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The Threatening Nature of “Rap” Music

Authors:
Adam Dunbar at University of Nevada, Reno
Adam Dunbar
Charis E. Kubrin at University of California, Irvine
Charis E. Kubrin
Nicholas Scurich at University of California, Irvine
Nicholas Scurich
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Abstract

Rap music has had a contentious relationship with the legal system, including censorship, regulation, and artists being arrested for lewd and profane performances. More recently, rap lyrics have been introduced by prosecutors to establish guilt in criminal trials. Some fear this form of artistic expression will be inappropriately interpreted as literal and threatening, perhaps because of stereotypes. Only a handful of studies have examined whether rap lyrics are evaluated using stereotypes, yet these studies were conducted in the 1990s-a period of heightened scrutiny for rap-and used nonoptimal methods. This study presents 3 experiments that examine the impact of genre-specific stereotypes on the evaluation of violent song lyrics by manipulating the musical genre (rap vs. country) while holding constant the actual lyrics. Study 1, a direct replication of previous research, found that participants deemed identical lyrics more literal, offensive, and in greater need of regulation when they were characterized as rap compared with country. Study 2 was a conceptual replication (i.e., same design but different stimuli), and again detected this effect. Study 3 used the same approach but experimentally manipulated the race of the author of the lyrics. A main effect was detected for the genre, with rap evaluated more negatively than country or a control condition with no label. However, no effects were found for the race of the lyrics' author nor were interactions were detected. Collectively, these findings highlight the possibility that rap lyrics could inappropriately impact jurors when admitted as evidence to prove guilt.
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The Threatening Nature of “Rap” Music
Adam Dunbar, Charis E. Kubrin, and Nicholas Scurich
University of California—Irvine
Rap music has had a contentious relationship with the legal system, including censorship, regulation, and
artists being arrested for lewd and profane performances. More recently, rap lyrics have been introduced
by prosecutors to establish guilt in criminal trials. Some fear this form of artistic expression will be
inappropriately interpreted as literal and threatening, perhaps because of stereotypes. Only a handful of
studies have examined whether rap lyrics are evaluated using stereotypes, yet these studies were
conducted in the 1990s—a period of heightened scrutiny for rap—and used nonoptimal methods. This
study presents 3 experiments that examine the impact of genre-specific stereotypes on the evaluation of
violent song lyrics by manipulating the musical genre (rap vs. country) while holding constant the actual
lyrics. Study 1, a direct replication of previous research, found that participants deemed identical lyrics
more literal, offensive, and in greater need of regulation when they were characterized as rap compared
with country. Study 2 was a conceptual replication (i.e., same design but different stimuli), and again
detected this effect. Study 3 used the same approach but experimentally manipulated the race of the
author of the lyrics. A main effect was detected for the genre, with rap evaluated more negatively than
country or a control condition with no label. However, no effects were found for the race of the lyrics’
author nor were interactions were detected. Collectively, these findings highlight the possibility that rap
lyrics could inappropriately impact jurors when admitted as evidence to prove guilt.
Keywords: stereotypes, decision making, evidence, criminal law, rap music
Rap music is rhymed storytelling that represents the political
and social experiences common to inner-city communities
throughout the United States (Perry, 2004;Rose, 1994). Scholars
consider rap an outgrowth of the slave trade (Gilroy, 1995),
originating from a tradition of African storytelling (Keyes, 2002),
that is often used as a vehicle to express the economic and social
frustration of the Black community (Rose, 1994). These charac-
terizations, in one way or another, all emphasize that rap is a form
of cultural expression that prioritizes Black voices.
Perhaps more than any other music genre, rap has had a con-
tentious relationship with the legal system. This is due, in large
part, to the perception that rap music is threatening and dangerous.
In an analysis of how the news media portray different music
genres, Binder (1993) found that rap is presented through a “dan-
ger to society” frame, based on the idea that listeners of the genre
are likely to become threats to society. Binder (1993) also found
that the media is more likely to characterize listeners of rap as
being prone to violence compared with listeners of heavy metal. In
voicing their opposition to rap, opponents commonly reference
studies that purport to show a link between listening to rap music
and acceptance of violence (Johnson, Jackson, & Gatto, 1995),
misogynistic attitudes (Gan, Zillmann, & Mitrock, 1997), and
antisocial behavior (Hansen & Hansen, 1990).
Not surprisingly then, from its inception, rap music has been
policed and monitored in exceptional ways. For example, early on,
rap music’s distribution was limited by legal sanctions and police
disruption, as law enforcement attempted to disrupt sales and get
records by rap artists pulled from store shelves (Hirsch, 2014). Some
of the music was also censored because it was believed that the lyrics
were obscene (Crenshaw, 1991;Dixon & Linz, 1997). In the late
1980s and early 1990s, artists across the country such as LL Cool J,
Too Short, and 2 Live Crew were arrested for performances that
authorities regarded as lewd or profane (Blecha, 2004;Crenshaw,
1991;Dixon & Linz, 1997), while other artists were denied opportu-
nities to perform in public venues, often because of police pressure
(Rose, 1994).
1
1
As just one example, in 1990, a case was brought against 2 Live Crew
based on the claim that their album, As Nasty As They Wanna Be, was
obscene under state law. A judge ruled that the lyrics met the legal
definition of obscenity because they: (a) had an excessive interest in sexual
matters, (b) described sexual conduct as defined by state law, and (c)
lacked serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value (Skywalker
Records, Inc. v. Navarro, 1990). By defining the lyrics as obscene, the
album was barred from being sold in record stores and the music was
banned from being performed in concert. After ignoring the ruling, 2 Live
Crew was arrested for performing obscene material at an adult-only night-
club. During the trial, Henry Louis Gates Jr., an historian, literary scholar,
and cultural critic, testified that the songs purposefully used exaggeration
to critique stereotypes about Black hyper-sexuality and were merely satire.
