Effects of long-term training cessation in young top-level road cyclists

Abstract

In cycling, it is common practice to have a break in the off season longer than 4 weeks while adopting an
almost sedentary lifestyle, and such a break is considered to be long-term detraining. No previous studies have
assessed the effect of training cessation with highly trained young cyclists. The purpose of the present
investigation was to examine effects of 5 weeks of training cessation in 10 young (20.1 ± 1.4 years) male road
cyclists for body composition, haematological and physiological parameters. After training cessation, body
mass of cyclists increased (P = 0.014; ES = 0.9). V_O2max (L ·min−1 = −8.8 ± 5.0%,mL · kg−1·min−1 = −10.8 ± 4.2%,),
Wmax (W = −6.5 ± 3.1%, W · kg−1 = −8.5 ± 3.3%,), WLT1 (W = −12.9 ± 7.0%, W · kg−1 = −14.8 ± 7.4%,), WLT2
(W = −11.5 ± 7.0%, W · kg−1 = −13.4 ± 7.6%,) and haematological (red blood cells count, −6.6 ± 4.8%;
haemoglobin, −5.4 ± 4.3% and haematocrit, −2.9 ± 3.0%) values decreased (P ≤ 0.028; ES ≥ 0.9). Five weeks
of training cessation resulted in large decreases in physiological and haematological values in young top-level
road cyclists suggesting the need for a shorter training stoppage. This long-term detraining is more pronounced
when expressed relative to body mass emphasising the influence of such body mass on power
output. A maintenance programme based on reduced training strategies should be implemented to avoid
large declines in physiological values in young cyclists who aspire to become professionals.

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Effects of long-term training cessation in young
top-level road cyclists
Sara Maldonado-Martín, Jesús Cámara, David V.B. James, Juan Ramón
Fernández-López & Xabier Artetxe-Gezuraga
To cite this article: Sara Maldonado-Martín, Jesús Cámara, David V.B. James, Juan Ramón
Fernández-López & Xabier Artetxe-Gezuraga (2016): Effects of long-term training cessation in
young top-level road cyclists, Journal of Sports Sciences, DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2016.1215502
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1215502
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Effects of long-term training cessation in young top-level road cyclists
Sara Maldonado-Martín
a
, Jesús Cámara
a
, David V.B. James
b
, Juan Ramón Fernández-López
c
and Xabier Artetxe-Gezuraga
a
a
Laboratory of Performance Analysis in Sport, Department of Physical Education and Sport, Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences,
University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain;
b
Department of Sport & Exercise, University of Gloucestershire, Gloucester, UK;
c
Department for Education, Linguistic Policy and Culture of the Basque Government, KIROLENE Public Centre for Sports Education, Durango, Spain
ABSTRACT
In cycling, it is common practice to have a break in the off season longer than 4 weeks while adopting an
almost sedentary lifestyle, and such a break is considered to be long-term detraining. No previous studies have
assessed the effect of training cessation with highly trained young cyclists. The purpose of the present
investigation was to examine effects of 5 weeks of training cessation in 10 young (20.1 ± 1.4 years) male road
cyclists for body composition, haematological and physiological parameters. After training cessation, body
mass of cyclists increased (P= 0.014; ES = 0.9). _
VO2max (L · min
−1
=−8.8 ± 5.0%, mL · kg
−1
·min
−1
=−10.8 ± 4.2%,),
W
max
(W = −6.5 ± 3.1%, W · kg
−1
=−8.5 ± 3.3%,), W
LT1
(W = −12.9 ± 7.0%, W · kg
−1
=−14.8 ± 7.4%,), W
LT2
(W = −11.5 ± 7.0%, W · kg
−1
=−13.4 ± 7.6%,) and haematological (red blood cells count, −6.6 ± 4.8%;
haemoglobin, −5.4 ± 4.3% and haematocrit, −2.9 ± 3.0%) values decreased (P≤0.028; ES ≥0.9). Five weeks
of training cessation resulted in large decreases in physiological and haematological values in young top-level
road cyclists suggesting the need for a shorter training stoppage. This long-term detraining is more pro-
nouncedwhenexpressedrelativetobodymassemphasising the influence of such body mass on power
output. A maintenance programme based on reduced training strategies should be implemented to avoid
large declines in physiological values in young cyclists who aspire to become professionals.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Accepted 15 July 2016
