociocultural influences on literacy learning. In this commentary, we engage and critique recent narratives about the nature of literacy learning among scholars, policymakers, practitioners, and in the popular media. We discuss what has been and will be silenced, erased, and sacrificed as a result of these debates. Further, we argue that literacy educators should not abandon the complexities of literacy learning and the social, political, and historical contexts in which students live and learn. To do this, we emphasize the importance of Black children and youth having opportunities to develop critical consciousness and learn through their lived experiences. Moreover, we take a developmental perspective and outline the implications of a more expansive approach to literacy instruction across elementary, secondary, and postsecondary contexts. Ultimately, we argue for a nuanced, integrative, and humanizing path forward that addresses Black children and other historically marginalized students' literacy needs; rejects deficit ideologies concerning what counts as reading; and cultivates children, adolescents, and adults' critical literacies.
... Moreover, the language processing component in the extended SVR models (i.e., 'Rope model' [Scarborough 2001] and Kim's model [Kim 2020]) includes vocabulary and literacy knowledge, language structure and verbal reasoning. As the goal of the current study was to examine the role of EF, and more specifically switching and inhibition, on reading comprehension within the context of the reading-related part of SVR (and not specifically the entire SVR nor the rope model), we chose the language processing component as representing language abilities. ...
The expanded Simple View of Reading model suggests language processing and word reading as contributors to reading comprehension and points at the participation of executive functions as supporting these abilities. Switching and inhibition are both executive functions (EF) contributing to reading, especially in languages with two writing systems—shallow and deep, such as Hebrew. Here, we aimed to determine the specific role of switching/inhibition both cognitively and neurobiologically in the Simple View of Reading model among 49 eight‐ to 12‐year‐old Hebrew‐speaking children. Children underwent reading and cognitive behavioural testing as well as a five‐min resting‐state fMRI scan. Functional connectivity of the fronto‐parietal network related to switching/inhibition was determined and included in a moderation model. Results suggest that both switching/inhibition abilities and functional connectivity within the fronto‐parietal network moderate the relations between word reading and reading comprehension. This strengthens the contribution of switching/inhibition to facilitating reading comprehension and supports the need to include it as part of the expanded SVR model.
... The most common form of early detection tool is currently a one-time multi-component assessment where early reading skills and their precursors are examined (Thompson et al., 2015;Phillips et al., 2009). Learning to read involves mastering a number of different component skills over a protracted time course; these component skills include letter-sound decoding, whole word recognition, reading fluency, and the ultimate goal of reading-comprehension (Scarborough et al., 2009). As the statistical analysis capacity of reading research has expanded, we are increasingly able to identify and quantify the relative contributions of these different factors at different points of the developmental process. ...
Introduction
Current methods for reading difficulty risk detection at school entry remain error-prone. We present a novel approach utilizing machine learning analysis of data from GraphoGame, a fun and pedagogical literacy app.
Methods
The app was played in class daily for 10 min by 1,676 Norwegian first graders, over a 5-week period during the first months of schooling, generating rich process data. Models were trained on the process data combined with results from the end-of-year national screening test.
Results
The best machine learning models correctly identified 75% of the students at risk for developing reading difficulties.
Discussion
The present study is among the first to investigate the potential of predicting emerging learning difficulties using machine learning on game process data.
... Language comprehension includes not only oral language skills but also background knowledge (Scarborough, 2001). One novel, though largely untested, approach to developing children's language comprehension is to integrate instruction focused on building oral language and content knowledge. ...
This study examined the impact of a widely used content-rich literacy curriculum on kindergarteners’ vocabulary, listening comprehension, and content knowledge. In combined findings from two randomized controlled trials (RCTs), the second being a replication of the first, 47 schools in large urban U.S. districts were randomly assigned to implement Core Knowledge Language Arts: Knowledge Strand (CKLA: Knowledge) or to a waitlist control condition. CKLA: Knowledge focuses instruction on language comprehension through interactive read alouds that systematically build content knowledge. Teachers received two days of professional development workshops, along with light-touch support from facilitators during implementation. Participants included 1,194 kindergarten students, who were administered individual pre- and posttest measures of proximal and standardized vocabulary, listening comprehension, and content knowledge (i.e., science, social studies). After approximately one semester of curricular implementation, CKLA: Knowledge demonstrated positive and significant impacts on proximal vocabulary and science and social studies knowledge. Significant interactions were found for vocabulary and content knowledge, such that children who began the year with relatively higher receptive vocabulary scores derived a greater benefit of learning the words and content knowledge taught in the curriculum. The present work is unique in that it tested the effects of a content-rich literacy curriculum that integrated literacy and content-area instruction and replicated the effects across two RCTs.
