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Take responsibility for electronic-waste disposal:

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Abstract

International cooperation is needed to stop developed nations simply offloading defunct electronics on developing countries, argue Zhaohua Wang, Bin Zhang and Dabo Guan.

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... These metals are bound, coated, or mixed with plastics and ceramics. Additionally, it includes small amounts of precious metals such as gold (Au), silver (Ag), platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd), and rhodium (Rh), as well as metal oxides [15,16]. PCBs are one of the important components of e-waste due to their high content of such precious and base metals [17]. ...
... Electronic scrap can be classified by origin and composition. Among the most common examples by origin, we can find computer equipment (CPUs and monitors), household appliances, various types of batteries, and cell phones [15,16]. The latter are accessible to practically everyone and are a rich source of metallic elements. ...
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Nowadays, the recycling of metals from electrical and electronic waste is of great relevance due to its direct and indirect impact on environmental, social, and economic fields. Therefore, this study, conducted at the laboratory level, focuses on the recovery of copper from printed circuit boards through dynamic acid leaching in an H2SO4-O2 system, with the stirring rate controlled as the main parameter. Initially, the metallic pins were characterized by SEM-EDS, revealing that they consist of 7.56 wt% of copper, the predominant element serving as the base material. A thin gold film (79 wt%) is deposited on the copper to enhance its electrical conduction properties. In the subsequent leaching step, a random sample of 10 g was taken in a 500 mL volume, with an acid concentration of 0.03 M. The system was heated to 298.15 K under an oxygen partial pressure of 101.3 kPa. The stirring rate was varied from 450 to 1000 rpm, resulting in a maximum copper concentration of 645.294 ppm in the solution. The experimental constants were calculated for low (0–60 min) and high (60–240 min) chemical attack times, yielding ranges of 0.026 to 0.923 and 0.019 to 2.577 min− 1, respectively. On the other hand, one of the main outcomes of this research lies in the implementation of an artificial neural network to intelligently model the experimental process. It exhibited a mean squared error, correlation coefficient, and determination coefficient of 0.99690. Artificial neural networks emerge as an exceptional tool in predicting hydrometallurgical processes. This innovative application not only optimizes copper recovery but also ensures a cost-effective and environmentally friendly management of electronic waste. In the same way, it is possible to generate models of problems through learning. For all the aforementioned reasons, in the present work, an artificial neural network is developed to predict the dissolution of Cu in an electronic waste leaching process, considering the stirring rate as a key factor.
... For instance, reports indicate that the global annual electronic waste volume surged to a record high of 65.4 million tons in 2017, marking a substantial rise from 14 million in 2005 and 42 million in 2014 [30]. To contextualize these figures, the electronic waste generated in 2017 alone was approximately 11 times heavier than the Great Pyramid of Giza [31] or equivalent to stacking a pile that could reach the Moon and back seven times. These figures are continuously escalating, posing alarming environmental concerns, particularly considering that handheld devices and laptops contain toxic substances such as mercury, arsenic, and chromium [30]. ...
... Hence, it is imperative to underscore the recycling of electronics within the international communication standards of 6G, enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of the disposal process, and raising awareness among consumers to participate in recycling initiatives. A potential avenue for reducing electronic waste involves producing chips using environmentally friendly biological materials, such as microbes [31], facilitating the recycling process with less toxic materials. Furthermore, considering green biological materials could potentially reduce energy consumption during the fabrication process. ...
Preprint
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As a way ahead, while across the globe the speedy deployment of 5G wireless networks is underway, the wireless network designers and researchers are planning the successor of 5G networks. In this chapter, we highlight the shortcomings of 5G in meeting the needs of more data-intensive, low-latency, and ultra-high-reliability applications. We then discuss the salient characteristics of the 6G network, following a hierarchical approach, including the social, economic, and technological aspects. It is followed by the description of 6G network requirements, including services and technologies involved. The technical improvements in frame design, radio access schemes, and cell-free design are described. The chapter concludes by providing the list of global research efforts being underway for deployment of 6G future networks by 2030.
... (Pouikli, 2020;Steenmans, 2019). However, the EPR studies have largely focused on technology development that incorporates green design to support the waste prevention initiatives, rather than E-waste collection and recycling (Wang et al., 2016), with less consideration of the Critical Success Factors (CSF) of EPR implementation. The aim of the paper is to examine the EPR system critical success factors based on the Theory of Planned Behavior and considering ecological design concept as a potential extension of the TPB in promoting sustainable electronic waste management. ...
... The core reason of eco-design is to reflect and deliberate the probable impact of the electronic products on the environment from its source, to assess the cost and benefit of the material life cycle (Khan et al., 2008). Notably, most researches have focused on waste recycling (Wang et al., 2016), with less emphasis on the challenge of product source design (Dong et al., 2019). Ecological design behavior improves the environment and promote environmental protection. ...