KEYWORDS
Detraining consequences;
submaximal variables; body
mass; athletic performance
Introduction
Road cycling is predominantly an endurance sport, where
performance is highly correlated with maximum oxygen
uptake ( _
VO2 max), muscle fibre type, economy and lactate
threshold (LT1) (Atkinson, Davison, Jeukendrup, & Passfield,
2003). There is also substantial evidence that maximum exter-
nal power output (W
max
) and power at LT1 and onset of blood
lactate accumulation (OBLA or LT2) obtained during a max-
imum incremental cycling test predict cycling performance
(Atkinson et al., 2003; Faria, Parker, & Faria, 2005; Padilla,
Mujika, Cuesta, & Goiriena, 1999). The _
VO2 max is considered
one of the gold standards for the purpose of evaluating and
selecting elite-standard cyclists and as a prerequisite to per-
form at high level. The upper limit for this _
VO2 max is usually
achieved during relatively large muscle mass exercise and
represents the integrative ability of the heart to generate a
high cardiac output, total body haemoglobin, high muscle
blood flow and muscle oxygen extraction, and in some cases
the ability of the lungs to oxygenate the blood (Joyner &
Coyle, 2008). Furthermore, cyclists who are able to tolerate
high submaximal constant intensities, i.e., close to LT2, have a
further advantage, since most of the racing time during pro-
fessional road cycling completion is not spent at W
max
.
Accordingly, different road specialists have high-power output
at both LT1 and LT2 and possess the ability to generate those
high powers of short duration during the mass start, steep
climbing and at the race finish (Faria et al., 2005; Mujika &
Padilla, 2001c). These physiological variables have been used
for monitoring the training status of competitive cyclists in
order to evaluate training methods and their efficacy, both
during the competitive season and in the post-season break
(Faria et al., 2005; Mujika & Padilla, 2003).
Cycling periodisation in young top-level cyclists, who are
not professionals, typically incorporates a transition period of
reduced stress to allow physical and mental recovery after the
end of the competition season, i.e., complete training cessa-
tion in the off season. However, this period is usually longer
than 4 weeks with no tradition of reduced training strategies,
but instead the adoption of an almost sedentary lifestyle.
Long-term detraining has been defined as the partial or com-
plete loss of training-induced anatomical, physiological and
performance adaptations, as a consequence of more than
4 weeks training reduction or cessation and in response to
an insufficient training stimulus (Mujika & Padilla, 2000a,
2000b). Large decreases in cardiorespiratory metabolic and
muscular characteristics have been presented as a result of
detraining in highly trained individuals (Mujika & Padilla,
2001a,2001b). Consequently, specific athletic performance
could decline quickly in high-level athletes (Mujika & Padilla,
2000b).
The effects of training cessation have been investigated in
athletes such as soccer players (Koundourakis et al., 2014),
swimmers (Ormsbee & Arciero, 2012), kayakers (Garcia-
Pallares, Sanchez-Medina, Perez, Izquierdo-Gabarren, &
Izquierdo, 2010), handball players (Marques & Gonzalez-
CONTACT Sara Maldonado-Martín sara.maldonado@ehu.eus
JOURNAL OF SPORTS SCIENCES, 2016
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Badillo, 2006), rowers (Godfrey, Ingham, Pedlar, & Whyte,
2005) and runners (Houmard et al., 1992), but data are scarce
in cycling after a period of long-term detraining. Thus, studies
are needed, first to demonstrate the effects of cessation of
training in a sport where physiological markers are determi-
nants of performance, and second to challenge the traditional
training concepts in young cyclists. A previous study evaluated
the influence of ageing on cardiovascular effects after
2 months of detraining in male cyclists showing nearly similar
left ventricular morphological modifications in the two age
groups (i.e., young, range 19–25 years, and older, range
50–65 years) (Giada et al., 1998). However, it has not been
investigated yet the effect of training cessation in highly
trained young riders who aspire to become professional
cyclers.
