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Evolution of Water Supply Through the Millennia
Abstract
Evolution of Water Supply Through the Millennia presents the major achievements in the scientific fields of water supply technologies and management throughout the millennia. It provides valuable insights into ancient water supply technologies with their apparent characteristics of durability, adaptability to the environment, and sustainability.
A comparison of the water technological developments in several civilizations is undertaken. These technologies are the underpinning of modern achievements in water engineering and management practices. It is the best proof that “the past is the key for the future.” Rapid technological progress in the twentieth century created a disregard for past water technologies that were considered to be far behind the present ones. There are a great deal of unresolved problems related to the management principles, such as the decentralization of the processes, the durability of the water projects, the cost effectiveness, and sustainability issues such as protection from floods and droughts. In the developing world, such problems were intensified to an unprecedented degree. Moreover, new problems have arisen such as the contamination of surface and groundwater. Naturally, intensification of unresolved problems led societies to revisit the past and to reinvestigate the successful past achievements. To their surprise, those who attempted this retrospect, based on archaeological, historical, and technical evidence were impressed by two things: the similarity of principles with present ones and the advanced level of water engineering and management practices.
Evolution of Water Supply Through the Millennia is intended for engineers in water resources companies, hydraulic design companies, and water Institutes. It can be used for all courses related to water resources.
Authors: Andreas N. Angelakis, Institute of Iraklion, National Foundation for Agricultural Research (N.AG.RE.F.), Greece, Larry W. Mays, School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, USA, Demetris Koutsoyiannis, School of Civil Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Greece, Nikos Manassis, School of Civil Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Greece.
... The Gar-Gar Mills complex is situated south of the bridge-weir. Wells related to the water reservoir, water supply network, water control gates, and the space required for spinning the millstones were dug out of natural rocks on either side of the riverbank [30]. ...
... Then, the sites of three mills were allocated to three power-generation plants to meet the power requirements of Shushtar citizens. After the closure of the mills and the old power plants not so long ago, the water circulation in this complex remained uncontrollable [30]. Currently, water is let into most of the obliterated outlets of the obsolete mills, splashing out of the rocks and creating a remarkable scene (Figure 8). ...
... Figure 11. Gharats use waterpower used to grind grains in hilly areas (adapted from [30]). ...
Nowadays, the reuse of built agricultural/industrial heritage has been a common practice worldwide. These structures represent excellent symbols of the great agricultural/industrial past. These agricultural/hydro-technologies also serve as monuments of socio-cultural identities, especially in rural areas and on small farms. One example of a successful application of agricultural technologies for small farms is the water mill. By harnessing the water energy, they were used for traditional flour and other goods production (e.g., olive oil) and works requiring energy, with the main role in the evolution of the traditional/cultural landscape. Water mills have been used to drive a mechanical process of milling, hammering, and rolling and are a portion of the agricultural, cultural, and industrial heritage. For approximately two millennia, the vertical mill water wheel prepared the initial source of mechanical power in many regions of the world. Water mills were the first device that converted natural resources of energy into mechanical energy in order to operate some form of machinery. The preservation/management of water mills is challenging due to their long-term abandonment and the lack of information/knowledge about their value. The other obstacles that are faced in their retrofitting and/or preservation are the lack of sufficient economic incentives and complex authorizations/legislations. Sustainability and regeneration of water mills through the centuries are then reviewed for history and agricultural/industrial “archaeology”. The history of water-powered mills in prehistoric and historic times, including ancient Persia/Iran, ancient China, ancient India, the Islamic world, Venetian Crete, medieval Europe, America, and finally present times, is discussed. The outcome of this review allows the understanding of the importance of conservation, optimization, and development of water mills. It will help to know more and achieve sustainable/regenerative development for small farms with respect to water and energy crises at present and in the future.
... Liquid filtration is a very well-established technology, with early water filtration systems dating back to around 500 BC with the Hippocratic Sleeve. Water filtration first became industrialized in the 1800s, beginning with the use of sand filters to control the spread of cholera [9]. However, it wasn't until 1937, with the invention of nylon, that saw the first synthetic polymers being used a membrane material [10] and even then, bio-based polymers such as cellulose acetate were still the dominant material [10]. ...
This review surveys and summarizes the materials and methods used to make liquid filtration membranes. Examples of each method including phase inversion, electrospinning, interfacial polymerization, thin film composites, stretching, lithography and templating techniques, are given and the pros and cons of each method are discussed. Trends of recent literature are also discussed and their potential direction is deliberated. Furthermore, the polymeric materials used in the fabrication process of liquid filtration membranes are also reviewed and trends and similarities are shown and discussed. Thin film composites and selective filtration applications appear to be a growing area of research for membrane technology. Other than the required mechanical properties (tensile strength, toughness and chemical and thermal stability), it becomes apparent that polymer solubility and hydropathy are key factors in determining their applicability for use as a membrane material.
