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The Amphibians
& Reptiles of Scotland
Chris McInerny & Pete Minting
The production of this book has been supported
by the following organisations:
1
The Amphibians and Reptiles of Scotland
ii
Published 2016
by The Glasgow Natural History Society, Glasgow, Scotland.
Copyright © 2016 text, maps and charts by the authors
Copyright © 2016 photos by the respective photographers
Copyright © 2016 frontispiece illustration by Chris Rose
ISBN 978-0-9561126-8-2
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or used in any form or
by any means - photographic, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording,
taping or information storage and retrieval system - without permission of the publishers.
Cover photos:
Main image, female adder;
inserts from left, female slow-worm, common lizard and natterjack toad.
Typesetting and design by
Harry Scott (PicaDesign), 51 Charlton Crescent, Aboyne, Aberdeenshire AB34 5GN.
Email: picades@ifb.co.uk
Recommended citation:
McInerny CJ and Minting PJ (2016) The Amphibians and Reptiles of Scotland.
The Glasgow Natural History Society, Glasgow, Scotland.
iii
The Amphibians and
Reptiles of Scotland
Christopher J McInerny
(University of Glasgow)
Peter J Minting
(Amphibian and Reptile Conservation Trust)
Maps
Ian Andrews
Guest authors
Christopher Cathrine (Caledonian Conservation Ltd)
David O’Brien (Scottish Natural Heritage)
Frontispiece
Adder, Loch Lomond, March 2015 © Chris Rose
iv
A natterjack toad, the rarest native amphibian in Scotland. This species is restricted to coastal areas on
the Solway in the south-west of the country.
v
The Amphibians and Reptiles of Scotland
Contents
Frontispiece i
Title iii
Contents v
Introduction 7
Acknowledgements 11
Species chapters
Amphibians
Common frog 14
Common toad 36
Natterjack toad 52
Palmate newt 72
Smooth newt 90
Great crested newt 102
Alpine newt 118
Reptiles
Adder 126
Grass snake 144
Slow-worm 158
Common lizard 174
Sand lizard 192
Leatherback sea turtle 206
Loggerhead sea turtle 222
Kemp’s ridley sea turtle 236
Green sea turtle 247
Bibliography 257
Appendices
A Site guide 285
B Legislation 289
C Useful websites 293
D Scientific names 295
E Sea turtle identification and strandings 299
F Habitat management case studies 303
G Exotic species 309
H Photographic credits 310
Index 312
305
The Amphibians and Reptiles of Scotland
demonstrated that the creation and restoration of
ponds connected by suitable habitat has an important
role to play in the conservation of this species.
More information on this project:
McKinnell JM, O’Brien D, Seymour A and Gent A
(2015) Great crested newt. In: Gaywood MJ (Ed.)
Species Action Framework Handbook. Scottish Natural
Heritage, Perth.
Bibliography
Alexander L (1997) National Survey for the Great
Crested Newt Triturus cristatus. Scottish Natural
Heritage, Battleby.
Baker J, Beebee TJC, Buckley J, Gent T and Orchard D
(2011) Amphibian Habit at M anagement Handbook.
Amphibian and Reptile Conservation, Bournemouth.
www.arc-trust.org/pdf/amphibian-habitat-management-
handbook-full.pdf
Banks B and Laverick G (1986) Garden ponds as
amphibian breeding sites in a conurbation in the north
east of England (Sunderland, Tyne & Wear). The
Herpetological Journal 1, 44–50.
Author: David O‘Brien
2) Reptile mitigation during railway
maintenance work
Species:
Slow-worm
Who:
Caledonian Conservation Ltd; IKM Consulting Ltd; BAM
Nuttall Ltd
Where:
Drumshinnoch, Dumfries and Galloway
When:
2012
What was done:
Reptiles and amphibians can come in to conflict with
development and habitat management works. Despite the
short-term negative impacts construction activities may
have (e.g. harm to individuals or loss of habitat), many
developments create a mosaic of vegetation structure and
heights that is essential for reptile populations to thrive.
Vegetation structure is of utmost importance for reptiles,
especially the availability of basking places and
hibernacula features, and ecotones where vegetation
height changes. Railway embankments are an excellent
example of a development that can benefit reptiles in the
long-term, as they can provide these essential elements,
creating islands of suitable habitat or acting as corridors
connecting other areas. However, rail embankments
require maintenance, and during these works it is
important to consider reptiles and amphibians.
In 2012, maintenance works were to be undertaken by
BAM Nuttall Ltd on a stretch of railway cutting 600 m
in length near Drumshinnoch. This included a
programme of remedial works to improve drainage and
slope stability involving: devegetation (to enable access,
but chiefly for ecological mitigation purposes); French
drain/counterfort drain construction (excavation of
narrow trenches at intervals along the site, and filling
with cobbles); re-grading of failed slope sections
(stripping of turf, benching of slope and covering with
cobbles); gabion improvements; construction of
cascades (sloping culverts); construction of crest drains
(excavation of new ditch sections and filling with
rock/gravel); and construction of a second access route
along the western site margin (the first access route had
already been constructed on the east margin through a
field used for sheep grazing).