Therefore, the purpose of the present investigation was to
examine the effects of 5 weeks of training cessation in young
top-level road cyclists on body composition, haematological
and physiological parameters related to performance.
Methods
Study design
The present investigation is an observational study without a
control group, where the cyclists completed 2 laboratory-
based progressive exercise tests to assess selected physiologi-
cal variables. One test was at the end of the competition
phase of the cycling season (September = T1) and the second
after 5 weeks of training cessation coinciding with the start of
the season (November = T2). During the cessation period,
cyclists discontinued any kind of physical training with no
control over the cyclists’diet.
Participants
Ten young male road cyclists were recruited from the same
cycling team. Characteristics of participants were: age
20.1 ± 1.4 years, body mass 68.4 ± 6.3 kg, stature
177.9 ± 5.8 cm (mean ± SD) with a mean of 2 years of
competitive experience at national level (range of 1–5 years).
Their _
VO2 max was 5.3 ± 0.4 L ∙min
−1
, 78.5 ± 5.5 mL · kg
−1
·min
−1
and 1386 ± 87 mL · kg
−0.32
· min
−1
with a W
max
of 396 ± 31 W,
5.8 ± 0.4 W · kg
−1
and 103 ± 7 W · kg
−0.32
. All participants
competed at national standard or above covering a total of
20,000–25,000 km per year, with a mean weekly training
duration of 18–22 h.
The study was approved by the Bioethics Commission of
the first author’s University.
Procedures
Participants were accustomed to the experimental protocol.
Laboratory conditions under which the cyclists performed the
tests were controlled (i.e., 19–23°C and 40–50% humidity),
including no exhaustive exercise during the 48 h before test-
ing and a standardised diet, with no food intake 3 h before the
test, allowing water “ad libitum”. Athletes were cooled using
an electric fan during testing.
Anthropometry included stature, body mass and 6 skinfold
thicknesses (Harpenden, Germany) (subscapular, triceps bra-
chii, supraspinale, abdominal, anterior thigh, medial calf).
Skinfolds were assessed on the right side of the body by the
same experienced investigator in accordance with guidelines
from International Society for the Advancement of
Kinanthropometry (Norton et al., 1996).
The assessment consisted of a progressive incremental
protocol to volitional exhaustion on an electrically braked
ergometer (Lode Excalibur Sport, Lode, Groningen, NL, soft-
ware LODE v. 5.1.5) with increments of 35 W every 3 min. The
ergometer was calibrated every day before starting the tests
for intensities of 100–1000 W, and after that, prior to every
single test. Each cyclist’s bike set-up (saddle height, reach and
handle bar height) was recorded and registered for both tests.
Handle bar height and reach were also adjusted to allow a
comfortable position. Clip pedals and set crank lengths of
170 mm were also used. These settings were replicated in
the second trial. The tests were not preceded by any type of
warming-up, and participants cycled at their freely chosen
cadence at each intensity. Initial intensity was 100 W.
Participants were asked to keep their cadence constant at
their preferred rate based on visual feedback from a display
unit. During the test, athletes were encouraged verbally by the
laboratory technicians as well as by their team coach. The
highest intensity (W
max
) was taken to be the highest a cyclist
could maintain for a complete 3-min period. When the last
intensity was not completed for 3 min, W
max
was computed
as: W
max
=Wf+[(t/180) × 35] (Kuipers, Verstappen, Keizer,
Geurten, & Van, 1985), where Wf is the value of the last
completed intensity (in W), tis the time the last uncompleted
intensity was maintained (in s), and 35 is the power output
difference between the last 2 intensities. A single capillary
blood sample was withdrawn from the left earlobe immedi-
ately after completion of each intensity avoiding any contact
with the electrode. Blood lactate concentration was deter-
mined with an automatic analyser (Lactate Pro
TM
). The analy-
ser was calibrated before each test as recommended by the
manufacturer. The exercise intensity corresponding to LT2 was
identified on the blood lactate concentration-power output
curve by straight-line interpolation between the 2 closest
points as the power output eliciting a blood lactate concen-
tration of 4 mmol · l
−1
(Sjödin & Jacobs, 1981). The lactate
threshold was identified on individual blood lactate concen-
tration-power output curves as the exercise intensity eliciting
a 1 mmol · l
−1
increase in blood lactate concentration above
mean baseline lactate values measured when exercising at
40–60% of W
max
(Hagberg & Coyle, 1983). Intensities at LT2
(W
LT2
) and LT1 (W
LT1
) were also determined by straight-line
interpolation (Padilla, Mujika, Santisteban, Impellizzeri, &
Goiriena, 2008). Maximum oxygen uptake was determined
via a breath-by-breath automated gas analysis system
(Jaeger Oxycon Delta System, Hoechberg, Germany) calibrated
before each testing session in line with the manufacturer’s
guidelines. Maximum oxygen uptake was defined as the
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highest ˙
VO2value attained towards the end of the test.