... The annual Nile flood had a significant influence on Egyptian agriculture, its levels could predict the grain and harvest (Diodorus, I.36.12); thus, taxes were imposed based on flood levels. Consequently, the Ptolemaic kings installed Nilometers in temples along the Nile to fairly assess taxes (Angelakis & Mays, 2014). The level of 16 cubits was considered the optimal level for the inundation of fields from the Graeco-Roman period (Said, 2013). ...
... In many mythologies, this marriage is described as the primary existence of a single two-gendered being who remains in eternal copulation. In the mythical stories of the ancient Egypt, India and China, the beginning of creation is the result of children coming out of the womb of this being (Litovka 2013;Mays & Angelakis 2019). Sometimes Earth and Heaven are not a single personified pair, but their separation by the creator generates a kind of marriage associations. ...
For many sciences, such as history, archaeology, ethnology, linguistics, and for philosophy, cosmogonic beliefs of ancient peoples became a subject of detailed study. This work uses field research results with reliance on the scientific tradition. The authors used both special, or general scientific, and philosophical methods. The problem of semantic analysis of the elements in the folklore of the world nations in the contemporary context is highly relevant. One of the tasks of this article is to identify the importance of the elements in the ancient beliefs. For this purpose, the article describes the results of a comparative study of myths mentioning different types of the elements. The article reveals the characteristics of the elements’ embodiment in the cosmogonic myths of the world nations and determines the reasons for worshipping the sky, earth, fire, and water in cosmogonic folklore. The authors analyse the common and the special in figurative symbolism of the elements in classical and contemporary folklore. The analysis of semantic load of archetypal images describing the elements showed that each of the elements in the world mythology is sacred. The elements act at all levels of the universe and occupy the entire cosmos in the cosmogonic myths of the world nations.
Contribution: The results of the article can be used in scientific research in the field of folklore and ethnology.
... Nature-Based Solutions (NBS) for water were considered in many places and were employed in ancestral springs galleries to supply or irrigate green spaces in urban areas. However, that design based on natural solutions had demonstrated over the ages to be much challenging and resourceful (e.g., Angelakis et al. 2012;Kabisch et al. 2017; WWAP/UN-Water 2018; Oral et al. 2020;Ribeiro 2020Ribeiro , 2021Afonso et al. 2021;Freitas et al. 2021, and references therein). NBS is inspired by nature and uses or mimics natural processes to enhance water management (WWAP/ UN-Water 2018, 2020. ...
Most of the developed countries have several methods for delineating well and spring protection zones. However, the definition of protection zones on groundwater systems in fractured media in urban areas cannot be developed through a single approach due to the great diversity of geological and hydrological conditions, including urban and heritage constraints. Therefore, the best approach is to apply and cross-check several methods related to the intrinsic vulnerability of groundwater systems. The so-called DISCO method permits, at a local scale, a reliable evaluation of the vulnerability protection zones of springs in fissured media. Moreover, urban environments have unique characteristics that should be included in this assessment, namely land cover and hydraulic features. Therefore, an updated Geographic Information System (GIS)-based mapping methodology is proposed, termed DISCO-Urban. As a result, a multidisciplinary approach, organized and integrated on a GIS-based mapping, was developed to evaluate urban groundwater vulnerability to contamination combining climatology, geology, hydrogeology, hydrogeomorphology, hydrogeotechnics, urban hydraulics, and land use/cover. This study highlights the importance of urban hydrogeological mapping as a valuable tool to support urban hydrogeological conceptualisation and delineate protection zones on historical springs of the Arca D’Água site in the Porto urban area (NW Portugal). At over 600 years old, those ancient springs are extensive underground galleries and aqueducts man-made to supply the fountains systems in Porto city. Moreover, this approach embraces a hydrogeoethical framework of values shared by all agents involved to achieve a balanced and ethical design with nature, heritage and society.
... A good reasonable introduction can be found in Steven Solomon's Water [1]. The Evolution of Water Supply Through the Millennia [2] provides a good overview through the ages, with papers written by experts in each field. It lacks an overall bibliography, but the key works can be found in the notes in each section. ...
This paper provides an overview of the materials used to make water pipes from the ancient world to the start of the industrial revolution, covering stone, fired clay, copper, brass, iron, timber and lead. It provides a broad introduction to both the literature on the subject and issues involved in each type of pipe, together with descriptions of when each was first used and their methods of manufacture. The paper aims to assist all those interested in the study of the history of water supply and points out areas in need of further research.
... Moreover, the Eten wetland constitutes the main source of raw material for local people. As a heritage handed down from the Moche civilization (about 100 to 700 AD), local villagers elaborate handicrafts using local materials such as clay and vegetable fiber, particularly from the totora (Typha angustifolia), carrizo (Bacharis saliccifolia), junco (Scirpus limensis), and saltmarsh bulrush (Scirpus maritimus) (Angelakis et al. 2012;Aponte 2017). Elaborated products are bags, straw hats, purses, rugs, paintings, musical instruments, ceramics, jewelry, and textiles (Ministerio de Comercio Exterior y Turismo 2009). ...