... The Simple View of Reading (SVR ;Hoover & Gough, 1990) posits that reading comprehension is the product of two separable components-decoding (i.e., translating written words to speech) and language comprehension (i.e., extracting meaning from spoken or written language). The Rope Model (Scarborough, 2001) expanded this view by unpacking these components into strands ('ropes') of subskills involved in word recognition and language comprehension that are gradually interwoven in proficient reading. The recently proposed Active View of Reading (Duke & Cartwright, 2021) built on these two models, but also emphasized the substantial overlap between word recognition and language comprehension (Keenan et al., 2008), highlighting bridging skills like vocabulary and fluency that contribute to both. ...
... On the broadest scale, this question is important because the place of morphology in models of reading development is hard-won. Having been long neglected in models (e.g., Scarborough, 2001; e.g., Harm & Seidenberg, 2004;Plaut et al., 1996 for review see Rastle, 2018), the role of morphological awareness is only recently emerging as well-established and fully described in its role in reading development (e.g., Levesque et al., 2021). As such, exploring whether its relation to reading withstands potential confounds in measurement is essential in validating and consolidating its place in theories. ...
It is well-established that morphological awareness is related to reading comprehension. Morphological awareness is often assessed with a sentence completion task, in which children are asked to complete a sentence with a related word (e.g., “warm. He chose the jacket for its __”). As evident from this classic example, semantic relations could influence performance because warmth is related in meaning to jacket. We examine whether the degree of semantic relations in the sentence completion task influences the association between morphological awareness and reading comprehension. In grade 3, English-speaking children did a sentence completion task in two conditions: one with sentences designed to have high semantic relations with the target and another with low. Children also completed control measures of non-verbal reasoning, vocabulary, phonological awareness, working memory, and word reading fluency. At grade 4, children completed reading comprehension. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that performance on both conditions of the sentence completion task (i.e., high and low semantic relations) significantly predicted reading comprehension, after all controls. Intriguingly, when both tasks were in the same regression, only performance on the high semantic relations task made a unique contribution to reading comprehension. The findings confirm the contribution to reading comprehension of morphological awareness, assessed with the sentence completion task, and show the relevance of semantic dimensions to these relations. As such, findings appear to validate the use of sentence completion to assess morphological awareness and highlight its capture of the multidimensional nature of morphological awareness, including its semantic dimensions.
... However, there is an even larger picture. Research has identified that students' abilities to decode words (which is influenced by their phonemic awareness and phonic knowledge) have direct impacts on their abilities to read text fluently (Ecalle et al., 2020;NRP, 2000;Saha et al., 2021), and to comprehend them (Gough & Tunmer, 1986;Kieffer & Christodoulou, 2020;Kim, 2015;Scarborough, 2001). ...
This article presents a sequential system for selecting words for early decoding instruction. We have named our model the Phonetic Continuum Matrix due to its intersection with the developmental continua of phonemic awareness and phonics. Our purpose for creating this model is to offer teachers an efficient and sequential method of selecting words for word making, word breaking, sorting, and other activities and games during phonemic awareness and phonics instruction. We begin this article with a literature review to explain “why” we teach explicit phonemic awareness and phonics skills during early literacy instruction. Following that discussion, we explore the research used to create our sequential system for selecting words. Next, we present the Phonetic Continuum Matrix and share recommendations for using the model when designing early literacy instruction.
... The second framework is the Reading Rope, formulated by Scarborough (2001), which vividly portrays the process of reading as a finely woven rope, with the strands of the rope representing the diverse array of skills essential for proficient reading. The Reading Rope recognizes two broad categories -word recognition and language comprehension -that map onto the components of the Simple View of Reading and can be deconstructed to identify specific skills involved in reading. ...
... A consciência fonológica proporciona à criança a oportunidade de refletir sobre os sons da fala e é através de tal reflexão/consciência que a criança identifica palavras que rimam, começam ou terminam com os mesmos sons, e são capazes de manipular a estrutura sonora para a formação de novas palavras. Não é à toa que o nível de consciência fonológica de crianças em A período de alfabetização é considerado um fator preditor do sucesso na leitura (Ehri 2014;Scarborough 2001; Snowling e Hulme 2013; Teixeira e Azevedo 2021). ...
... Scarborough's Rope Model (Scarborough, 2001) extends the SVR's propositions to consider word recognition and language comprehension as interwoven and overlapping. The Rope Model and Nation's (2019) expansion of SVR extends propositions about word recognition and language comprehension to further develop the role of context and background knowledge in learning to read. ...
This article highlights a Cultural Sustenance View of Reading (CSVR), a complex reader model illuminated by vivid findings from an eight‐year collaborative classroom‐based study and extensive reviews of cognitive and sociocultural research. Within the CSVR, reading is conceptualized as being shaped by a readers' culturally and linguistically situated knowledge (ways of knowing), experiences and relationships (ways of being), and cognitive reading processes (ways of reading) which overlap and interact through the non‐linear, active process of culturally mediated cognition. In extending the CSVR, the authors hope to supplant long‐ standing false dichotomies between the cognitive and sociocultural functions within the human experience of reading. In doing so, we hope to advance ideas about how learning to read can foster cultural sustenance—with children and their lifeways centered as full and complete.