Achievement of _
VO2 max was assumed on attainment of at
least 2 of the following 3 criteria: a plateau in ˙
VO2with
increasing speeds (<2.0 mL · kg
−1
· min
−1
); a respiratory
exchange ratio above 1.10; a heart rate within ±10 beats · min
−1
of age predicted maximum heart rate (220-age) (Duncan,
Howley, & Johnson, 1997). Previous studies have shown that
mass exponents of 0.32 and 1 can evaluate level and uphill
cycling ability, respectively (Padilla et al., 1999). Therefore,
because road cycling occurs in a variety of terrains (including
uphill roads) both values adjusted to body mass raised to the
power 0.32 and simple ratio standards were used to compare
the participants (Winter & Nevill, 2009).
For the determination of complete and differential blood
counts (haematological variables), all venous blood samples
were processed by impedancemetric method in a blood ana-
lyser habitually used in Medikosta laboratory (Sysmex XE 2100
Roche). All the samples were analysed within 4 h of collection
in BD Vacutainer Plastic SSTII Advance Tube 8.5 ml. The ana-
lysers (Sysmex XE 2100 Roche) were regularly calibrated and
underwent quality controls, as described by the manufac-
turers. Blood was drawn between 8 am and 10 am in fasting
condition, in the same specialised clinical chemistry centre for
the 2 tests, using standardised venepuncture techniques in
the antecubital vein in the bend of the elbow. Samples were
collected by a phlebotomist.
Statistical analyses
Before all statistical analyses, data were checked for violations
of normality using a Shapiro–Wilk test. To evaluate the effects
of training cessation on each outcome, 2-sample paired t-tests
were performed using data at baseline and 5 weeks later.
Change between T2 and T1 data were also presented as a
percentage of the baseline values and were arcsine trans-
formed before being compared to reduce skewness. To
distinguish the effects of detraining expressed in relative (nor-
malised by dividing by body mass and by allometric scaling, i.
e., body mass to the power of 0.32) and absolute terms,
changes (expressed as percentages) were compared using 2-
sample paired t-tests. Additionally, 95% confidence interval
(95% CI) constructed around means.
Effect size was calculated by dividing the difference
between means for the outcome variable by the pooled stan-
dard deviation and interpreted as 0.0–0.19 trivial, 0.20–0.49
small, 0.50–0.79 moderate and 0.80 and above large. Analyses
were carried out with SPSS 15.0 (SPSS Inc, Chicago, USA) soft-
ware with alpha set at P< 0.05. Values are reported as
mean ± standard deviation, unless otherwise stated.
Results
Body mass and composition
Changes in body composition are reported in Table 1.
Compared with baseline (T1), body mass (68.4 ± 6.3 vs.
70.1 ± 7.2 kg; 95% CI = −2.8 to 0.4; ES = 0.9; P= 0.014,
+2.3 ± 2.4%) and sum of 6 skinfolds (45.2 ± 9.5 vs.
50.6 ± 7.4 mm; 95% CI = −13.5 to 2.7; ES = 0.5; P= 0.16;
+15.1 ± 23.7%) increased after 5 weeks of detraining period
(at T2).