Article
Governments and its citizens contribute enormously to the electronic waste problem in relation to the consumption and its generation posing serious threat to the management of wastes. Uganda government is yet to enact an Extended Producer Responsibility related laws within their national legislations to manage E-waste effectively. The paper aims to examine the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) system critical success factors based on the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and consider ecological design concept as a potential extension of the TPB in promoting sustainable electronic waste management. The survey questionnaires were administered to expert environmental-oriented government employees. Data was analysed by means of the Partial-LeastSquares Structural-Equation-Modelling. The findings demonstrate that the developed conceptual framework explain 52.4% variance in the intentions to participate and practice EPR systems, thus reflecting a good explanatory power while confirming the model robustness. The results illustrate all TPB constructs of attitude, intentions, perceived behavioral control and subjective norm, towards EPR schemes have significant positive effect on the outcome of sustainable E-waste management. Exceptionally, it indicates ecological design is the most influential predictor of sustainable E-waste management for implementation of EPR systems. Building on the study results, for proper electronic waste management programs deployment, and successful implementation of EPR systems, developing countries should target the TPB constructs, and ecological design as an extension factor. As policy implication, government should emphasize the nurturing of good ecological design behavior of organizations and also encourage effort toward green actions taken through penalties and incentives and by laws and regulations.
... [10,11] According to the Global E-waste Monitor 2020, the amount of global ewaste is estimated to enhance from 9.2 million tons to 74.7 million tons by 2030. [12][13][14][15][16] Moreover, improper disposal and the dramatic rise of electronic waste (e-waste) have caused unavoidable environmental concerns owing to the toxic effect of gold ions in wastewater. [17,18] Hence, for the sake of resource conservation, environmental protection, and sustainable development, gold recovery and its reusability are earnestly required. ...
Article
Full-text available
Extraction of gold from secondary resources such as electronic waste (e‐waste) has become crucial in recent times to compensate for the gradual scarcity of the noble metal in natural mines. However, designing and synthesizing a suitable material for highly efficient gold recovery is still a great challenge. Herein, we have strategically designed rapid fabrication of an ionic crystalline hybrid aerogel by covalent threading of an amino‐functionalized metal‐organic polyhedra with an imine‐linked chemically stable covalent organic framework at ambient condition. The hierarchically porous ultra‐light aerogel featuring imine‐rich backbone, high surface area, and cationic sites have shown fast removal, high uptake capacity (2349 mg/g), and excellent selectivity towards gold sequestration. Besides, the aerogel can extract ultra‐trace gold‐ions from different terrestrial water bodies, aiming towards safe drinking water. This study demonstrates the great potential of the composite materials based on a novel approach to designing a hybrid porous material for efficient gold recovery from complex water matrices.
... The pores may be caused by the conversion of excess citric acid in the gel to volatile carbon dioxide gas during high-temperature calcination. [26] The electrochemical performance of the regenerated cathode at different pH values at 0.2 C is shown in Figure S8. R1-NCM exhibits the highest charge-discharge performance and capacity retention, which is attributed to the shorter migration distance and smaller polarization of Li + due to the smaller particles and uniform particle size distribution. ...
Article
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We proposed a Fischer‐lactonisation‐driven mechanism based on the nucleophilic substitution principle for the cascade reaction of leaching and chelation of spent LIBs. The unique property of citric acid was exploited, which can be used as both a leaching and chelating agent, to induce chelation and further precipitation by precisely controlling its solution concentration. This mechanism mainly takes advantage of the nucleophilic attack between the carbon atom in the protonated carboxyl ion (−COO −) on the citric acid chelate and the lone pair of electrons in its hydroxyl to promote the generation of the ester bond, thus forming the lactonized gel, which genuinely brings out the advantages of the bifunctionality of citric acid as a leaching agent and a chelating agent simultaneously. In this study, our innovative strategy enhances the simplicity and flexibility of traditional hydrometallurgical processes by eliminating the cumbersome separation and extraction procedures. Compared to traditional sol‐gel methods, the strategy avoids the usage of large amounts of citric acid while eliminating the highly polluting part of pH adjustment by ammonia, allowing spontaneous gel formation in the original acidic environment. Most importantly, the strategy is further upgraded from the existing modification methods by eliminating the need to introduce additional alcohol solvents to provide the required alcohol for the lactonization reaction, thus reducing the consumption of organic solvents and improving the environmental friendliness of the process. image
... Although EMF exposure has always existed, it has been steadily increasing throughout the 21st century due to ambient exposure to artificial EMFs (D'Angelo et al., 2015). The proliferation of electrical and electronic equipment such as personal computers and domestic appliances has made ELF-EMFs increasingly common in the environment (Wang et al., 2016). ELF-EMFs, emitted by electrical appliances and overhead power lines, are prevalent in the modern world (Wyszkowska et al., 2016). ...
