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21C Knowledge-Building – Cameron Richards’ 21st Century knowledge-building project
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Richards, C. (2005). Activity-reflection e-portfolios: An approach to the problem of effectively
integrating ICTs in teaching and learning. In The Reflective Practitioner. Proceedings of the 14th Annual
Teaching Learning Forum, 3-4 February 2005. Perth: Murdoch University.
http://lsn.curtin.edu.au/tlf/tlf2005/refereed/richards.html
Activity-reflection e-portfolios:
An approach to the problem of effectively integrating ICTs (especially
e-learning platforms) in teaching and learning
E-learning platforms such as Web-CT and Blackboard are typically viewed in higher education
contexts as a convenient, economical, and flexible way of integrating new Information and
Communication Technologies (ICTs) in teaching and learning. However they can also reinforce
traditional transmission approaches to education as mere repositories for content and in terms
of related ‘add-on’ uses of online interaction as a substitute and not just a supplement for face-
to-face interaction. On closer inspection it is clear that relevant educational design principles
are required to effectively integrate ICTs and, in particular, to harness their ‘new learning’
implications. This paper will focus on the model of ‘activity-reflection e-portfolios’ developed
initially for a teacher education context and extended to include a range of templates applicable
to every teaching and learning context. Such a model will thus serve as an example of: (a) an
integrated approach to ICTs in teaching and learning which can be adapted to different purposes
and various ICT programs as well as ‘new learning’ methodologies; and (b) a perspective useful
in evaluating merely ‘add-on’ uses of ICTs in education. However, its primary interest and
significance perhaps lies in its encouragement of the learning process as both a teaching and
assessment strategy, and therefore its connection to various ‘new learning’ approaches such as
problem-based learning, authentic assessment, and collaborative knowledge-building.
The problem of effectively integrating ICTs in teaching and learning
The challenge of ICT integration in teaching and learning has long been associated with
‘new’ models of learning which extend from student-centred theories and approaches (from
‘constructivism’ through to more specific notions such as problem-based learning, authentic
assessment, and collaborative knowledge-building) on one hand, through to related pushes
in higher education especially to embrace modes of distance education, flexible delivery and
open learning on the other hand. On the general assumption that ‘learning’ is ultimately
something which can be delivered, transferred or simply posted on an internet platform, the
concept of e-learning (and selectively related notions such as knowledge management,
instructional design and systems theory) has somewhat uncritically perhaps and even
counter-productively at times become the emblem of ‘new learning’ for many educators –
especially educational managers. In other words, the new requirements and possibilities for
more effective learning which have gained impetus from new ICT tools and media have
tended so far to reinforce rather than overcome an opposition between theory, policy and
rhetoric on one hand, and actual practice on the other (e.g. Daniel 1996).
This paper outlines one model which attempts to outline in actual practice and not just as
theory or wishful thinking: (a) a productive convergence between educational designs which
effectively facilitate yet also serve to assess the formative process of learning itself; and (b)
the powerful pedagogical and learning implications as well as technological possibilities of
new Information and Communication Technology tools and media. The ‘activity-reflection
e-portfolio’ model outlined in this paper represents an exemplary focus for discussing a
convergent ‘hub’ which connects, implements, and develops the various constructivist or
student-centred implications of new learning technologies (Jonassen et al, 1999). Such a
model thus exemplifies a strategy for teaching and learning which is consistent with
Laurillard’s dialogical framework for the use of educational technology in university
teaching, Schon’s (1987) model of reflective practice in educational design, and Light &
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Cox’s (2001) conception of the reflective professional in higher education. In place of
traditional dichotomies of theory and practice, and also typical delineations of either skill or
information acquisition in relation to applied knowledge, it advocates a view of applied
knowledge grounded in both initial familiarization or practice and also critical reflection.
The concept of an ‘activity-reflection e-portfolio’ might be approached as both a particular
educational tool and a general strategy. In contrast to the increasing and varied uses of
‘electronic portfolios’ in all levels of education for mainly repository or profiling purposes,
the particular model outlined here is somewhat unique because it is primarily conceived
here as an integrated approach to teaching, learning and assessment in a way which also
more effectively harnesses and integrates the educational possibilities of ICTs (e.g.