While a jury acquitted 2 Live Crew, an appellate court maintained that the
album was offensive and provided no artistic value. Critics of the decision
believe that the obscenity label stemmed from stereotypes about rappers
and rap music that were not applied to other sexually explicit or offensive
material from White entertainers, such as Madonna or Andrew Dice Clay
(Crenshaw, 1991;Dixon & Linz, 1997).
Adam Dunbar and Charis E. Kubrin, Department of Criminology, Law
and Society, University of California—Irvine; Nicholas Scurich, Depart-
ments of Criminology, Law and Society, and Psychology and Social
Behavior, University of California—Irvine.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Charis E.
Kubrin, Department of Criminology, Law and Society, University of
California—Irvine, Social Ecology II Room 3379, Irvine, CA 92697–7080.
E-mail: ckubrin@uci.edu
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Psychology, Public Policy, and Law © 2016 American Psychological Association
2016, Vol. 22, No. 3, 280–292 1076-8971/16/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/law0000093
280
... They look upon it as "reality." It may not resemble the reality, except that it culminates in a conclusion which fits a real experience" (Lippmann 2017, S.127 (Dixon & Linz, 1997;Fried, 1999;Dunbar et al., 2016). Forschung hat ergeben, dass Stereotypen Musik Genre spezifisch sind (Dunbar et al., 2016). ...
... It may not resemble the reality, except that it culminates in a conclusion which fits a real experience" (Lippmann 2017, S.127 (Dixon & Linz, 1997;Fried, 1999;Dunbar et al., 2016). Forschung hat ergeben, dass Stereotypen Musik Genre spezifisch sind (Dunbar et al., 2016). Country und Pop Musik werden häufig durch Zuweisung von Stereotypen als weniger gefährlich als Rock and Rap betrachtet (Ballard, Dodson & Bazzini, 1999;Rentfrow & Gosling, 2007, zitiert nach Dunbar et al., 2016). ...
... Forschung hat ergeben, dass Stereotypen Musik Genre spezifisch sind (Dunbar et al., 2016). Country und Pop Musik werden häufig durch Zuweisung von Stereotypen als weniger gefährlich als Rock and Rap betrachtet (Ballard, Dodson & Bazzini, 1999;Rentfrow & Gosling, 2007, zitiert nach Dunbar et al., 2016). Laut Fried (1999, S.707) sind die negativen Reaktionen auf Rap weniger auf den Inhalt bezogen als auf die Tatsache, dass dieser als schwarze Musik gesehen wird und dass bereits Stereotypen in Bezug auf dieses Musik Genre bei den Leuten existieren. ...
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... Instead, they provide listeners with a rich vocabulary that justifies criminal behavior, allowing them to understand and empathize with those experiences. While this article acknowledges the extensive literature on hip-hop in the United States and its global influences (e.g., Dunbar et al., 2016;Dunbar, 2020;Kubrin, 2005;Washington, 2015), it specifically directs its focus towards Nigerian hip-hop and its association with online fraud, all within the context of the indigenous languages, ideologies, worldviews, for several reasons. ...
... From the 1980 s to the 1990 s, American hip-hop and rap music became popular (Eze, 2020;Shonekan, 2011;Shonekan, 2013). However, due to its association with criminality, unlike other genres, rap music generated strong legal and social reactions in the United States (Dunbar et al., 2016;Kubrin and Nielson, 2014). Nigerian hip-hop has incorporated the culture of resistance commonly found in American hip-hop into its lyrics (Babalola, 2023;Eze, 2020;Shonekan, 2013). ...
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How do hip-hop songs produced from 2017 to 2023 depict and rationalize online fraud? This study examines the depiction of online fraudsters in thirty-three Nigerian hip-hop songs on nine popular streaming platforms such as Spotify, Deezer, iTunes, SoundCloud, Apple Music, and YouTube. Using a directed approach to qualitative content analysis, we coded lyrics based on the moral disengagement mechanism and core themes derived from existing literature. Our findings shed light on how songs (a) justify the fraudulent actions of online fraudsters, (b) blame and dehumanize victims of online romance fraud, (c) glamorize online fraud, and (d) provide insights into prevailing attitudes, indigenous linguistics, and worldviews regarding cybercrime victimization. Specifically, our analysis shows the presence of moral disengagement mechanisms, including "dehumanization," “minimizing own agency,” and "displacement of responsibility." Moreover, we identify core contextual themes pertinent to online fraud in the Nigerian context: (a) "cyber spiritualism" and (b) "the North-South divide." This research underscores the global influence of musicians whose songs are easily accessible on diverse music platforms in trivializing the plight of online fraud victims. We argue that these artists' persuasive messages not only downplay but also satirize the victims' predicaments, thus contributing to the cultural worldviews and dimensions of online fraud. We conclude by underscoring these songs' capacity to actualize, reshape, and actively engage with the narratives of glamorization, justification, spiritualism, colonial legacies, gender dynamics, and societal implications. We recommend that future research endeavors explore non-conventional data sources adept at capturing the intricate fabric of cultural attitudes and dynamics.
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... It is important to point out that hip-hop and more specifically rap music have been widely commercialised and put at the service of the dominant culture (Vito 2019). The ideas communicated by commercial and mainstream rap are not so different from those conveyed by other musical styles, yet it faces greater stigma (Dunbar et al. 2016). We understand as legitimate the concern that young people may embrace ideas that are harmful to them and to society, however, this is difficult to control. ...
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