Coastal wetlands are currently threatened by human drivers such as agriculture, infrastructure development, and urban sprawl. Pressures on these ecosystems disturb their morphology and biogeochemical cycles, resulting in the degradation of ecosystem services. However, little has been done to understand the coastal wetland response to identify efficient conservation and mitigation strategies.
Along the Peruvian coast, wetlands present a diversity of landscapes that face similar threats and pressures; however, the ecosystem response in each one may be different. This study describes a methodology to assess the environmental impacts on ecosystem services based on the understanding of geomorphic features and the status of the Eten coastal wetland, located in northern Peru. The methodology combines the application of open-source GIS tools and the collection of field data to characterize the geomorphic settings as well as to also analyze the changes in river morphology, land use, water quality, and aquatic biota. Based on this information the main threats and pressures on the Eten wetland are defined and related to impacts on ecosystem services using a cause-effect model.
The main results indicated that the river plays a vital role in defining the landscape and wetland functions. Moreover, the biological diversity of aquatic habitats is disturbed by hydraulic structures and agricultural activities, and human land use modifies the natural landscape, thus affecting supporting and regulation services such as water regulation.
The relationships between cities and underlying groundwater are reviewed, with the aim to highlight the importance of urban groundwater resources in terms of city resilience value. Examples of more than 70 cities worldwide are cited along with details of their groundwater-related issues, specific experiences, and settings. The groundwater-related issues are summarized, and a first groundwater-city classification is proposed in order to facilitate a more effective city-to-city comparison with respect to, for example, the best practices and solutions that have been put in practice by similar cities in terms of local
groundwater resources management. The interdependences between some groundwater services and the cascading effects on city life in cases of shock (e.g., drought, heavy rain, pollution, energy demand) and chronic stress (e.g., climate change) are analyzed, and the ideal groundwater-resilient-city characteristics are proposed. The paper concludes that groundwater isa crucial resource for planning sustainability in every city and for implementing city resilience strategies from the climate change perspective.
Belo Horizonte completou recentemente 120 anos de sua inauguração, sendo a primeira cidade no Brasil em que o ideário republicano se fez presente, associado a um processo de ruptura com o passado colonial, e ao início de um projeto de modernização do país. A hipótese desta dissertação é que a escolha do sistema de saneamento para Belo Horizonte, feita pela Comissão Construtora da Nova Capital - CCNC foi fator determinante para um processo recorrente de canalização e tamponamento dos cursos d’água em meio urbano, hoje quase em sua totalidade suprimidos da paisagem. Assim, a pesquisa se debruçou sobre as disputas teóricas e técnicas acerca da escolha do sistema de saneamento para a Nova Capital mineira. A investigação, entretanto, demostrou que tais disputas se dão num contexto de uma concepção urbana pré-determinada, a tábula rasa, sendo a escolha um dentre os diversos fatores atuantes na consolidação de tal prática. A fim de se estudar as intervenções nos cursos d’água de Belo Horizonte, tomei como estudo de caso o processo de canalização da microbacia hidrográfica do Córrego do Acaba Mundo. Esta microbacia se configura como uma amostra significativa do processo de urbanização de Belo Horizonte compreendendo grande parte das formas de urbanização: tipos de ocupação e usos, intervenções e ações do Estado e, principalmente, o processo de canalização de cursos d’água. Entendendo que a construção de Belo Horizonte se configura como a gênese de um modelo de cidade no Brasil, este trabalho conclui com uma reflexão sobre o papel da gênese ao longo do tempo.
This essay aims to contribute to some reflections about the sustainable management of groundwater systems in developed countries focusing on dispersed rural communities. There is a misleading assumption that countries have reasonable sound groundwater system management. Indeed, there is a need for a paradigm shift in sustainable water resource management, particularly groundwater systems. A reduction or lack of consistent research and successful studies in rural communities and peri-urban areas are noticed. Additionally, intermittent supply system problems are often observed. As a result, the urgent need to develop a reliable research program supported by tight cooperation with populations, local authorities, water management agencies, academia, practitioners and representatives of rural groups and water user communities is emphasised. To accomplish this is to underline the need for data collection for creating a GIS-based hydrological toolkit for groundwater management and sustainability in rural and peri-urban communities. This type of approach covers the characterisation, assessment, availability, and management of groundwater resources. Besides, groundwater resources quality and quantity are crucial for evaluating the rural water supply systems. Therefore, sound methods and techniques are essential to achieve a comprehensive utilisation in rural areas, from field inventory and mapping to water quality, vulnerability, hydrodynamic studies, and improve well sitting, construction and monitoring techniques and also socio-hydrogeology, geoethical and environmental law studies. This transdisciplinary approach will allow the transfer of science, technology, and information to support sustainable water resources management decisions and design nature-based solutions in rural communities within a hydrogeoethical framework.
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