Cambridge, 2001). As a general strategy we thus define this model as: a learning and
assessment strategy which integrates the tools and processes of ICTs but also at the same
time encourages, reflects, and gauges students’ progressive learning, self-evaluation and
reflective practice.
ICTs and the most effective learning as an activity-reflection process
The concept of an activity-reflection e-portfolio was originally conceived in the specific
context of teacher education as a way of getting teachers to develop an across-the-
curriculum ICT competency or literacy and also to think about how to effectively integrate
this in actual teaching and learning practice (e.g. Richards, 2002). Out of its development
emerged distinct notions of how the most effective learning might be conceived as an
activity-reflection cycle or, alternatively, as educational design to link learner ‘doing’ and
‘thinking’. This notion resembles in several ways David Kolb’s influential model of the
learning process but is distinct insofar as it is inevitably grounded in contexts of application
and therefore organized in practice and not just in theory around the inherent
transformations which connect learner performance and knowledge. The discussion below
will therefore examine associated concepts of ‘learning activity’ and ‘focused reflections’
in terms of an overall dialogical (i.e. both discursive and transformational) approach to
educational design which lends itself to ICT integration but also represents an across-the-
curriculum alternative to traditionally linear and hierarchical notions of knowledge
construction and the learning process.
In contrast to a traditional linear conception of skill acquisition and a hierarchical one of
information acquisition, the e-portfolio promotes learning as an activity-reflection cycle
leading to more effective and applied connections between theory or procedures and
practice (and various other related top-down vs. bottom-up imperatives of education). By
focusing on the use of ICTs in education as a general literacy rather than as a discrete set of
skills or processes, the learning and assessment activities which make up the e-portfolio
function as a guided but open-ended ‘journey’ to engage and overcome the initial and
inherent ‘thresholds of temporary frustration’ which are inherent in the use of technological
tools as well as the very transformations which make up the learning process. In short, ICTs
extend oral and verbal literacies of human communication and information access in terms
of new digital media which lend themselves to a focus on both lower-order competencies
and higher-order generic skills such as problem-solving, collaboration, and transferable
applications.
The transformative stages of the activity-reflection cycle further imply a theory of activity-
based learning which lends itself to ICT integration as well as more effective learning links
between content and process, thinking and doing, and also formal education and social
context. Thus, as Figure 1 indicates, the e-portfolio frames learning in the context of a
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21C Knowledge-Building – Cameron Richards’ 21st Century knowledge-building project
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Social knowledge
three-fold process of initial familiarisation (naïve/activity phase), procedural or theoretical
explanation (critical/ reflective phase) and specific application (dialogical/transformative
phase). Thinking is grounded in doing, and content (i.e. information or skills) is likewise
linked to a primary emphasis on process. In this way a resulting orientation of ‘applied
knowledge’ and ‘reflective practice’ is just as relevant to critical or conceptual modes of
learning and theorizing as practical or technical types of learning. Such an understanding
represents a dialogue or interplay between individual performance and social knowledge.
Figure 1. ICT integration and learning as a threshold of transformation
doing (using)
process
thinking
content
1. Naive/activity phase
(initial familiarisation/
innovation)
2. Critical/reflection phase
(procedural/theoretical explanation
- discipline)
3. Dialogical/transformative
phase ( specific/innovative
application)
threshold of temporary
vs perpetual frustration
(especially where ICT
is concerned)
adapted from C.Richards (2004)
The key to effectively designing an e-portfolio as a convergent learning and assessment
strategy lies in encouraging effective student interaction with theory, procedures or content
in terms of linking this with either practical experience or transferable contexts of
application. Where ICT is concerned, instead of focusing on unique procedures or
specialized tools, the learning focus should be on transferable functions and generic
applications. Learning activities should be appropriately designed to introduce, integrate
and apply ICT skills and knowledge in relation to a curriculum or project purpose. It is also
important to design appropriate ‘focus questions’ for learner reflection which encourage
substantial engagement and thinking.