Baseline ecological surveys were completed by IKM
Consulting Ltd to identify potential sensitivities.
Although no great crested newts were found during
these surveys, slow-worms were confirmed to be
present within the area scheduled for works, on the
west embankment.
So as to minimise the impact of remedial works on
reptiles, IKM Consulting Ltd contracted an ecological
consultancy, Caledonian Conservation Ltd, to design
surveys and mitigation to minimise impacts on slow-
worms. Surveys and mitigation were designed with
reference to standard methods (HGBI 1998, Froglife
1999, Gent and Gibson 2003, Natural England 2011). At
the time of the project there were no strict guidelines
on reptile survey or mitigation, and attempts at
achieving standardisation have been difficult, with the
latter statutory document being withdrawn soon after
publication. This remains the case at the time of writing.
It was decided to remove reptiles from the area of
works, so as to minimise risk of harm. Often exclusion
fencing is erected to prevent reptiles from returning to
a development site after they have been removed.
However, as the potentially harmful works were linear
and of short-term duration, it was considered that fence
installation (which requires a trench) presented
additional risk to the slow-worm population that would
outweigh any benefit in this case. Instead, an approach
which involved making habitat unsuitable for reptiles
and moving any individuals into neighbouring areas was
considered appropriate.
Initial devegetation was completed on both west and
east embankments with the aim to render habitat less
suitable for reptiles, without killing or injuring them.
Strimming was used to reduce the height of grass and
herbs to 50 mm while chainsaws were used to remove
trees. This reduces places of shelter for reptiles, and also
makes them easier to find. Topsoil was then stripped so
as to make habitat unsuitable for reptiles and prevent
their return during works. Before each of these stages, the
area was monitored for reptiles by a suitably experienced
306
The Amphibians and Reptiles of Scotland
Ecological Clerk of Works (ECoW) following the methods
described below. When reptiles were found, they were
removed from the area planned for works, and placed in
neighbouring habitat which remained unaffected.
Artificial cover objects (ACOs) comprising 50 cm x 30
cm tiles of roofing felt were used to aid detection. This
is particularly important for slow-worms, which spend
much of their time underground and prefer to bask
under objects. ACOs were deployed in suitable habitat
on the west embankment scheduled for works. A high
density (one ACO per 20 m2of suitable habitat) was
used to maximise encounters with slow-worms. ACOs
were placed 4–5 days before checks commenced.
Ideally ACOs would be placed 2–4 weeks before checks,
however slow-worms will often locate them rapidly,
sometimes within a few hours, particularly later in the
season as animals prepare to return to hibernation. As
well as monitoring ACOs, visual searches were also
completed and vegetation was hand checked ahead of
works. Checks were undertaken during suitable
weather conditions (generally between 10ºC and 20ºC,
with low wind). However, ideal survey conditions and
timings vary, with early morning or evening checks
best in hot, sunny conditions while checks during late
morning or early afternoon may be preferable in cool
overcast conditions. Similarly, in summer checks are
likely to be limited to early morning or evening, while
these may be possible throughout more of the day
during spring or autumn.
Although habitat on the east embankment appeared
sub-optimal, surveys were also completed here using the
same methods as for the west, although ACOs were left
in place for a shorter period of time before commencing
checks as devegetation had already been completed. The
ACOs were checked between seven and 14 times in work
areas on the east embankment before re-grading works
were cleared to go ahead, without having found reptiles
on a single check.
Thirty-four formal visits were made ahead of works on
the west embankment between 1 August and 12
September 2012 (the period of potentially harmful
Drumshinnoch rail embankment before devegetation works.
Devegetation has reduced the suitability of the
habitat to support slow-worms and makes
detection and capture easier. Roofing felt is used
as artificial cover objects at high density to
maximise slow-worm encounters.
works). In total 45 different individual slow-worms were
removed from the area of works. This total included both
male and female animals, as well as juveniles.
After works were completed, habitat was reinstated on
the embankment, so as to continue to offer excellent
opportunities for the local slow-worm population.
Although no formal monitoring plan has been
completed, anecdotal records indicate that the slow-
worm population persists at Drumshinnoch (Chris
Cathrine pers. obs., Pete Minting pers. comm.).
This example demonstrates how human development,
in this case railway infrastructure, can offer excellent
habitat for reptiles. Maintenance can be planned so as
to minimise of avoid long-term negative impacts on
reptile populations, allowing them to continue to coexist
with humans. In the majority of development projects
307
The Amphibians and Reptiles of Scotland
Blairlinn Marsh, North Lanarkshire before and after pond creation.
mitigation or compensation can be designed so as to
minimise or avoid impacts, or even enhance habitat for
reptiles if they are considered as early as possible.