... Respondents also had difficulty with questions that pertained to application of reading instruction (56% accuracy). Two questions pertained to Scarborough's, [41] reading rope (questions 12 and 13) and involved vocabulary instruction. Respondents understood how to teach vocabulary in an explicit manner (70%), but only half knew the skills needed for word recognition (45% Table 4 Reading teacher efficacy instrument results When analyzing the results, the researchers used the overall scale score (RTEI) in the analysis. ...
Reading instruction in primary schools has been at the center of attention for decades. Teachers are expected to be qualified and capable literacy teachers in order to produce proficient readers who are able to identify letters, understand the relationship between letters and sounds, decode the words on the page with automaticity, and fluently read the text while simultaneously comprehending. In order for students to be successful, proficient, and confident readers, teachers must understand the science of teaching beginning reading. The Science of Reading (SoR) is a collection of objective and reliable evidence about how humans learn to read, and ultimately, includes evidence-based instructional approaches that provide learning opportunities for all readers. The purpose of this research was to explore primary grade US teachers' perceptions, attitudes, and knowledge regarding early literacy skills incorporating the SoR. The researchers employed a QUAN descriptive design and analyzed the data using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. A sample of 126 kindergarten through second grade teachers' teaching self-efficacy and early literacy knowledge were analyzed with descriptive statistics and revealed that the majority of participants believed in their ability to teach reading effectively, yet possessed low early literacy knowledge (M = 60%) but had average self-efficacy beliefs. Of significance, respondents may believe they can teach reading effectively yet do not have the knowledge to do so.
... In alphabetic languages, these early skills include letter knowledge, phonological awareness, and early writing [31]. These skills are included in most prominent models of literacy development (e.g., [32][33][34]). In this study, we focused on early literacy skills that research has shown to be important precursors to, and predictors of, children's reading and writing (e.g., [35,36]). ...
This study explores the stability and progress of parents' literacy beliefs and home literacy activities and their relationships with their children's early literacy skills in their last year of preschool. Participants were 50 preschool children (M = 61.44 months) and their parents. Data collection sessions occurred in the family home in the fall and spring, with six months between them. At each time point, parents completed questionnaires regarding their beliefs relating to children's literacy development, parents' role in supporting literacy development, and the frequency of home literacy activities. We also evaluated the children's early literacy skills (letter names, letter sounds, word writing, phonological awareness, and motivation for literacy activities). Results revealed overall stability in parents' beliefs between the two time points, an increase in home literacy activities, progress in children's early literacy skills, and greater motivation to engage in early literacy activities. We found a positive relationship between parents' beliefs and home literacy activities in the fall with their children's early literacy skills in the spring. Further, the progress in parents' literacy beliefs between the fall and the spring correlated with their children's progress in early literacy skills, controlling for parents' education and children's age. This study highlights the importance of promoting parents' literacy beliefs and home literacy activities.
... To further understand these differences and the intricacies of literacy development, we can refer to Scarborough's (Scarborough, 2001) Reading Rope. This model offers a detailed visual representation of the complexities involved in reading development, showing how various strands of skills intertwine to support proficient reading (see Figure 2). ...
... That is, students move from emergent writers who devote significant cognitive energy to simply converting their ideations to linguistic form (i.e., transcribe), to becoming increasingly strategic writers who are aware of different genre demands of writing with respect to text structure, audience awareness, and linguistic choice. A similar principle applies to reading development, specifically Scarborough's (2001) reading rope in which decoding and linguistic comprehension become increasingly automatic (decoding) and strategic (linguistic comprehension) over time. ...
Argumentation is a critical genre of writing that elementary school students are expected to develop, but little is known about how different domains of language contribute to argumentative writing. To explore this, we identified two domains of language: linguistic knowledge (lexical, morphological, and syntactic skills) and linguistic awareness (ability to identify and manipulate discourse- and text-level features). We worked with 119 fourth and fifth grade Spanish- and Portuguese-English bilingual students in the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. We asked whether students’ linguistic knowledge served as a direct predictor of argumentative writing, or as an indirect predictor of argumentative writing, mediated by linguistic awareness. We explored this question with two writing outcomes: students’ argumentation and counter-argumentation. Controlling for orthographic knowledge, essay length, and English learner status, structural equation modeling revealed that students’ linguistic knowledge predicted their argumentative writing indirectly through linguistic awareness, but not directly. Neither the direct nor indirect effects structural model predicted students’ counter-argumentation. Our results extend theory on school-related writing tasks by differentiating between linguistic knowledge and linguistic awareness in understanding bilingual students’ written argumentation, with implications for instruction.