Article
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The widespread use of electrical and electronic devices in the 21st century has been attributed to human exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMFs), and potential public health threats. Amongst other electrical devices, indoor transformer stations have exposed both general public and workers to potentially high levels of extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields (ELF-EMFs), resulting in acute and severe health implications. In this review, the health effects resulting from occupational and residential exposure to ELF-EMFs from indoor transformer stations were assessed by synthesizing evidence from published studies. Population, Exposure, Comparison and Outcome (PECO) framework was used as a guide in documenting the evidence, and Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) to select studies that match the inclusion criteria. Following the PRISMA guide, a total of 13 studies formed part of this review. Highest magnetic field (MF) exposure level found from a residential exposure assessment study was 11.60 µT, 0.2 m above the transformer station, with the lowest at 0.1 µT due to household electrical appliances. Occupational exposure assessment revealed the highest exposure level of 4.67 µT in the transformer room and lowest at >0.05 µT. Cancer was mostly prevalent in residential studies with longer exposure period (>34 years), and with non-specific exposure symptoms (3 years and 18 months exposure period) within occupational exposure studies. This review found insufficient evidence to suggest the average exposure levels of ELF EMF from indoor transformers, which could pose significant health risks. However, these findings have a noteworthy implication for environmental health and occupational safety.
... The growing use of electronic devices has made handling e-waste crucial, prompting a significant focus on developing effective methods for its disposal [1][2][3]. Recycling technologies for printed circuit boards (PCBs) can be generally categorized into physical and chemical methods [4,5]. During physical recycling, the PCBs are mechanically dismantled and ground. ...
Article
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Electronic waste (e-waste) and diabetes are global challenges to modern societies. However, solving these two challenges together has been challenging until now. Herein, we propose a laser-induced transfer method to fabricate portable glucose sensors by recycling copper from e-waste. We bring up a laser-induced full-automatic fabrication method for synthesizing continuous heterogeneous Cu x O (h-Cu x O) nano-skeletons electrode for glucose sensing, offering rapid (< 1 min), clean, air-compatible, and continuous fabrication, applicable to a wide range of Cu-containing substrates. Leveraging this approach, h-Cu x O nano-skeletons, with an inner core predominantly composed of Cu 2 O with lower oxygen content, juxtaposed with an outer layer rich in amorphous Cu x O (a-Cu x O) with higher oxygen content, are derived from discarded printed circuit boards. When employed in glucose detection, the h-Cu x O nano-skeletons undergo a structural evolution process, transitioning into rigid Cu 2 O@CuO nano-skeletons prompted by electrochemical activation. This transformation yields exceptional glucose-sensing performance (sensitivity: 9.893 mA mM ⁻¹ cm ⁻² ; detection limit: 0.34 μM), outperforming most previously reported glucose sensors. Density functional theory analysis elucidates that the heterogeneous structure facilitates gluconolactone desorption. This glucose detection device has also been downsized to optimize its scalability and portability for convenient integration into people’s everyday lives.
... The production of e-waste in Europe is also expected to increase by 45 % between 1995 and 2020 (Khaliq et al., 2014). According to Davis and Heart (2008); Yunus and Sengupta (2016); Wang et al., (2016), 20-50 million tonnes of e-waste are generated globally every year. Isildar et al., 2019 reported that e-waste had reached a global total of 41.8 million tons per annum in 2014 and that Norway, Ireland, Liechtenstein, Switzerland, and Turkey are the largest e-waste generators with a total of 9.8 M tons and 20.4 kg/person/year in average, along with the United States (7.1 M tons and 22.3 kg/person) and China (6 M tons, 4.4 kg/person). ...
Article
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Electronic wastes such as batteries, cell phones, laptops, radios and televisions obtained from electronic shops and dumpsites in Port Harcourt, Nigeria were dismantled, crushed, incinerated, pulverized, sieved and extracted. The powdered and dried e-waste samples as well as metal oxides found in both raw and recovered e-wastes were characterized using appropriate methods. The XRD patterns showed the major mineral phases as quartz, alumina, alumina, calcite, quartz, quartz, quartz, cassiterite, quartz and quartz for raw samples respectively and halite, vallerite, manganite, thenardite, calcium hydroxide, chalcopyrite, gibbsite, sylvine sodian, and gibbsite for recovered samples respectively. The SEM micrographs demonstrated noticeable morphological differences among the samples. The surface morphology also showed smaller particle sizes as well as large particle sizes of 20µm. The results of FTIR confirmed the finger print regions of the major mineral phases. The EDXRD analysis for composition of metal oxides showed SnO2 (5.30%), Al2O3, (27.87%), Al2O3, (14.22 %), CaO (23.41 %), CuO (52.47 %), Fe2O3 (14.31 %), Co3O4 (56.37 %), SnO2 (11.44 %), Co3O4 (7.74 %) and Fe2O3 (17.12 %) as the highest metal oxides for raw samples and Al2O3, (10.85 %), Fe2O3 (26.96 %), CuO (66.89 %), CaO (17.39 %), Co3O4 (26.70 %), Co3O4 (45.77 %), Fe2O3 (10.39 %), Al2O3, (63.67 %), MgO (4.92 %), and Al2O3 (29.68 %), as the highest metal oxides for recovered samples .Some metal oxides that were found in the raw components were found to be absent or non-crystalline in the recovered compounds. The characterization of e-waste components could be conducted in order to reveal the correlation between toxic substances in e-waste and recovery (treatment) strategies.