E-portfolios as a framework for learning activities and reflections
The focus of an activity is on some kind of doing or performance as a prelude to, in
conjunction with, or as a culmination of reflective thought. This is in the context that all
learning might be about enhancing reflective practice in some way. An activity may be a
self-contained task or an open-ended series of tasks, and it may also be either physical or
conceptual and symbolic in nature. It may also be an elaborately structured set of options or
procedures, or may simply be a mode of play or the response to a focus question. A
distinction might therefore be made introductory or initial familiarization activities,
organizing activities, culminating activities and also reflection activities. Such a typology
reflects the continuum as well as stages implicit in the activity-reflection cycle. It also
epitomizes how the key challenge of effective learning activity design is to link the indirect
interests, purposes and elements of practice with both an overall learning purpose or goal
and some combination of attitudinal skill, process or knowledge learning objectives
(Richards, in press). Such a model proposes an interactive connection between individual
interests and performance and social dialogue and knowledge—and the latter grounded in
relation to the former, rather than defined in opposition to it.
Individual performance
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If integrated into an assessment scheme especially, learning activities may also encourage
much more effective participation in the learning process as well as provide a focus for
grounding reflection in practice. ICT-supported learning activities are ideal for producing
artifacts which can be linked to an e-portfolio to provide both discrete and overall practical
indicators of the learning process to complement, inform, and exemplify related critical
reflections. The e-portfolio allows flexibility for various permutations of the interplay
between formative and summative assessment as well as links between practical
performance and critical or applied knowledge construction. Such artifacts may be assessed
in terms of a pass-fail competency linked in turn to a graded reflection, or where
appropriate graded in terms of a relevant criteria or rubric. For instance, the evaluation of
webpage or multimedia projects may be intrinsically subjective in many respects yet
appropriately related to objective criteria in other respects. Also, just as it is not enough to
know the basic skills of using a search engine to embody an effective information literacy
knowledge, so too a bookmark file artifact of a search strategy provides a crucial
complement to any reflection about a general or specific information search strategy. More
content-focused learning activities might typically involve reflection activity artifacts.
There are many models of ICT learning activities at primary and secondary school level
which provide a useful indicator of a ‘generic structure’ (an anatomy of the related
learning, inquiry, and knowledge-building processes): (a) relevant and applicable also to
higher education contexts and (b) sufficiently simplified (e.g. as compared to the typical
use of problem-based learning examples, cases and scenarios in higher education).
One such example which exemplifies inquiry-based design is that of Webquests
(webquest.sdsu.edu/webquest.html). Contexts for searching out, evaluating and making use
of authentic information from the Internet may include either an actual real-life situation or
a hypothetical scenario, and might further involve role-playing, problem-solving and
collaborative team-work in the pursuit of some required outcome or performance such as a
report or presentation (see figure 2). Webquest tasks may involve an initial or on-going
task, and also may have a single lesson or longer-term project focus. In relation to some
particular context, Webquests might also revolve around the posting of one or more
reflection questions.
Figure 2: Design aide for developing an ICT-supported learning activity
1. AN AUTHENTIC OR IMAGINARY SITUATION/CONTEXT/PROBLEM
2. WHAT WILL LEARNERS NEED TO DO AS THE PURPOSE OF INITIAL
INTERACTION (solve a problem, address some issue or challenge, etc)?
3. HOW WILL THIS PROVIDE A PRETEXT FOR SPECIFIC LEARNING
OUTCOMES IN A CHOSEN SUBJECT AND RE: MAIN LEARNING
OBJECTIVE?
4. PROVIDE AN OVERVIEW OF KEY STAGES OR STEPS OF ACTIVITY
5. WHAT IS THE MAIN ICT-SUPPORTED LEARNING FOCUS AND WHAT
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES NEEDED FOR THIS ACTIVITY?
Adapted from C.Richards (2005)
Although such a structure has various applications for higher educational contexts, its main
relevance lies in promoting a dialogical framework where problem-based learning
‘contexts’ are also designed in terms of topics, questions and issues for critical reflection on
one hand, and exemplary ‘artifacts’ of learning, inquiry, and knowledge-building processes
on the other. As indicated above, disciplines and knowledge areas such as medicine,
science and law have productively embraced ‘problem-based learning’ models – a
fundamental approach for connecting both interactive and inquiry-based learning design.
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More succinct, focused and applied ways of doing this would encourage innovative and
applied aspects of the learning process across all disciplinary areas (especially across the
divide between more process and content focused knowledge areas) with the added bonus
of an integrated approach to ICTs in teaching and learning. This is especially the case in
terms of the use of ‘reflective’ activities which are a central function and aspect of the
activity-reflection e-portfolio model. E-portfolio critical reflections may be either directly
or indirectly related to learning activities—as well as constituting a kind of activity in itself.