... Additionally, the frequency of language supports related to translation did not vary by grade level, suggesting that language factors associated with translation remain consistent across grade levels, unlike code-based skills, which tend to become automated over time. Instead, language components become more strategic and complex as children develop (Scarborough, 2001). Building on these findings, our current investigation explores the specific strategies teachers use to enhance children's translation processes, focusing on prekindergarten, kindergarten, and first-grade composing contexts. ...
This study investigates translation strategies that enhance idea generation and linguistic construction in early childhood composing, focusing on high language-growth prekindergarten to first-grade classrooms. Our sample included 28 teachers from two under-resourced districts in the Northeastern United States, serving 324 children. Using an exploratory sequential mixed-method approach, we analyzed 28 video recordings of small group composing sessions to identify specific strategies employed by teachers. We found teachers’ use of strategies for idea generation and language construction were positively associated with children's receptive vocabulary growth. Teachers in high language-growth classrooms were approximately three and half times more likely to use translation strategies than teachers in low language-growth classrooms. Five strategies emerged that facilitate memory retrieval, comparative thinking, and idea synthesis related to idea generation. Additionally, five strategies related to language construction emerged for transitioning children’s language from contextualized to decontextualized forms, enhancing vocabulary, and constructing more complex sentences. These insights provide a framework for teachers to support early writing development through targeted and intentional instructional strategies to facilitate the idea-language translation process, thereby promoting significant gains in children's language skills.
... (Brett, Rothlein, & Hurley, 1996;Wixson, 1986). Scarborough (2001) claims scope and depth as vital during vocabulary study. Scope affects reading understanding while depth affects fluency (Tannenbaum, Torgeson, & Wagner, 2006). ...
Teachers enter the educational field with a commitment to helping students learn. Their students are the direct recipients of educators who actively participate in professional development opportunities. Opportunities for professional development in how to evaluate learning to read curriculum are not as common as needed. Using the Connections: OG in 3D®, a structured literacy curriculum, in-service educators who were working toward becoming a certified dyslexia therapist were given surveys to determine their perceptions of such professional development.
... Second, although the SVR has served to advance our understanding of the relationships among word-level reading, spoken language, and reading comprehension, relying only on this model to support our understanding of the literacy and literacy-related skills of autistic (and nonautistic) individuals is limiting in three key ways. First, the SVR precludes an examination of the individual component skills, such as linguistic awareness skills, that are known to support successful word recognition and reading comprehension for non-autistic individuals (Apel & Apel, 2011;Apel et al., 2012;Bus & van IJzendoorn, 1999;Duke & Cartwright, 2021;Roman et al., 2009;Scarborough, 2001;Whalley & Hansen, 2006). Second, the tasks used to measure the second tenet of the SVR-"listening/linguistic comprehension"-may have led to potential misperceptions about the nature of the language skills that underlie successful reading comprehension. ...
Purpose
For non-autistic children, it is well established that linguistic awareness skills support their success with reading and spelling. Few investigations have examined whether these same linguistic awareness skills play a role in literacy development for autistic elementary school–age children. This study serves as a first step in quantifying the phonological, prosodic, orthographic, and morphological awareness skills of autistic children; how these skills compare to those of non-autistic children; and their relation to literacy performance.
Method
We measured and compared the phonological, prosodic, orthographic, and morphological awareness skills of 18 autistic (with average nonverbal IQs) and 18 non-autistic elementary school–age children, matched in age, nonverbal IQ, and real-word reading. The relations between linguistic awareness and the children's word-level literacy and reading comprehension skills were examined, and we explored whether the magnitude of these relations was different for the two groups. Regression analyses indicated the relative contribution of linguistic awareness variables to performance on the literacy measures for the autistic children.
Results
The non-autistic children outperformed the autistic children on most linguistic awareness measures. There were moderate-to-strong relations between performances on the linguistic awareness and literacy measures for the non-autistic children, and most associations were not reliably different from those for the autistic children. Regression analyses indicate that the performance on specific linguistic awareness variables explains unique variance in autistic children's literacy performance.
Conclusion
Although less developed than those of their non-autistic peers, the linguistic awareness skills of autistic elementary school–age children are important for successful reading and spelling.
... The two general domains of emergent literacy skills are code-related and oral language skills (Scarborough, 2001;Storch & Whitehurst, 2002). Code-related skills include the identification of letter-sound relationships, segmentation of words and sentences, and knowledge of print awareness concepts. ...