... That is to say, a large amount of surplus waste rock, sand, soil, and processed kimberlite can accumulate in the immediate vicinity of such areas. In addition, coastal and inland alluvial mining, and marine mining also require mining companies to remove sand and soil before mining (Field et al. 2008;Wang et al. 2016). The total water consumption of diamond mining operations, including potable water and non-potable water, shows that producing the same unit of rough diamonds requires 1.92 times more water than gold and 52,345 times more water than bauxite and alumina. ...
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Mining diamond poses significant and potentially underestimated risks to the environment worldwide. Here, we propose a Diamond Environmental Impacts Estimation (DEIE) model to forecast the environmental indicators, including greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, mineral waste, and water usage of the diamond industry from 2030 to 2100 in the top diamond production countries under different Shared Socio-economic Pathways (SSPs). The DEIE projection results indicate that the annual GHG emissions, mineral waste, and water usage of the global diamond industry will reach 9.65 Mt, 422.80 Mt, and 78.68 million m³ under the SSP1-1.9 scenario, and 13.26 Mt, 582.84 Mt, and 107.95 million m³ under the SSP2-2.6 scenario in 2100, respectively. We analyze the environmental impact heterogeneities and the associated driving factors across the major diamond production countries identified by our DEIE framework. In addition, we find that lab-grown diamonds can reduce annual GHG emissions, mineral waste, and water usage by 9.58 Mt, 421.06 Mt, and 66.70 million m³ in 2100. The lab-grown diamond substitution policy can annually save 714 million cubic meters of landfill space, harvest 255 million kilograms of rice, feed 436 million people, and lift 1.19 million households out of hunger. The lab-grown diamond substitution policy could contribute to the diamond industry’s GHG mitigation and sustainability efforts in a cost-saving manner.
... This allows multiple potential EoL scenarios to be explored, including reuse, repair, remanufacturing, and recycling [43]. Studies conducted in Europe show that every year, one European discards about 15 kg of electrical and electronic equipment [44] and this is the reason why many studies investigate RL in the electronic industrial sector. The use of RL is mainly due to two reasons; on the one hand, there are financial benefits that come from including product recovery through the introduction of RL in the production process [45]. ...
Conference Paper
This paper deals with a comprehensive literature review on the topics of remanufacturing and reverse logistics, with a specific focus on the usage of computer simulation and optimization techniques. When dealing with the management of backward flows, challenges such as product complexity and variability, uncertainty in demand and supply, and high logistics and operational costs exists; to tackle these issues, strategies and techniques for optimizing processes have been explored; computer simulation was demonstrated to be a powerful tool for facing these issues. A total of 77 documents published from 2018 to 2023 are analysed, using advanced bibliometric and network analysis techniques. Outcomes highlight the challenges and opportunities associated with remanufacturing and reverse logistics and emphasise the role of simulation-based optimization in enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of remanufacturing operations.
... Biodegradable electronic materials are centered on the development of electronic components and devices that can decompose naturally after their useful life, minimizing environmental impact and addressing the growing concern over electronic waste (ewaste). [102][103][104][105] This approach represents a significant shift toward sustainable electronics, integrating principles of green chemistry, environmental engineering, and materials science Especially, transient inorganic and organic electronic materials that can biodegrade over a period of usage are intensively being developed for bioresorbable implantable medical devices. [31,[106][107][108] ...
Article
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Skin‐mountable electronic materials are being intensively evaluated for use in bio‐integrated devices that can mutually interact with the human body. Over the past decade, functional electronic materials inspired by the skin are developed with new functionalities to address the limitations of traditional electronic materials for bio‐integrated devices. Herein, the recent progress in skin‐mountable functional electronic materials for skin‐like electronics is introduced with a focus on five perspectives that entail essential functionalities: stretchability, self‐healing ability, biocompatibility, breathability, and biodegradability. All functionalities are advanced with each strategy through rational material designs. The skin‐mountable functional materials enable the fabrication of bio‐integrated electronic devices, which can lead to new paradigms of electronics combining with the human body.