Haematological variables
There were decreases at T2 for red blood cell count (4.9 ± 0.2
vs. 4.6 ± 0.2 10
6
/μL; 95% CI = 0.1–0.5; ES = 1.3; P= 0.007;
−6.6 ± 4.8%), haemoglobin (14.9 ± 0.7 vs. 14.0 ± 0.5 g/dL;
CI = 0.3–1.4; ES = 1.2; P= 0.010, −5.4 ± 4.3%) and haematocrit
(43.0 ± 2.0 vs. 41.7 ± 1.9%; CI = 0.2–2.4; ES = 0.9; P= 0.028,
−2.9 ± 3.0%) after the training cessation period (Table 1).
Physiological variables
There were decreases (P< 0.001) at T2 in physiological
responses for W
max
(−6.5 ± 3.1%, CI = 0.3–0.6), _
VO2 max
Table 1. Mean values ± standard deviation for anthropometric, haematological and physiological values in the 2 tests.
Variables T1 T2 Pvalue ES %Change
ANTHROPOMETRICS
Mass (kg) 68.4 ± 6.3 70.1 ± 7.2 0.014 0.9 2.3 ± 2.4
Skinfolds (mm) 45.2 ± 9.5 50.6 ± 7.4 0.16 0.5 15.1 ± 23.7
HAEMATOLOGICAL
RBC (10
6
/μL) 4.9 ± 0.2 4.6 ± 0.2 0.007 1.3 −6.6 ± 4.8
Haemoglobin (g/dL) 14.9 ± 0.7 14.0 ± 0.5 0.010 1.2 −5.4 ± 4.3
Haematocrit (%) 43.0 ± 2.0 41.7 ± 1.9 0.028 0.9 −2.9 ± 3.0
PHYSIOLOGICAL
VO
2max
(L · min
−1
) 5.3 ± 0.4 4.8 ± 0.4 <0.001 1.7 −8.8 ± 5.0
VO
2max
(mL · kg
−1
· min
−1
) 78.5 ± 5.5 69.9 ± 4.6 <0.001 2.4 −10.8 ± 4.2
VO
2max
(mL · kg
−0.32
· min
−1
) 1386 ± 87 1253 ± 79 <0.001 2.0 −9.4 ± 5.0
W
max
(W) 396 ± 31 371 ± 28 <0.001 1.9 −6.5 ± 3.1
W
max
(W·kg
−1
) 5.8 ± 0.4 5.3 ± 0.3 <0.001 2.4 −8.5 ± 3.3
W
max
(W · kg
−0.32
) 103 ± 7 95.8 ± 5.1 <0.001 2.2 −7.1 ± 3.0
W
LT1
(W) 303 ± 31 264 ± 36 <0.001 2.1 −12.9 ± 7.0
W
LT1
(W · kg
−1
) 4.4 ± 0.3 3.8 ± 0.4 <0.001 2.0 −14.8 ± 7.4
W
LT1
(W · kg
−0.32
) 78.4 ± 6.6 67.8 ± 8.1 <0.001 2.1 −13.5 ± 6.8
W
LT2
(W) 336 ± 36 298 ± 40 <0.001 1.8 −11.5 ± 7.0
W
LT2
(W · kg
−1
) 4.9 ± 0.4 4.3 ± 0.5 <0.001 1.7 −13.4 ± 7.6
W
LT2
(W · kg
−0.32
) 87.0 ± 7.6 76.4 ± 9.1 <0.001 2.0 −12.1 ± 7.0
T1, first test at the end of the competition phase of the cycling season. T2, second test after 5 weeks of training cessation. Pvalue,
difference between T1 and T2. ES, effect size between T1 and T2. % of change between tests. RBC, red blood cells;
_
VO2 max,
maximum oxygen uptake; W
max
, maximum intensity; W
LT1
, intensity at lactate threshold; W
LT2
, intensity at onset of blood lactate
accumulation.
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(−8.8 ± 5.0%, CI = 6.1–11.1), W
LT1
(−12.9 ± 7.0%, CI = 0.4–0.9),
W
LT2
(−11.5 ± 7.0%, CI = 0.4–0.9) (Table 1). There were larger
decreases (P< 0.05) when changes were expressed in relative
terms (i.e., accounting for changes in body mass) when com-
pared with absolute terms (Table 1 and Figure 1). Results did
not differ when measures allometrically scaled to kg
−0.32
com-
pared with ratio standard (Table 1). Effect sizes for all the
physiological variables between T1 and T2 were large (>1)
(Table 1).