Reading storybooks aloud to prereaders helps them develop oral language skills; but educators struggle to select appropriate storybooks for read alouds. To better understand this selection process, we evaluated how experienced speech language pathologists (SLPs) apply the storybook selection rubric in Schwarz et al.'s (2015). A read-aloud storybook selection system for prereaders at the preschool language level: A pilot study.. That rubric includes: eight book characteristics, one four-level difficulty scale, and exemplar storybooks for each scale level. Using this rubric, 38 SLPs-who had served children at the preschool language level-rated 63 storybooks based on how difficult they thought the storybooks would be for children at the preschool language level to understand when the storybooks were read aloud to them. A principal component analysis identified-among the original eight characteristics a subset of five highly correlated characteristics related to overall text difficulty: vocabulary, story structure, sentence length, book length, and density. We revised the original rubric to include only four storybook characteristics: (a) text difficulty, (b) amount of inferencing, problem-solving, and abstract concepts, (c) familiarity of activities/experiences, and (d) level of support provided by the illustrations. Using quartile values of the text difficulty characteristic, we derived a four-level difficulty scale for the 63 storybooks. The revised storybook selection rubric simplifies the process of selecting appropriate storybooks for read alouds. The revised rubric and SLPs' difficulty ratings of 63 storybooks provide clinicians with a resource ready-made for clinical practice. ARTICLE HISTORY
... It is well established that reading comprehension is a multidimensional construct (Gough & Tunmer, 1986). Across theoretical models, decoding and linguistic comprehension emerge as underlying skills that are essential for proficient reading comprehension (Gough & Tunmer, 1986;Scarborough, 2001). For autistic individuals who often exhibit difficulties in reading comprehension coupled with relative strengths in decoding, a focus on comprehension is warranted (e.g., Huemer & Mann, 2010;Norbury & Nation, 2011). ...
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of Functional Reading Activities to Motivate and Empower (FRAME) on use of reading comprehension strategies in intellectually and/or developmentally disabled young adults.
Method
A single-case, multiple-probe design across functional literacy stimuli (e.g., text messages, e-mails) was replicated across three intellectually or developmentally disabled 23- to 26-year-old young adults, all of whom had a primary diagnosis of autism. Within FRAME, reading comprehension strategies were taught and practiced within the context of functional texts or activities of daily living that involve written language (e.g., text messages, e-mails). Each session followed the teach-model-coach-review approach and was conducted via telepractice. Participants' use of reading comprehension strategies was measured in baseline, intervention, maintenance, and with generalization probes.
Results
Visual analysis of the data indicated a functional relation between FRAME and the use of reading comprehension strategies for two of the three autistic young adults. All participants maintained increased use of reading comprehension strategies post-intervention.
Conclusions
This study provides preliminary evidence that FRAME is associated with improved use of reading comprehension strategies that maintains over time. Thus, FRAME has the potential to support continued improvement of functional reading skills throughout the lifespan, which is critical as autistic individuals make the transition from adolescence to adult life. Further research is needed to evaluate the effects of the intervention on more distal outcomes of written language and to examine how to best tailor the intervention to individual differences to optimize outcomes.
Supplemental Material
https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.26882422
... Other models recognize that there is more to the reading process than what was outlined by the SVR. For example, the Rope Model by Scarborough (2001) further explained the complexity of the reading process by using a metaphor of a rope to illustrate that skilled reading is made up of many strands that are woven together. There are two major strands, language comprehension and word recognition, with each having its own set of smaller strands. ...
Reading is an important skill for college success. This study investigated cognitive predictors of English reading comprehension success among college students whose first language is Arabic. Knowledge of vocabulary/grammar emerged as the strongest predictor of reading success, followed by silent reading fluency, and then decoding skill. However, metacognitive awareness of reading strategies did not statistically significantly contribute to the model. Findings suggest that Arabic speakers draw on their vocabulary and grammar knowledge when tackling an English reading comprehension task, skills that are language specific to L2. Implications include the recommendation for placing the development of college students’ language reservoir at the heart of language programs, and incorporating silent reading fluency and decoding skill within these programs. The finding regarding metacognitive awareness of reading strategies brings into question whether a certain level of language proficiency must be met by language learners before reading strategies begin to contribute to reading comprehension achievement. Keywords: Arabic speakers, Cognitive Model, college reading, decoding skill, EFL, ELL, English language learners, ESL, grammar knowledge, metacognitive awareness of reading strategies, reading comprehension, second and foreign language acquisition, silent reading fluency, vocabulary knowledge
... Children typically start using grammar rules before preschool, forming sentences and adapting word forms (e.g., adding an s in plurals or an ed in the past tense). As children grow, they show dramatic growth in language understanding, notably the meanings and relationships of words as well as grammar (Scarborough, 2001). ...