Using e-portfolios to collect, synthesise and/or encourage online reflections
The increasingly ubiquitous use of e-learning platforms includes extensive use of online
webforums as an ostensible teaching and learning tool. However, typically not a great deal
of ‘designing’ for specific purposes and outcomes goes into educational use of online
forums and they tend to be an add-on in various ways to the notion that online delivery is
primarily a repository for content. The crucial importance of design should be apparent to
anyone who has grappled with how to encourage participation in online forums and engage
learners, whether to allow open-ended discussion around a vague topic or more focused and
structured reflection responses, and with related dilemmas of how or whether to include
any learner contributions in the assessment process. Additionally there are there are related
issues: whether to attempt synchronous exchanges (include video-conferencing)? What
kind of asynchronous mode is most appropriate or are they all exactly the same (email lists
vs webforum, and distinctions between various types of webforum)?; How to separate
individual from collective contributions (especially in terms of some of the collaborative
programs and funcations available; and might new reflective modes of online presentation
such as ‘blogging’ (Huffaker, 2004) be more relevantly harness for educational purposes?.
Both synchronous and asynchronous modes of virtual mediation and interaction through
computer-mediated networks represent a kind of hybrid between informal conversation and
formal writing. In part because of this, unless there are effective designs which can harness
the power of online forums to encourage and promote reflection and collaboration,
responses may tend to be of the more superficial and opinionated kind. Like all use of ICTs
for learning, designs for educational forums represent virtual functions of teaching,
learning and knowledge interaction which can either be treated as an add-on substitute for
or a more integrated supplement for the learning process. And the fact that the learning and
assessment focus must shift from mere quantity (and reproduction) to quality (and active
construction of knowledge) is exemplified by how – just as in conversation (and in Socratic
modes of teaching) - one succinct and strategic question or statement in an online
exchange can be more powerful than thousands of words.
Many of these dilemmas and issues can be productively transformed from problem into
opportunity with the kind of approach exemplified by the activity-reflection portfolio. This
approach encourages a more focused and structured use of various types of forums to
engage learners in reflective, collaborative and inquiry-based ways. Instead of having to
hunt out individual learner contributions in large forums (like needles in a haystack),
various contributions can be either collected or synthesized (even in ‘cut and pasted’
contexts of response to a specific thread). This would then also allow the kind of more
holistic approach to evaluation or even assessment which is really needed to both
encourage and fairly recognize the quality of responses. Used strategically, regular
responses can also be the basis for a synthesizing essay or assignment of some kind as well
as linked to the learning process of educational projects and problem-based learning
inquiries. In such ways the activity-reflection e-portfolio can usefully complement other
modes of leaning and assessment.
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The particular concept of ‘critical reflections’ used here as the most recommended mode of
using webforums for reflective responses is neither a mini-essay nor a short opinionated
discussion. It is a semi-formal written response (usually 350-500 words) to relevant focus
questions grounded in context and preferably linked to either concrete examples, typical
case studies, an actual process of learning or a specific academic reference. In this way
critical reflections should attempt to ground processes of knowledge inquiry (i.e.
conceptual probes), self-evaluation, and various kinds of critical analysis in reflective
practice – and encourage responses which reflect higher-order learning and knowledge
construction and not superficial opinions or mere information transmission. In short, ideas
discussed should relate to practical experience and, where also appropriate, be supported by
appropriate references and well-informed arguments. In this way, critical reflections
represent an applied mode of thinking grounded in practical or ideational ‘doing’ which
goes beyond the learning of mere information or skills. As individual performance, critical
reflections may provide the basis for a social construction of knowledge in terms of
subsequent dialogue and discussion. Figure 3 outlines the generic modes of critical
reflection—the key learning focus for reconciling formative and summative assessment in
the e-portfolio model.
Figure 3. ICT integration and generic modes of critical reflection
1. Critical reflection on a practical activity or about the use of a practical skill or concept
An example of a practical activity might be the use of an internet search engine to find relevant links
for a chosen and refined topic. Instead of merely re-describing the typical steps in this process, you
might relate a ‘reflection’ discussion about key stages of this process to your actual experience of
developing, applying and refining a search strategy – with particular emphasis on how some of the
obstacles faced and overcome gave you new and practical insights about the process undertaken.