... This leads to low resource utilization efficiency and can bring about serious secondary pollution (Ohajinwa et al., 2018;Shinkuma and Managi, 2010). In Guiyu, a town in China, the concentration of heavy metals in food markets near e-waste recycling vendors is quite severe, which poses obvious potential health risks to local residents (Sanito et al., 2021;Wang et al., 2017;Wang et al., 2016). ...
... Waste CRT glass is one of the fastest-growing hazardous wastes of the electronic industry (Yu et al., 2016). It was reported that a total of 41.8 million tons of e-waste was generated worldwide in 2014 (Baldé et al. 2015;Wang et al., 2016). In China, more than 69 million units of waste televisions and waste computers (about generated 43.11 million tons) were produced in 2013 (China Industry Research Network, 2013). ...
Article
Waste CRT funnel glass (FG) is a typical hazardous waste produced by the electronics industry that contains toxic lead oxide, red mud (RM) is the first waste produced during alumina production. Both of these are extremely difficult to reuse. Here, we report a method to control FG waste, in which RM was used to enhance the removal of Pb from FG via a vacuum thermal process. The removed residual glass was utilized to create glass-ceramics. The results showed that RM can enhance the lead removal from waste CRT funnel glass by the vacuum thermal process. When 30% RM was added, the removal rate reached 98.54%. A significant mechanism of enhancing delead is investigated by a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The results showed that the -Pb-O-Si-O- network structure was broken by the free calcium ions of RM. Afterward, valuable glass-ceramics with tetragonal-KAlSi2O6 and triclinic-CaSiO3 crystals were synthesized using the residual glass. The Pb, Ba, Cr, and Cu leaching concentrations of the glass-ceramics were well below the regulatory limit (5 mg/L) of the CA-EPA, as measured by the toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) test. Overall, the results indicated that RM enhanced the removal of lead during the vacuum thermal process. The synthesis of value-added glass-ceramics reutilized silicate resources from waste cathode ray tube (CRT) funnel glass and RM.
... E-waste accumulates nearly three times faster than other waste (Cucchiella, Adamo, Koh and Rosa, 2015). For example, between 20 and 50 million tonnes of Waste Electronic and Electrical Equipment (WEEE) are generated yearly (Wang, Zhang and Guan ,2016). Akuru and Okoro (2010), concluded that due to the lack of financial resources available to most people in developing countries, much of the growth in the information communication technology (ICT) sector in developing countries has been fuelled by the importation of 'hand-me-down' used equipment from rich, developed countries, whose consumers are all too happy to find buyers for it. ...
Article
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Electronic waste (e-waste) has become an issue of major importance as production technology rapidly develops and changes, and more unknown components of the waste enter the municipal waste stream. The absence of a structured management system and laxity in environmental laws and regulations in Anambra State have led to an increased influx of e-waste into the state. It has created an avenue for uncontrolled and crude methods of recovering valuable metals from waste. These e-wastes are dismantled, some are burnt without prior knowledge of their composition and noxious matters are released into the environment. This study aims to establish an understanding of the extent of heavy metal contamination on the soil around the e-waste dumpsite in Ochanja in Onitsha, Anambra State, with a view to generating baseline data on the extent of contamination of heavy metals from e-waste. An experimental research design was adopted, and primary data were obtained through the collection of four different soil samples at varying distances within the Ochanja e-waste dumpsite, the Study Area. The collected soil samples were analyzed using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer AAS(GBC932AA) for the following heavy metals: Lead(Pb), Cadmium(Cd), Hexavalent chromium(Cr), Copper(Cu), Aluminium(Al) and Nickel(Ni). The result of the analysis showed that Al and Cr had maximum average values of 393.65mg/kg and 161.70mg/kg, followed by Pb(111.4mg/kg), Cu(102.37mg/kg), Cd(11.79mg/kg) and Ni(6.43mg/kg). The heavy metal concentrations in the soil were generally above 100mg/kg with the exception of Cadmium (11.79mg/kg) and Nickel(6.43mg/kg), while the average concentrations of Al, Cu and Cd are above USEPA standards of 300mg/kg,50mg/kg and 3mg/kg respectively. The significant heavy metals found in soil samples in and around the dumpsites in the study area likely resulted from poor management of e-waste in the dumpsite in the study area. This is an indicator that the negative health impact of these heavy metals should be further investigated to avert any health and environmental consequences in the study area.
... Waste resulting from the fabrication and use of electronic devices, also called "e-waste," has continued to grow in quantity and diversity in recent times. In 2014 alone, it was reported that about 0.042 billion tons of e-waste were generated globally (Wang et al., 2016;Baldé et al., 2017;Yao et al., 2018). The volume continues to grow due to advances in electronics design, fabrication, and product complexity (Kurtulus et al., 2023). ...