Language development in children occurs without the explicit teaching of their rules, prompting parents to introduce languages in addition to their native language This study examines whether extensive exposure to English as a foreign language (EFL) detrimentally impacts children’s syntactic proficiency in their primary language (L1). The study involves Saudi Arabian children attending international schools in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, from grades one to six, who were learning English as a foreign language. An elicited imitation task containing sentences demonstrating syntactic functions was used. The results showed a gradual difference in grade levels. Initially, the lower grades performed well in Arabic, whereas with each advancing grade, there was an improvement in English proficiency, accompanied by a slight decline in Arabic proficiency. This pattern suggests that younger students might have had limited exposure to English, whereas older students had more time to become acquainted with the language, thus influencing their linguistic abilities. This may imply a correlation between the amount of exposure to a foreign language and proficiency in one's native language. While this study provides valuable insights, it lacks detailed individual information on students' language backgrounds and exposure outside educational settings, limiting comprehensive insights.
... This acknowledges the adoption of a transdisciplinary conception for the identified EC-iSTEM skill development areas during the pursuit of authentic inquiry and problem-solving with young children. Analogous to Scarborough's (2001) Reading Rope Model of integrated literacy, we thus put forth a conceptual framework of iSTEM that both offers starting strings of focus for work with children from birth to age 5, as well as providing a developmental trajectory for higher levels of STEM integration across later schooling (see Figure 1). ...
Purpose
This paper discusses the implementation of integrated science, technology, engineering and mathematics (EC-iSTEM) education with children in birth-to-age 5 classrooms. It offers a conceptualization for EC-iSTEM, as well as a developmental trajectory in the form of the iSTEM Rope Model. It further highlights the intersection of EC-iSTEM education and the Reggio Emelia-Inspired Approach (RE-IA) as a lens for both viewing EC-iSTEM implementation with young children and as an area of needed research.
Design/methodology/approach
This paper uses a qualitative interpretive methodology, drawing from a wide array of theoretical and research literature on early childhood education and integrated STEM education.
Findings
Despite growing research and policy reports that advocate for the inclusion of integrated STEM education in early childhood classrooms, today there is currently imprecision in understanding what exactly “integrated STEM” means when applied to the instruction of very young children. This suggests a need for the creation of a unifying conceptual framework, as well as finding alignment with currently known pedagogical approaches to ground the work of birth-to-age 5 teachers and researchers.
Research limitations/implications
This paper proposes a new conceptualization of integrated STEM education for use in birth to age 5 classrooms, as well as a systhsis of the current literature to assess the pedagogical linkages between EC-iSTEM and RE-IA. As the proposed conceptualization offered in this paper is new and research in this area is nascent, further empirical investigation is warrented.
Originality/value
This paper proposes a new conceptualization of integrated STEM education for use in the early childhood education field. It further synthesizes the current literature to assess the pedagogical linkages between EC-iSTEM and RE-IA, suggesting practice implications for supporting the knowledge and skill development of young children from birth to age 5.
... Meaning-focused activities focus on the meaning of written and spoken language and include vocabulary, morphemic awareness, syntactic awareness, knowledge building, and comprehension strategies (Castles et al., 2018;Connor et al., 2011). As many leading theories of reading comprehension (Duke & Cartwright, 2021;Hoover & Gough, 1990;Perfetti, 2007;Scarborough, 2001) indicate, students need both code-and meaningfocused skills to read for understanding. While public debate insists on dichotomizing these approaches to learning to read as two "armies in the reading wars," there is scientific consensus that children should have opportunities to learn both code-focused and meaning-focused skills as they learn to read (Adams, 1994;Castles et al., 2018;Connor, Morrison, & Katch, 2004;National Reading Panel, 2000;Rayner et al., 2001). ...
Emerging readers need direct, explicit instruction; however, teachers often lack time and opportunity to provide integrated, embedded practice that moves learners from merely sounding out words to processing textual meaning and context. The Sortegories web-based app meets learners at their reading skill-level and provides purposeful practice that enables accelerated skill development toward mastery. This document provides ESSA Tier 4 evidence and "Demonstrates a Rationale" for the impact of Sortegories.
Im Zentrum dieser Arbeit stehen wortspezifische Zugänge zu literaler Förderung von Schüler*innen mit intellektueller Beeinträchtigung. Die Repräsentation von Wörtern im mentalen Lexikon beinhaltet insbesondere die Bedeutungs-, Ausdrucks- und Schriftebene. Aspekte der Diagnostik und Förderung dieses wortspezifischen Wissens unter Berücksichtigung von Schüler*innen mit intellektueller Beeinträchtigung standen im Mittelpunkt der verschiedenen Studien: 1) Evaluation eines förderdiagnostischen Konzepts zur elementaren Vokabularentwicklung unterstützt kommunizierender Schüler*innen, 2) Lehrer*innenbefragung zum Einsatz von Lautgebärden im (Schrift-)Spracherwerb von Schüler*innen mit intellektueller Beeinträchtigung, 3) Effekte einer Förderung des Sichtwortschatzes von Schüler*innen der Sekundarstufe mit intellektueller Beeinträchtigung im Rahmen eines umfassenden Literaturprojekts, 4) Definition eines Lesegrundwortschatzes auf Grundlage des ChildLEX-Korpus, 5) Effekte des umfassenden literalen Förderprogramms "Schulfreunde" im Anfangsunterricht von Schüler*innen mit intellektueller Beeinträchtigung.