2. Critical reflection on a stage or process of learning development
An example of this kind of reflection might relate to either: (a) a developmental stage such as an initial
design concept map or a later flow-chart or storyboard; or (b) the collaborative exercise of developing
a web page or educational resource. If (a) then you might discuss the possibilities versus limitations of
the particular model developed – perhaps with reference to either an initial idea or the projection of a
final product. If (b) then perhaps you might compare the advantages and disadvantages of collaborative
efforts in terms of actual experiences related to a particular stage or a general process.
3. Critical reflection about a topic, concept or issue
This kind of reflection may not require connection to first-hand practical experience but asks you to
demonstrate an effective effort to think about, to explore and to develop a particular topic, concept or
issue. It may be connected to a particular reading provided. If not, then you might yourself make some
relevant connection to a particular references or general debate. It may also be useful to refer to
relevant examples from common knowledge or someone else’s experience or research (as well as your
own).
Implied in the distinction between these three basic types of critical reflection is a notion
that some topics of learning and knowledge-building are grounded more in applied
‘contexts’ and ‘processes’ of generic transferability and others more in the similarly
transformative understanding or interpretation of ‘content’. Thus the typology above lends
its to distinct options which may more relevant in some areas of knowledge or for specific
learning purposes.
Hypermedia projects as an exemplary use of the e-portfolio model
The e-portfolio model outlined here further represents a particular convergence between
learning as an activity-reflection cycle and the literacy implications of the hypermedia
interface. The exemplary instance of a learning and assessment e-portfolio is a website of
hypertextual links (reflecting a required template) to activity artifacts and reflections related
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21C Knowledge-Building – Cameron Richards’ 21st Century knowledge-building project
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to the range of different types of learning outlined above. Alternatively, the e-portfolio
might be saved to disk (e.g. CD-ROM) and submitted this way. In any case, the process of
constructing an e-portfolio can and should be a simple one. An e-portfolio promotes two
key related effects. It represents a framework or context for organizing, reflecting and
generally enhancing or encouraging the process and outcomes of various modes and
elements of either concrete or abstract learning. As a culmination of the learning process,
the publication or presentation of learning outcomes or products on the Internet represents
an authentic mode of assessment which extends beyond immediate formal learning
purposes and the audience of the teacher-marker (e.g. it might remain a useful personal
resource or be shared with others). Indeed, the immediacy and potentially universal access
to web publications or presentations are significant and powerfully motivating elements of
ICTs as the basis for new literacies of interaction and knowledge.
Figure 4. E-portfolio template for a course lending itself to a project-based approach
Multimedia Project (40%)
1. Concept map
2. Flow chart
3. Storyboard
4. Project final product
Course X: Multimedia Development
Developmental Process Reflections (40%)
1. Stages and elements of multimedia project development
2. The development of a workable design idea
3. The process of interface design construction
4. Evaluation Phase—Gauging and refining effectiveness of
project
Other (20%) Seminar presentation, discussion and report
Figure 4 outlines the example of an e-portfolio project-based learning template for
hyperlinks customized for an actual course focusing on multimedia development. The final
product provides the convergent focus for reflections about the various stages, elements,
and artifacts of the learning process about multimedia tools on one hand, and multimedia
design on the other. The organizing focus of (and the idea for) the project itself was
developed in the context of a series of process elements—concept mapping, flow charting,
and storyboarding. Together these activity artifacts were just as important as the final
product for assessment purposes since they reflected the process of learning as well as
development. While the project and its planning elements were developed in pairs as a
collaboration, the reflections and seminar items constituted an ‘individual performance’
which complemented but could be distinguished from the collaborative element. Likewise,
the individual reflections were posted to online webforums as a basis for ongoing sharing
and discussion of ideas in the course. This is in contrast to how Web discussion forums
often promote vague and opinionated interactions around the online posting of mere
content.
Although beyond the scope of the present discussion, it is also perhaps useful to point out
that activity-reflection e-portfolios (potentially) involves an associated interface design
requirement to organize interaction beyond the function of a mere repository. This design
requirement exemplifies the function of narrative and metaphor for organizing knowledge
interaction in a way which contrasts with the traditional linear and hierarchical approaches
to the learning process and knowledge construction.