Discussion
To our knowledge, this is the first study to report changes in
body composition, haematological and physiological variables
related to performance after 5 weeks of training cessation in
young top-level cyclists. The results of the study indicate that
all the investigated outcomes were adversely affected by the
abrupt cessation of training stimulus, with increases in body
mass and decline in haematological and physiological vari-
ables (Table 1). The larger decreases for physiological variables
expressed relative to body mass, emphasise the importance of
the body mass of a cyclist and its influence on the outcomes
associated with performance (Atkinson et al., 2003).
The present study has shown a decline in variables (abso-
lute and relatives, i.e., normalised by dividing by body mass
and by body mass to the power of 0.32, respectively) asso-
ciated with endurance performance for the young top-level
cyclists after 5 weeks of insufficient training stimulus (Table 1).
Detraining has been shown to decrease the _
VO2 max by 6–20%
due to reduced total blood volume (i.e., red cell volume plus
plasma volume), and to increase blood lactate levels during
submaximal exercise at the same absolute and relative inten-
sities (Mujika & Padilla, 2000b). In the present study, the mean
decline (i.e., difference between T2 and T1 expressed as % of
T1) in _
VO2 max was by 8–11%. These decreases were similar to
those for swimmers after 5 weeks of swim detraining (−7.7%)
(Ormsbee & Arciero, 2012) and kayakers after 4 weeks of
detraining (−11.3%) (Garcia-Pallares et al., 2010). Longer peri-
ods of detraining (12 weeks) have shown mean decreases in
_
VO2 maxof 16% (Coyle et al., 1984). There is substantial evi-
dence demonstrating that successful professional cyclists pos-
sess high _
VO2 max values, and those high values are required
for cycling performance (Faria et al., 2005; Lucia, Pardo,
Durantez, Hoyos, & Chicharro, 1998). It has also been shown
that long-term inactivity may promote a decline in cardiac
dimensions and ventilatory efficiency, affecting both _
VO2 max
and endurance performance of athletes (Giada et al., 1998;
Mujika & Padilla, 2000b). The decline in _
VO2 max is mainly a
consequence of a decrease in oxygen delivery to the muscle
(Bosquet & Mujika, 2012). The rapid decrease in blood volume
after the first days of training cessation probably plays an
important role in the cascade of events that reduces maximum
cardiac output, and consequently _
VO2 max (Bosquet & Mujika,
2012; Coyle, Hemmert, & Coggan, 1986; Coyle et al., 1984). In
the present study, the analysis of the haematological variables
suggests a decrease in blood volume because of declines in
red blood cell count (−6.6 ± 4.8%) and haemoglobin
(−5.4 ± 4.3%). Rather than complete cessation of training,
published studies have presented reduced training valuable
strategies leading to, instead of detraining, maintenance of
the physiological adaptations achieved during previous train-
ing periods (Mujika, 1998). Indeed, unchanged _
VO2 max has
been reported during periods of reduced training (Hickson,
Kanakis, Davis, Moore, & Rich, 1982; Madsen, Pedersen,
Djurhuus, & Klitgaard, 1993). Accordingly, taking into account
that _
VO2 max measurement remains recommended for the pur-
pose of evaluating and selecting elite cyclists and as a pre-
requisite to perform at a high level (Barbeau, Serresse, &
Boulay, 1993), it would be interesting to adopt these strategies
(i.e., reduced training programmes) in athletes who have to
continually undertake assessment for professional team selec-
tion. A superior performance in endurance sports, such as
cycling, clearly requires high LT1 and LT2 values, since these
have been shown to be better predictors of endurance per-
formance than _
VO2 max (Atkinson et al., 2003). The findings of
the present study for maximum data (i.e.,_
VO2 max,W
max
)
showed smaller decreases (P< 0.001) than the mean declines
in submaximal values (i.e., values at LT1 and LT2) also in
absolute terms (−12.9 ± 7.0% for W
LT1
and −11.5 ± 7.0% for
W
LT2
). Similarly, in an elite rower after 8 weeks of training
cessation greater decreases occurred in LT1 (27%) than at
peak intensity (20%) (Godfrey et al., 2005). Thus, the excessive
loss of performance at these metabolic zones (i.e., LT1 and
LT2) during the off season in the present study could have
undesired detrimental consequences for the cyclists’perfor-
mance in subsequent competitive season. Previous studies
that investigated intensity of exercise during mass start-stage
races in professional road cycling, concluded that aerobic
capability dominated and that most of competition time dur-
ing the mass start stages was spent at intensities near LT1
(Padilla et al., 2001; Vogt et al., 2006). Participants of the
present study cover around 25,000 km in a year with in excess
of 50 days of competition and participation in races on more
than 3 consecutive days. Nevertheless, since they were
younger than professional riders, and consequently had
fewer years of training volume, the decline at these
Figure 1. Percentages of change for physiological and performance variables.