... 12,13 Meanwhile, China was the leading importer of global waste as well. 14,15 A decade ago, up to 70% of the world's e-waste ended up in China, 16 exacerbating challenges of hazardous waste management in China. In this context, in 2017, the Chinese government enacted an unprecedented ban (i.e., Prohibiting the Imports of Foreign Garbage: the Reform Plan on Solid Waste Import Management, herein referred to as "the Chinese import ban"), restricting the import of many types of waste from other countries. ...
Article
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The Basel Convention and prior studies mainly focused on the physical transboundary movements of hazardous waste (transporting waste from one region to another for cheaper disposal). Here, we take China, the world’s largest waste producer, as an example and reveal the virtual hazardous waste flows in trade (outsourcing waste by importing waste-intensive products) by developing a multiregional input–output model. Our model characterizes the impact of international trade between China and 140 economies and China’s interprovincial trade on hazardous waste generated by 161,599 Chinese enterprises. We find that, in 2015, virtual hazardous waste flows in China’s trade reached 26.6 million tons (67% of the national total), of which 31% were generated during the production of goods that were ultimately consumed abroad. Trade-related production is much dirtier than locally consumed production, generating 26% more hazardous waste per unit of GDP. Under the impact of virtual flows, 40% of the waste-intensive production and relevant disposal duty is unequally concentrated in three Chinese provinces (including two least-developed ones, Qinghai and Xinjiang). Our findings imply the importance of expanding the scope of transboundary waste regulations and provide a quantitative basis for introducing consumer responsibilities. This may help relieve waste management burdens in less-developed “waste havens”.
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The increasing volume of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) presents both a significant environmental challenge and an untapped economic opportunity. This market analysis and case study explore the dynamics of the WEEE sector, examining the key drivers, trends, and regulatory frameworks influencing its growth. The study delves into the global and regional market size, value chain, and recycling practices, highlighting innovations in technology and processing methodologies. A particular focus is placed on the European Union's WEEE Directive and its impact on producer responsibility, collection rates, and material recovery efficiency. Through a comprehensive case study, the report evaluates successful WEEE recycling models and the integration of advanced technologies, such as high-voltage fragmentation and hydrometallurgy, for material recovery. Challenges such as illegal exports, consumer awareness gaps, and logistical inefficiencies are critically analyzed. The findings emphasize the economic potential of WEEE recycling, projecting market growth driven by increasing regulations, consumer electronics proliferation, and advancements in circular economy principles. This analysis serves as a resource for policymakers, industry stakeholders, and researchers, providing actionable insights into optimizing WEEE management practices and leveraging its value for sustainable development. The study concludes by proposing innovative strategies to address existing challenges and foster a more efficient and eco-friendly WEEE recycling ecosystem.
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The recovery of Co(II), Mn(II), Ni(II), and Cu(II) from black mass e-waste solutions through cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) and nanocrystals (CNCs) was investigated. These materials were synthetized by TEMPO-oxidation followed by high-pressure homogenization, and acid hydrolysis, respectively. The NC characterization included the measurement of consistency, cationic demand, carboxylic content, dissolved amorphous cellulose, and transmittance at λ = 600 nm. These parameters revealed a high transmittance of the NC solutions and a large presence of anionic groups on the surface. The high surface area and charge of the NC justify their high interaction with the cationic metals. Results indicate that short contact times (even 1 min) and low sorbent doses (10 mg/L) at acidic pHs (2 to 4) implied remarkable sorption capacities in most cases with more than 1 g/g of sorption capacity of Co(II), Mn(II), and Cu(II) in single-step sorption tests. Such levels of sorption capacities exceed by at least one order of magnitude most of the literature values of metal recovery applying cellulosic materials. Isotherm modeling through a combination of Langmuir and Freundlich models suggested that both sorption and surface precipitation occurred. A novel procedure following multiple-step batch operation was applied for Mn(II) sorption. This new method was applied as a five-step process, leading to a fourfold and 18-fold increase of sorption capacity onto CNCs and CNFs, respectively, compared to the single-step process. Therefore, this process shows an innovative way to implement the multiple-step batch sorption with NC as an efficient and environmentally friendly solution for critical metal recovery from e-waste leachates. Graphical Abstract
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Extraction of gold from secondary resources such as electronic waste (e‐waste) has become crucial in recent times to compensate for the gradual scarcity of the noble metal in natural mines. However, designing and synthesizing a suitable material for highly efficient gold recovery is still a great challenge. Herein, we have strategically designed rapid fabrication of an ionic crystalline hybrid aerogel by covalent threading of an amino‐functionalized metal‐organic polyhedra with an imine‐linked chemically stable covalent organic framework at ambient condition. The hierarchically porous ultra‐light aerogel featuring imine‐rich backbone, high surface area, and cationic sites have shown fast removal, high uptake capacity (2349 mg/g), and excellent selectivity towards gold sequestration. Besides, the aerogel can extract ultra‐trace gold‐ions from different terrestrial water bodies, aiming towards safe drinking water. This study demonstrates the great potential of the composite materials based on a novel approach to designing a hybrid porous material for efficient gold recovery from complex water matrices.