Applications to different modes and disciplines of learning
The activity-reflection portfolio can be structured and developed in terms of several
different types of templates which reflect a spectrum between focusing on the development
of ICT literacy as an end in itself (or the primary learning goal) on one hand, and as the
basis (i.e. ICT as a mode of literacy) for learning in any content or disciplinary area of
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21C Knowledge-Building – Cameron Richards’ 21st Century knowledge-building project
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knowledge on the other. This continuum is indicated in Figure 5 by the different contexts
and generic templates for using e-portfolios as a learning and assessment tool.
Figure 5. Different learning contexts for customizable e-portfolio templates
1. Introductory or advanced ICT skill and knowledge acquisition:
Activity focus is typically structured as a competency checklist of skills or knowledge
Reflection focus is on learning stages as a transformation proceeding from basic skill
acquisition and effective attitudinal orientation towards goals of confidence, innovation and
application.
Overall e-portfolio learning and assessment objectives goals relate to the general attainment
or development of ICT skills and knowledge as an applied ‘literacy’ and habitual practice
2. ICT in education subjects (e-learning; instructional design, educational technology subjects,
ICT foundation courses, etc):
Activity focus in this kinds of courses is more directly on the use of ICTs in terms of various
generic skills (problem-solving, collaborative learning, etc), as a ‘literacy-across-the-
curriculum’, and generally in relation to constructivist or student-centred notions of
educational design.
Similarly, the reflection focus here is on more applied contexts and practical issues of learning
with ICTs generally – in short, may include a combination of content and process learning
topics and related objectives.
The e-portfolios for such courses are mostly concerned with the progression or transformation
from ‘old learning’ (teacher-centred) to ‘new learning’ (student-centred) in introductory or
foundational ways
3. Project-based or problem-based learning approaches:
A project or problem focus represents an ‘organising activity’ rationale here – a context for
developing different stages and elements of an overall learning process in terms of various
related learning activities using ICTs
The process of development is usually more important than the product (i.e. the direct
outcome is merely a focus for a convergence of indirectly related outcomes). Hence, the
reflection topics and questions here provide a formative and synthesizing focus for the
progressive attainment of an organizing learning purpose or goal.
Overall purposes may range from an applied problem-solving orientation to specific areas of
practical or conceptual knowledge on one hand, to the use of project-based learning as a
powerful motivational framework for a more general engagement with knowledge –
especially in terms of an ICT ‘design’ focus.
4. Specific subjects or content
Learning activities here are typically ‘thematic’ in focus and provide an introductory
connection to a specific curricular or disciplinary content
Reflective practice here should be based on the kind of substantial and effective engagement
with topics of knowledge (also specific procedures or theories) which are encouraged by good
‘focus questions’ in terms of general issues, particular information, and perhaps also relevant
‘readings’ (i.e. resources or references).
While ICTs need not be used directly for promoting an activity-reflection cycle here, an e-
portfolio model nevertheless provides a learning and assessment context for both integrating
ICTs as a general literacy lending itself to constructivist or student-centred learning.
The activity-reflection e-portfolio might thus be applied to a range of different types of
learning. It represents an approach which encourages students to be more active,
reflective and innovative learners in potential or actual contexts of application—in
contrast to learning as the mere acquisition of information or skills in isolation on one
hand, or as privileged abstraction and theorizing in a contextual vacuum on the other.
The e-portfolio has further been outlined above as a convergent hub also for a series of
related notions linked to a view of the constructivist or learner-centred implications of
ICT in education (project-based learning, authentic assessment, collaborative learning,
etc.). To the extent that it provides a design strategy for framing the learning process
and effectively integrating ICTs in education, it is a model which exemplifies the
implications, possibilities and requirements of ‘new learning’.
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Conclusion
E-learning platforms or programs are increasingly being used in higher education for
teaching and learning purposes. However, the typical use of such programs as repositories
for content in the manner of traditional transmission approaches to teaching and learning
reminds us that alternative approaches to educational design are needed to more effectively
harness (and ‘design’ for) the learner-centred implications of the various tools and media of
new learning technologies. The activity-reflection e-portfolio represents one effort at are
more integrated and effective approach to both educational design and ICT use for teaching
and learning purposes which lends itself to different disciplinary or knowledge areas (at
different levels) and different specific methods of learning and assessment.
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