This study investigates the heterogeneity in English reading abilities among sixth-grade EFL learners in South Korea, focusing on their L2 reading profiles and the socio-educational factors predicting them. 598 students from mid- and low-income neighborhoods were assessed on five L2 literacy components: decoding, oral fluency, vocabulary knowledge, syntactic knowledge, and reading comprehension. Latent profile analysis identified distinct subgroups of learners, and multinomial logistic regression was used to analyze the key predictor variables influencing English reading proficiency. The results highlight a significant proficiency gap between students who began learning English in the third grade and those exposed earlier through private tutoring. Struggling readers showed deficits in decoding, while proficient readers excelled in fluency. The impact of early English education was limited compared to learning experiences in elementary school. The study suggests the need for targeted interventions to address reading disparities and provides pedagogical implications for improving English language instruction in Korean classrooms.
This thesis aimed to describe the coevolution of orthographic information encoding mechanisms during learning to read. Building on the work of Grainger et al. (2016), the first chapter performs a theoretical characterization of three orthographic mechanisms, namely: Position-Specific Encoding (PSE), Position-Invariant Encoding (PIE), and Spatial Integration (SI). This characterization was used to specify two research questions. The first was to determine how the implementation of one specific mechanism influenced or was influenced by the implementation of one or more of the other mechanisms during reading instruction. The second question focused on the efficacy relationships, i.e., the functional interdependence, between these mechanisms. These questions were examined empirically in the second chapter through two original studies that measured the impact of each of these mechanisms in children from the 2nd to the 6th year of learning to read. The third chapter proposes a theoretical reflection on how these mechanisms encode reading units, such as letters, words, and sentences. This reflection led to the application of previous research findings to the processes involved in encoding these units, particularly regarding the effect of visual word identification abilities on the ability to process multiple words in parallel to construct a sentence representation. These issues were examined empirically in the fourth chapter through two studies. The first study, conducted with adults, aimed to describe the efficiency relationships between the encoding of letter, word, and sentence units. The second study, conducted with children in 2nd, 4th, and 6th grades, aimed to specify the developmental trajectory of the ability to construct a syntactic representation of the sentence through parallel word processing and to determine the extent to which this ability was related to the ability to identify printed words. The results of these four studies were critically reviewed in the discussion section. These results confirmed that functional interdependence relationships linked the EPS, EPI and IS mechanisms and were likely to constrain the implementation of the EPS, EPI and IS mechanisms during reading acquisition. In particular, a degree of efficiency of the PPE mechanism, close to that expected in the 5th year of learning, is necessary to implement the IS mechanism under natural reading conditions. Finally, the critical analysis of these results highlighted three points of concern for future studies exploring the coevolution hypothesis of orthographic mechanisms. First, the nature of the processes involved in the tasks and their overlap must be precisely identified. Second, rigorous methodological work must be initiated to develop experimental procedures adapted to beginning readers. Third, the first year of learning, and the quantification of exposure to writing during this period, is an essential time window for fully understanding the coevolution hypothesis of orthographic mechanisms. In this respect, this thesis will have provided the first elements of theoretical and empirical characterization of this original hypothesis and will have outlined its future exploration.
This study examines the impact of four full-day professional development sessions on French as a second language teachers’ confidence to use strategies to support their students’ reading development. Situated in Ontario, Canada where the science of reading has become a topic of focus influencing the development of new English language curriculum, the French as a second language teachers in this study requested such a focus for their professional development. The teachers completed a pre- and post-questionnaire that included a focus on the science of reading and transfer between languages. They also participated in post-professional development semi-structured interviews. The results showed that teachers gained confidence in supporting their students’ reading development and in particular using science of reading approaches.
Esta reseña presenta el libro Enseñar a leer y escribir. Guía práctica (y equilibrada) para orientarse en el barullo de la alfabetización inicial. En él, Beatriz Diuk aborda la alfabetización en los primeros años de la escolaridad primaria poniendo en diálogo su propia experiencia en las aulas con los aportes teóricos y empíricos que la investigación ha proporcionado para el desarrollo de prácticas educativas basadas en evidencia. En esta reseña se realiza un recorrido por los distintos capítulos del libro y se ponderan sus contribuciones a la configuración de una ciencia de la enseñanza de la lectura y la escritura.