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Hydrometallurgy remains a major challenge to simplify its complex separation and precipitation processes for spent lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs). Herein, we propose a Fischer‐lactonisation‐driven mechanism for the cascade reaction of leaching and chelation of spent LIBs. Citric acid undergoes a two‐step dissociation of the carboxylic acid (‐COOH) and complexes with the leached metal ion, while the residual ‐COOH is attacked by H protons to form a protonated carboxyl ion (‐COO^‐). Subsequently, the lone pair of electrons in the hydroxyl of the same molecule attack the carbon atom in ‐COO^‐ to facilitate ester bonding, leading to the formation of a lactonized gel. The leaching rates of Li, Ni, Co and Mn are 99.3, 99.1, 99.5 and 99.2%, respectively. The regenerated monocrystalline LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 (NCM523) has a uniform particle size distribution and complete lamellar structure, with a capacity retention rate of 70.6% after 250 cycles at 0.5 C. The mechanism achieves a one‐step chelation reaction, and the energy consumption and carbon emissions are only 26% and 44%, respectively, of that of the conventional hydrometallurgical. The strategy achieves a double breakthrough in simplifying the process and improving environmental friendliness, offering a sustainable approach to the re‐utilization of spent LIBs.
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The growing volume of spent lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) with degraded LiCoO2 (D‐LCO) cathodes is arising as an environmental concern as well as a waste of strategic resources. Current recycling strategies for D‐LCO materials primarily focus on metal extractions (Li and Co), which produce large quantities of wastewater and waste residues and consume substantial amounts of energy. Inspiringly, the rapid proliferation of electric vehicles has catalyzed the ever‐increasing production of LIBs with ternary layered oxides as the prevalent cathode materials. Herein, this work reports a simple, green, and economic upcycling strategy for direct transformation of D‐LCO into high‐performance single‐crystal LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 (NCM111) cathode materials. By simultaneous lithium replenishment, particle size reduction, and chemical composition engineering in the upcycling process, the NCM111 product delivers a high specific capacity (159.0 mAh g⁻¹ at 0.1 C) and an excellent cycling stability (82.1% retention after 200 cycles at 1 C), outperforming those of commercial materials. This work highlights the immense potential of upcycling strategies in mitigating the environmental ramifications of spent LIBs and paves the way for the sustainable development of LIBs industry.
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Developing candidate materials which possess the ability of both selective detection and efficient capture of precious metal gold is highly desirable for environment and economy. However, most of reported materials only focus on single function, which seriously restricts their practical application as probes or adsorbents. Herein, a two dimensional (2D) acridine‐based covalent organic framework (TpDa‐COF) is prepared via the linkage of imine bonds for gold detection and adsorption. The synthesized COF can achieve both fluorescence and colorimetric dual sensing for Au³⁺ in a low concentration range (0.1–1.5 ppm) with the limit of detection (LOD) of 0.036 ppm. Impressively, the selectivity of TpDa‐COF for the detection of Au³⁺ is admirable (Fe³⁺, Fe²⁺ and Cu²⁺ for negligible influence on its fluorescence). In addition, TpDa‐COF exhibits ultrahigh adsorption capacity of 982.5 mg ⋅ g⁻¹ for gold at pH=4, which is attributed the synergistic effect of both selective coordination and reductive process of Au(III) to Au(0). Meanwhile, both positive entropy change (ΔS=76.07 J ⋅ mol⁻¹ ⋅ K⁻¹) and high distribution coefficient (Kd=12484.8 mL ⋅ g⁻¹) confirm the good affinity between TpDa‐COF framework and gold. This work gives us a new insight to prepare COF with pyridine nitrogen sites for gold detection and adsorption.
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This monitor aims to present the first comprehensive assessment of e-waste volumes, their corresponding impacts and management status on a global scale. This is measured using an internationally-adopted measuring framework that has been developed by the Partnership on Measuring ICT for Development (Baldé et al., 2015). The methodology calculates the amount of e-waste generated from harmonised modelling steps and data sources. The outcomes show an unprecedented level of accuracy and harmonisation across countries and are very useful for international benchmarking. It is estimated that the total amount e-waste generated in 2014 was 41.8 million metric tonnes (Mt). It is forecasted to increase to 50 Mt of e-waste in 2018. This e-waste is comprised of 1.0 Mt of lamps, 6.3 Mt of screens, 3.0 Mt of small IT (such as mobile phones, pocket calculators, personal computers, printers, etc.), 12.8 Mt of small equipment (such as vacuum cleaners, microwaves, toasters, electric shavers, video cameras, etc.), 11.8 Mt of large equipment (such as washing machines, clothes dryers, dishwashers, electric stoves, photovoltaic panels, etc.) and 7.0 Mt of cooling and freezing equipment (temperature exchange equipment).