More information on this project:
www.caledonianconservation.co.uk
www.ikmconsulting.co.uk
www.bamnuttall.co.uk
Bibliography
Froglife (1999) Advic e Sheet 10. Reptile Sur vey: an
introduction to planning, conducting and interpreting
surveys for snake and lizard conservation. Froglife,
Peterborough.
Gent T and Gibson S (2003) Herpetofa una Workers
Manual. Joint Nature Conservation Committee
(JNCC), Peterborough.
HGBI (Herpetofauna Groups of Britain and Ireland)
(1998) Evaluating L ocal Miti gation/Translocation
Programmes: maintaining best p ractice and lawful
standards. HGBI advi sory notes for amph ibian and
reptile groups. HGBI c/o Froglife, Halesworth.
(Unpublished).
Natural England (2011) Reptile M itigation Guidelines.
Natural England, Peterborough. (Withdrawn).
Author: Chris Cathrine
3) Glasgow and North Lanarkshire Living
Water Projects
Species:
Common frog, common toad, palmate newt, smooth
newt, great crested newt
Who:
Froglife; Glasgow City Council; North Lanarkshire Council;
Waste Recycling Environmental Ltd; Glasgow City Council
Landfill Communities Fund; Biffa Award; Heritage Lottery
Fund; Glasgow Natural History Society
Where:
Glasgow and North Lanarkshire
When:
Glasgow: 2009–2013, North Lanarkshire: 2011–2013
What was done:
The Glasgow Living Water Project began in 2009,
followed by the North Lanarkshire Living Water Project
in 2011. Due to the success of these projects, a second
phase of the Glasgow Living Water Project was approved
and ran from 2012–2013.
These projects had many different aims relating to
habitat creation and engagement of local communities
for the benefit of native amphibians and reptiles. Pond
creation, restoration and enhancement were undertaken
across the parks, local nature reserves, allotments and
green spaces of Glasgow and North Lanarkshire. The
projects provided practical training for volunteers and
increased community participation across many sites.
Awareness raising of amphibians and reptiles and
demonstrating best practice in pond creation methods
were other key aims of the projects. Lastly, the projects
also included a monitoring programme to assess the
usefulness of new and restored ponds.
A variety of ponds were created across sites with
different sizes, shapes, depths and methods of creation
to attract a large range of native flora and fauna. Both
lined and unlined ponds were constructed ranging from
ponds dug by hand with volunteers to ponds created
using 20 tonne excavators. By the end of 2013 Froglife
had worked across 33 sites, creating 108 ponds and 94
temporary scrapes. An additional 27 ponds were also
restored and enhanced, and 39 hibernacula were created
for amphibians and reptiles.
Chris McInerny is a Reader at the University of Glasgow. He has a long-term
interest in natural history, particularly birds, mammals, butterflies, amphibians,
reptiles and orchids. He was President of the Scottish Ornithologists' Club
(SOC), is Secretary to both the Scottish Birds Records Committee (SBRC) and
the British Ornithologists' Union Records Committee (BOURC), and will be
Chairman of Biological Recording in Scotland (BRISC). He was an editor and
author of The Birds of Scotland published by the SOC in 2007, and has
published about 50 scientific papers on various aspects of natural history. He
has studied reptiles long-term at sites on the shores of Loch Lomond.
Pete Minting is Scottish Project Officer at the Amphibian and Reptile Conser-
vation (ARC) Trust. He completed his PhD on the effects of the chytrid fungus
Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis on natterjack toad populations in the UK in
2012. He has also worked as a biologist for Ayrshire Rivers Trust from
2004–2008, the Kalahari Meerkat Project in 2003–2004 and the Barbados
Sea Turtle Project in 2002. He completed a degree in Behavioural Science at
the University of Nottingham in 1995, and an MSc in Aquatic Resource
Management at King's College, London in 1997.
Chris Cathrine is Director of Caledonian Conservation Ltd, an ecological
consultancy based in Scotland. His passion for the natural world was sparked
when he was four, looking at reptiles, amphibians and invertebrates with his
grandfather. He has been the Scottish representative for Amphibian and
Reptile Groups of the UK, is a member of Central Scotland Amphibian and
Reptile Group and the Chartered Institute of Ecology and Environmental
Management (CIEEM). He has conducted research into grass snakes in
Scotland, undertakes surveys and has developed mitigation for a range of
projects. Chris is keen to share the wonder of Scotland’s amphibians and
reptiles, and to conserve them for future generations.
David O’Brien has been fascinated by reptiles and amphibians since catching
his first snake when aged four. He has worked on several long-term projects
in Scotland including the origin, genetics and conservation of great crested
newts in the Highlands; the role of Sustainable Drainage System ponds as
habitats, wildlife corridors and places where town-dwellers can experience
nature; and the biogeography of amphibians on islands. David is also involved
in projects looking at the interaction of reptiles and predatory birds; the role
of citizen science in mapping European wildlife; and predation response
amongst amphibians.