VO
2max
, maximum oxygen uptake; W
max
, maximum intensity, WLT1, intensity at lactate
threshold; WLT2, intensity at onset of blood lactate accumulation. Difference between all
absolute and relative values (*P< .05).
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submaximal metabolic zones (i.e., LT1 and LT2) after a detrain-
ing period could have for a larger impact on performance
compared with professional riders who have experienced
more regular and structured training. In this regard, recently,
it has been shown that older trained individuals appear to
have smaller age-related declines in both maximum and sub-
maximal exercise responses than younger trained ones
(Hopker et al., 2013). Additionally, the decrease in maximum
power output (396 vs. 370 W
max,
−6.5 ± 3.1%; 5.8 vs.
5.3 W · kg
−1
,−8.5 ± 3.3% and 102.5 vs. 95.1 W · kg
−0.32
,
−7.1 ± 3.0% from T1 to T2) after 5 weeks of training cessation
is estimated to correspond to a reduction in cycling speed of
1.3 km · h
−1
in a 1-h race (Bassett, Kyle, Passfield, Broker, &
Burke, 1999). Thus, there is little doubt about the conse-
quences of training cessation on performance.
For the physiological outcomes, there were larger
decreases (P< 0.05) in relative (to body mass) changes than
for absolute changes (Figure 1). This difference is related to
the increase in body mass (2.3 ± 2.4%, P= 0.01) and also the
increase in sum of 6 skinfolds (15.1 ± 23.7%, P= 0.16) at T2. It
is well known that body mass, and specifically body fat, is a
key factor that limits endurance performance because it deter-
mines gravity-dependent resistance, having a major influence
on uphill cycling performance (Padilla et al., 1999). A key
limitation of the present study is the lack of a control group
who continued with a reduced training programme. A pre-
vious study has shown that a reduced training intensity and
volume for 21 days could maintain physiological adaptations,
as measured during submaximal and maximal exercise
(Rietjens, Keizer, Kuipers, & Saris, 2001).
Given that improvements from retraining after training
cessation take considerably longer to achieve than losses
from detraining (Godfrey et al., 2005), there is a need to
programme some endurance stimuli during the off-season
period to minimise losses in physiological and performance
measures in top-level cyclists. It is clear that during the
break after the competition season, an alternative training
stimulus including exercises that involve the same muscle
groups as the competitive activity are necessary to maintain
the metabolic adaptations to training (Bosquet & Mujika,
2012).
Conclusion
In young top-level cyclists, 5 weeks of training cessation
results in large decreases in haematological and both submax-
imal and maximal physiological variables. This long-term
detraining is more pronounced when expressed relative to
body mass via allometric scaling, emphasising the relevance
of the body mass of cyclist and its influence on performance.
This suggests that the training break should be shorter and
that a maintenance programme should be implemented to
avoid such a large decline in physiological values in young
cyclists who aspire to become professionals. We interpret
these findings as being consistent with previous investigations
in other sports, emphasising the importance of establishing
the optimal training load in each phase of the training plan to
avoid excessive declines in performance.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the cyclists of Seguros Bilbao Cycling
Team for their participation, effort and support in this investigation.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
ORCID
Sara Maldonado-Martín http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2622-5385
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