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Since the mid-1990s, electronic waste (e-waste) has been recognized as the fastest-growing component of the solid-waste stream, as small consumer electronic products, such as cellular phones, have become ubiquitous in developed and developing countries (1). In the absence of adequate recycling policies, the small size, short useful life-span, and high costs of recycling these products mean they are routinely discarded without much concern for their adverse impacts on the environment and public health. These impacts occur throughout the product life cycle, from acquisition of raw materials (2) to manufacturing to disposal at the end of products' useful life.
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The draft legislation on e-waste prepared by the Chinese national government assigns management responsibility to local governments. It is an urgent task for the municipal government to plan an effective system as soon as possible to divert the e-waste flow from the existing informal e-waste recycling processes. This paper presents a case study implemented in Beijing, the capital city of China, with the purpose of predicting the amount of obsolete equipment for five main kinds of electronic appliances from urban households and to analyse the flow after the end of their useful phase. The amount to be handled was 885,354 units in 2005 and is predicted to double by 2010. Due to consumption growth and the expansion of urbanization it is estimated that the amount will increase to approximate 2,820,000 units by 2020: 70% of the obsolete appliances will be awaiting collection for possible recycling, 7% will be stored at the owner's home for 1 year on average and 4% will be discarded directly and enter the municipal solid waste collecting system. The remaining items will be reused for about 3 years on average after the change of ownership. The results of this study will assist the waste management authorities of Beijing to plan the collecting system and facilities needed for management of e-waste generated in the near future.
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The transport of discarded electronic and electrical appliances (e-waste) to developing regions has received considerable attention, but it is difficult to assess the significance of this issue without a quantitative understanding of the amounts involved. The main objective of this study is to track the global transport of e-wastes by compiling and constraining existing estimates of the amount of e-waste generated domestically in each country MGEN, exported from countries belonging to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) MEXP, and imported in countries outside of the OECD MIMP. Reference year is 2005 and all estimates are given with an uncertainty range. Estimates of MGEN obtained by apportioning a global total of ∼35,000 kt (range 20,000-50,000 kt) based on a nation's gross domestic product agree well with independent estimates of MGEN for individual countries. Import estimates MIMP to the countries believed to be the major recipients of e-waste exports from the OECD globally (China, India, and five West African countries) suggests that ∼5,000 kt (3,600 kt-7,300 kt) may have been imported annually to these non-OECD countries alone, which represents ∼23% (17%-34%) of the amounts of e-waste generated domestically within the OECD. MEXP for each OECD country is then estimated by applying this fraction of 23% to its MGEN. By allocating each country's MGEN, MIMP, MEXP and MNET = MGEN + MIMP - MEXP, we can map the global generation and flows of e-waste from OECD to non-OECD countries. While significant uncertainties remain, we note that estimated import into seven non-OECD countries alone are often at the higher end of estimates of exports from OECD countries.
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E-waste recycling has become a hotly debated global issue. This study, using China as a case study, analyzes the environmental, economic, and social implications of e-waste recycling in the developing world. More practical approaches, taking into account local economic and social conditions and the principles of Extended Producer Responsibility, are recommended to alleviate the increasing environmental disruption from improper e-waste disposal.
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E-waste comprises discarded electronic appliances, of which computers and mobile telephones are disproportionately abundant because of their short lifespan. The current global production of E-waste is estimated to be 20–25 million tonnes per year, with most E-waste being produced in Europe, the United States and Australasia. China, Eastern Europe and Latin America will become major E-waste producers in the next ten years. Miniaturisation and the development of more efficient cloud computing networks, where computing services are delivered over the internet from remote locations, may offset the increase in E-waste production from global economic growth and the development of pervasive new technologies. E-waste contains valuable metals (Cu, platinum group) as well as potential environmental contaminants, especially Pb, Sb, Hg, Cd, Ni, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Burning E-waste may generate dioxins, furans, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polyhalogenated aromatic hydrocarbons (PHAHs), and hydrogen chloride. The chemical composition of E-waste changes with the development of new technologies and pressure from environmental organisations on electronics companies to find alternatives to environmentally damaging materials. Most E-waste is disposed in landfills. Effective reprocessing technology, which recovers the valuable materials with minimal environmental impact, is expensive. Consequently, although illegal under the Basel Convention, rich countries export an unknown quantity of E-waste to poor countries, where recycling techniques include burning and dissolution in strong acids with few measures to protect human health and the environment. Such reprocessing initially results in extreme localised contamination followed by migration of the contaminants into receiving waters and food chains. E-waste workers suffer negative health effects through skin contact and inhalation, while the wider community are exposed to the contaminants through smoke, dust, drinking water and food. There is evidence that E-waste associated contaminants may be present in some agricultural or manufactured products for export.
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