Esta coletânea apresenta propostas baseadas em evidências para fomentar a prática da leitura no contexto escolar e familiar, direcionadas a gestores educacionais, docentes em atividade e em formação, abrangendo diversas áreas do conhecimento. O objetivo principal é disseminar estratégias acessíveis que possam ser implementadas tanto no ambiente escolar quanto doméstico, promovendo uma abordagem holística para o desenvolvimento da leitura. As pesquisas foram conduzidas no Laboratório Multiusuário de Informática e Documentação Linguística (LAMID) da Universidade Federal de Sergipe, com foco na interface entre linguagem e comportamento. As propostas apresentadas são resultado de investigações interdisciplinares que englobam áreas como educação, inteligência artificial e saúde, explorando temas como variação linguística, processos de leitura, esforço cognitivo e aspectos emocionais associados. Esta coletânea visa preencher uma lacuna importante na literatura, oferecendo orientações práticas e fundamentadas cientificamente para educadores e familiares, com o intuito de criar um ambiente propício ao desenvolvimento de habilidades de leitura e promover uma cultura de leitura que transcenda os limites da sala de aula.
Das Ganzwortlesen wird im Fachrichtungsdiskurs zur Förderung von Schüler*innen mit intellektueller Beeinträchtigung kritisch diskutiert und als das Lesen von alltagsnahen Einzelwörtern ohne Nutzung von Graphem-Phonem-Korrespondenz verstanden (Dönges 2007; Katim, 2000; Schurad et al., 2004). Das Lesen von Sichtwörtern bezieht sich auf Wörter, die direkt, ohne alphabetisches Rekodieren gelesen werden können, und bildet ein wichtiges Element verschiedener Lesemodelle (Coltheart, 2005; Ehri, 2005; Perfetti & Stafura, 2014; Share, 2018). Das Verständnis von Sichtwörtern im Sinne eines dynamisches Entwicklungsmodell dieser fachlichen Theoriebildung könnte den Fachrichtungsdiskurs bereichern und möglicherweise ein bedeutungsvolles Element der literalen Förderung von Schüler*innen mit intellektueller Beeinträchtigung darstellen.
In zwei Interventionsstudien wurde im Rahmen von kontrollierten Einzelfallstudien die Entwicklung des Sichtwortschatzes erstens von Jugendlichen in einem Literaturprojekt und zweitens von Grundschüler*innen im Anfangsunterricht in Bezug auf spezifische Übungswörter beobachtet. In beiden Studien zeigen sich signifikante, moderate Effekte der Förderung des Sichtwortschatzes im regulären Klassenunterricht und eine kurzfristige Stabilität der Lernerfolge. Insbesondere die teilalphabetische Strategie des Lernens von Sichtwörtern sollte in Bezug auf die Leseförderung von Schüler*innen mit intellektueller Beeinträchtigung zukünftig genauer betrachtet werden.
In response to the critical discourse surrounding teacher quality and effectiveness, especially in the context of South Africa, we explore the challenges faced by teacher educators during work integrated learning (WIL) within teacher education programs. Focusing on language preparation, the study delves into the lived experiences of teacher educators through collaborative self-study. Grounded in Wenger’s Community of Practice framework, we examine the dialogues and reflections between teacher educators from different provinces in South Africa, revealing key challenges such as policy adherence, numerical pressures, the impact of COVID-19, and the inadequacies in language preparation. The study emphasizes the crucial role of language in achieving quality education and highlights the gaps in understanding its significance in global educational initiatives. By narrating our experiences as teacher educators, we extend our insights for policymakers, faculty leaders, and curriculum designers, contributing to informed decisions regarding the enhancement of work integrated learning within teacher education programs. In this chapter, we share immersed cases of work integrated learning in diverse contexts, fostering a deeper understanding of the challenges faced by teacher educators and preservice teachers alike.
Purpose: This study sought answers to the following questions: (1) How do teachers describe the effectiveness of the conceptual framework in the early identification of at-risk children? (2) What is the impact of narrative language interventions on language and reading comprehension?Method: Using Narrative Language Measures (NLM) subtests, students (age ranges 5 – 7 years) were identified as at-risk for language and literacy disorders. Thirty kindergarten and first-grade students and their teachers participated in the study. The experimental group received narrative language interventions, following which both the experimental and control groups were re-screened using NLM subtests. Student modifiability ratings were completed at the end of the first and last intervention sessions to study changes in the experimental group’s narrative language ability in response to direct language interventions. The teachers completed questionnaires to subjectively rate the experimental group’s skill set pre-and post-intervention.Results: The teacher-completed questionnaires indicated that the students’ skillset post versus pre-intervention was not statistically significant. The teachers agreed that the conceptual framework was useful in the early identification of at-risk students. The experimental group had significantly higher scores post-intervention in NLM Listening than did the control group. There was no significant difference in NLM Reading scores between the experimental and control groups at baseline and post intervention; however, there was a significant increase in scores within the experimental group pre- and post-intervention.Conclusions: Communication between teachers and speech language pathologists can be a useful tool in the early identification of children at-risk for language and literacy disorders. Narrative language interventions have a positive impact on language and reading comprehension.
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